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This article was downloaded by: [York University Libraries]On: 12 November 2014, At: 21:22Publisher: RoutledgeInforma Ltd Registered in England and Wales Registered Number: 1072954 Registeredoffice: Mortimer House, 37-41 Mortimer Street, London W1T 3JH, UK
The International Journal of theHistory of SportPublication details, including instructions for authors andsubscription information:http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/fhsp20
London 2012: A Chinese CharmOffensive – A Reputation Rebuilt and AnImpression Changed?Marcus P. Chua
a Department of Political Science, Lingnan University, Hong Kong,ChinaPublished online: 18 Dec 2013.
To cite this article: Marcus P. Chu (2013) London 2012: A Chinese Charm Offensive – A ReputationRebuilt and An Impression Changed?, The International Journal of the History of Sport, 30:15,1748-1757, DOI: 10.1080/09523367.2013.854777
To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/09523367.2013.854777
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The International Journal of the History of Sport, 2013 Vol. 30, No. 15, 1748–1757, http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/09523367.2013.854777
London 2012: A Chinese Charm Offensive – A Reputation Rebuilt and An Impression Changed?
Marcus P. Chu*
Department of Political Science, Lingnan University, Hong Kong, China
Displaying amiability (qinheli) was one of the duties of the Chinese athletes involved in the London 2012 Olympics. Why did the Chinese government ask them to behave in this way? How did the athletes carry out the mandate? Was their amiable performance intended to arouse nationalist sentiment among the Chinese? In response to these questions, two key political preoccupations of the Chinese authorities in the post-London Olympics era are identified: remedying foreigners’ negative impressions of China, and gaining a greater input into the decision-making of the International Olympic Committee and its affiliated international sports federations. These objectives are shown to illustrate China’s intention to rebuild its international reputation and challenge the status quo of the international sporting community.
Keywords: Chinese athletes; the London 2012 Olympics; amiability; reputation; nationalist sentiment
Introduction
Arrangements were made for the Chinese athletes involved in the 2012 Olympics to hear three government speeches before the Games. The first two were delivered in Beijing by Li Changchun, a member of the Chinese Communist Party Politburo Standing Committee, and Liu Peng, the President of the China General Sports Administration (CGSA), respectively. The third speech was given in London by the State Councillor Dai Bingguo. Li and Liu reminded the athletes of the need to devote their best efforts to winning medals, while Dai urged them to display amiability.1 The former reminder had been made in all pre-Summer Olympics speeches by Chinese officials from 1984 to 2008; however, Dai’s order was unprecedented.2
We can conclude, therefore, that displaying amiability was regarded by China’s authorities as one of its athletes’ crucial duties at the London Olympics. Otherwise, the athletes would not have been specifically asked to behave in this way overseas. However, why did the government give this order? How did the athletes fulfil their duty? Was their amiable performance used to arouse nationalist sentiment among the Chinese? These questions are answered in the following sections of the essay.
Reasons
Amiability is an important part of securing a good reputation for any country through the pleasant and friendly behaviour of its representatives.3 China is without doubt keenly
*Email: [email protected]
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aware of the need to foster a positive international reputation. To encourage perceptions of China as a responsible and attractive world actor, the Chinese government has been keen to ratify international treaties, join international organisations, initiate multilateral cooperation forums, establish regional security and trade mechanisms, participate in United Nations peace-keeping missions, set up Confucius Institutes, provide developing countries with financial aid and scholarships and host international mega-events.4 Despite these activities, however, China’s global reputation has suffered considerably since the late 2000s. Helping to repair this damage is therefore assumed to be the aim of the Chinese authorities in ordering the country’s athletes to exhibit amiability at the London Olympics.
There are three main reasons for the aforementioned injury to China’s reputation. The first concerns the Chinese government’s economic strategies overseas. There is no doubt that China has become one of the most successful economies in the world. Not only has it maintained a 8% annual growth in GDP since 2000, but also it has the potential to replace the USA as the leader of the world marketplace.5 The Chinese government has launched a number of strategies overseas to capitalise on its economic boom. Two of these strategies have been widely reported as evidence of China’s colonising intentions, namely (1) dispatching investors to Africa, Latin America and Oceania to gain control of the natural resources in these regions and (2) increasing the exportation of China’s labour-intensive cheap products to the markets of developing countries. It is feared that countries in Africa, Latin America and Oceania will be more susceptible to political manipulation by the Chinese if their economies are over-dependent on the sale of natural resources to China and that local industries in developing countries will be further undermined by their inability to compete with the low-cost products imported from China.6
The second factor responsible for damaging China’s reputation is the dislike felt by foreigners for the wealthy Chinese. Economic success has given China a huge and rich population. According to a report conducted by Hurun, an English research institute based in Shanghai, China had 1.02 million citizens in 2012, with a total wealth of more than US$1 million. This population figures exceed the 2010 and 2011 levels by 145,000 and 60,000, respectively. In addition to playing golf, travelling and collecting luxury cars and watches, emigrating to developed countries is a common habit among thewealthy Chinese.7 However, their influx to Singapore and big cities in the USA, Canada, Australia and New Zealand has caused property prices in these areas to soar.8 This has increased property taxes for the local people, who have consequently expressed their resentment of the newcomers.9 The presence of wealthy Chinese immigrants in developing countries has also caused discontent within local populations, mainly due to the corruption, labour abuse and criminal cover-ups exposed in the operations of Chinese businesses in these areas.10 This discomfort has at times led to large-scale anti-Chinese demonstrations and riots in local communities.11
The third source of injury to China’s international reputation concerns the alleged unpleasant and rude behaviour of Chinese people overseas. China is the biggest source of tourists in the world. In 2012, more than 83 million Chinese citizens travelled abroad, spending a total of US$102 billion.12 The international media have even estimated that by 2020, 200 million Chinese will have at least one overseas holiday every year.13 Although the influx of Chinese visitors is one of the main factors responsible for boosting the tourism industries of Hong Kong, Macau, Taiwan and the countries of Southeast Asia, North America and Europe, Chinese tourists are criticised by the local people for flaunting their wealth and engaging in antisocial practices such as the following: (1) failing to flush toilets; (2) flouting traffic laws; (3) talking loudly in public areas; (4) littering, spitting and queue-jumping; (5) allowing children to defecate in swimming pools and (6) defacing historic architecture.14 In addition, tens of thousands of pregnant Chinese women have
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timed their births to occur during visits to Hong Kong and the USA, to provide their children with access to social welfare in these regions.15 This perceived selfishness has resulted in descriptions of the Chinese as ‘locusts’.16
As is clear from the above, China has gained a poor reputation across the globe, causing a worldwide Sinophobic backlash. It is thus reasonable to infer that in instructing China’s athletes to behave in an amiable manner at the London Olympics, the government sought to remedy the negative impressions of China held by foreigners. The steps taken by the athletes to fulfil this requirement are modelled in the next section.
Behavioural Patterns
As 396 Chinese athletes participated in the 2012 Olympics, it was very difficult to review the performance of every athlete. This section, therefore, discusses only five athletes (the swimmer Ye Shiwen, the cyclists Gong Jinjie and Guo Shuang, the gymnast Chen Yibing and the hurdler Liu Xiang), because the responses of these individuals to overseas suspicions, controversial judgements and withdrawal were highly praised by the CGSA President, Liu Peng, after the Games.17 To provide further insight into the patterns of amiable behaviour among Chinese athletes in London, the responses of the five athletes listed above are compared with their own responses or those of their predecessors to similar situations at previous Olympics events.
Ye Shiwen’s Response to Suspicions
A few of the Chinese athletes involved in the 1996 Summer Olympics were suspected of doping, including the swimmer Le Jingyi. Following a scandal in which 11 Chinese athletes tested positive for banned substances at the 1994 Asian Games in Hiroshima, which was widely reported in 1995 by the international media, many foreigners have assumed that the outstanding performance of the Chinese in international contests is related to drugs.18 It led some American media to raise suspicions of drug use by Le Jingyi, who had just won a gold medal in the women’s 100-metre freestyle event at the Atlanta 1996 Olympics and broken the Olympic record for the event. After passing the required drug tests, Le attended a press conference at which she accused the media of slander.19
In 2012, however, the swimmer Ye Shiwen responded very differently to similar suspicions. Ye won gold medals in both the women’s 200-metre and the women’s 400metre individual medley events, and broke the Olympic record of the former and the world record of the latter in the finals. Despite the confirmation of the International Olympic Committee (IOC) that she was clean of drugs, suspicions about her performance remained among Western coaches, journalists and academics, as her speed during the last 50 metres of the 400-metre final exceeded even that of the American gold medalist Ryan Lochte in the final of the men’s 400-metre individual medley in London.20 However, Ye did not comment on these suspicions during the post-match press conferences. She also answered questions posed by the Western media calmly and respectfully.21
Gong Jinjie, Guo Shuang and Chen Yibing’s Responses to Controversial Judgements
A controversial judgement denotes an erroneous decision made by a referee whose errors have resulted in an athlete’s being disqualified or given an unreasonable score in a match. In the past, Chinese athletes involved in Summer Olympic Games have often expressed their dissatisfaction with controversial judgements. The most well-known example
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occurred during the final of the men’s team-foil event at the Sydney Games in 2000. Although both the French and the Chinese athletes hit their opponents’ target areas in their last attacks, the referee only gave a score to the former, which resulted in China’s losing 44-45 to France. In a post-match interview, the Chinese athletes not only expressed their displeasure at France’s receiving the gold medal, but also complained that the Chinese fencing team regularly faced unfair judgements in international competitions.22 After losing to Italy four years later in the final of the men’s team foil at Athens, the Chinese fencers expressed the same sentiments, as the opposing team had been given six controversial points during the match.23
At theLondonSummerOlympics, however, the Chinese athletes responded differently to controversial judgements. This was first illustrated during the final of the women’s cycling team sprint event. Shortly after breaking the world record in the final, the Chinese cyclists Gong Jinjie and Guo Shuang were informed that they had won the championship. As the athletes began to celebrate, however, their teamwas relegated to the position of first runner-up on the grounds of an illegal changeover in the last lap. Their French coach, Daniel Morelon, was angered by the judgement because the pair had used the same changeover method to complete the semi-final without receiving a warning or penalty, but Gong and Guo remained calm. They accepted their silver medal with smiles in the award ceremony, and answered the questions of the media without complaining about the relegation.24
A similar event occurred during the finals of the men’s rings competition at the London Olympics. With a final score of 15,800 for his performance, the Chinese gymnast Chen Yibing was expected to receive the gold medal. Indeed, prior to the match, Chen’s outstanding record in previous international contests had made him the odds-on favourite to win the gold.25 However, the Brazilian athlete Arthur Nabarrete Zanetti was subsequently given a score of 15,900, relegating Chen to second place. Although both sports commentators and other competitors agreed that Zanetti’s score should not have exceeded Chen’s, Chen himself expressed no dissatisfaction with the judgement.26 He also congratulated the champion and thanked the spectators.27
Liu Xiang’s Responses to Withdrawal
Due to the strain of excessive training loads over many years, many Chinese athletes have suffered injuries during theSummerOlympics. Somehaveevenwithdrawn fromcompetition. The most severe case occurred in the first round of the 110-metre hurdles event at the Beijing 2008Games. This event has received close attention in China over the last decade, chiefly due to the successes of LiuXiang, a Shanghai native, whowon the championship twice (first in the 2004 Olympics, and second in the 2007 World Championships in Athletics held by the International Association ofAthletics Federation), and broke theworld record for the event in 2006. These achievements made Liu a source of great hope for China in the 2008 Olympics, when he was expected to win the gold medal for the hurdles event.28 However, this expectation was not met. Liu’s right Achilles tendon was seriously injured by a false start at the beginning of a race in Beijing, forcing the runner to pull out of the race in pain. He expressed feelings of regret and sadness at his withdrawal.29
Liu was unfortunate again at the London Olympics. He made a successful start in the first round of the 110-metre hurdles, but just one second later failed to clear the first barrier. Again, the crash seriously injured his Achilles tendon. This time, however, Liu pulled out of the race in a very different way. Four years earlier, in Beijing, he had left the track immediately after his injury; in London, he hopped on his left foot to complete the entire stretch, and then kissed the last hurdle. In London, he shook the hand of each of his
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opponents, which he had not done in Beijing. He left the track with his opponents in London; he did so alone in Beijing.30
In short, the cases above reveal six patterns of amiable behaviour exhibited by the Chinese athletes at the London Olympics. First, they remained calm in response to unfair and unreasonable treatment. Second, they behaved respectfully in press conferences. Third, none of them publicly complained about, or even commented on, suspicions of illegal activity raised by the Western media. Fourth, the Chinese athletes congratulated their opponents even when they were dissatisfied with referees’ judgements or had suffered injuries. Fifth, they were always seen smiling at medal-award ceremonies. Sixth, they expressed their love of, respect for and attachment to sport, as well as their personal approachability, through special acts such as Liu’s kissing the last hurdle of the race from which he had withdrawn.
Is Displaying Amiability a Means of Arousing Nationalist Sentiment?
The cases reviewed in the section above were widely reported by the Chinese state media. However, the resulting editorials and commentaries did not propagandise the athletes’ amiable behaviour as an advantage to China or its people. Rather, the media aimed to criticise the international sports organisations involved in the alleged unfair treatment of the Chinese athletes, and, most importantly, to condemn the West. For instance, the unreasonable score given to Chen Yibing was interpreted as evidence of the defective mechanisms of the International Federation of Gymnastics.31 The relegation of Gong Jinjie and Guo Shuang’s cycling team to second place was found to be indicative of the double standards of the international sports community, as the IOC had not penalised the British men’s track-cycling team for the behaviour of one of its members, Philip Hindes, who admitted having cheated during the final of his team sprint.32 The suspicions of drug use cast upon Ye Shiwen were seen to reflect the West’s discrimination against, and jealousy of, China.33 In short, therefore, the athletes’ amiable performance was not used by the Chinese media to arouse nationalist sentiment.
Despite the findings above, two puzzles remain unsolved. First, why were the amiable responses of the Chinese athletes not used to arouse nationalist sentiment in China? Answering this question requires, first, a review of China’s use of its athletes’ performance in previous Summer Olympic Games to arouse nationalist sentiment. On these occasions, propaganda efforts were directed in particular towards the significance of gold medals to the Chinese nation. For instance, the gold medals won by Xu Haifeng in the 50-metre pistol event at the 1984 Olympics, by the Chinese women’s volleyball team at the 1984 Olympics and by Liu Xiang in the 110-metre hurdles event at the 2004 Olympics were all cited as evidence of China’s rise under socialist reform, the ability of the Chinese to surpass the West and the spirit and vigour of the Chinese in the new millennium.34
Occasionally, the deeds of the athletes who lost gold medals were also publicised. For example, two days after Wang Yifu won the silver medal in the 10-metre air-pistol event at Atlanta, the People’s Daily published a front-page commentary on Wang’s determination to complete all 10 shoots in the final despite suffering from a serious illness at the time. His resolve was cited as an example of the characteristic willpower of the Chinese.35
The motivation for the two media approaches above lies in the opinion of China held by its people. Most Chinese perceive China to have been humiliated by Western powers for a century. This has given them a hatred of foreigners, particularly the Japanese, and made them eager to bolster their own nation’s strength and power. During past Games, therefore, Chinese athletes’ gold medals and willpower have been used to arouse
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nationalist sentiment as symbols of China’s successful competition with, and even victory over, foreign opponents. However, the calmness, politeness, friendliness, pleasantness, decency and approachability exhibited by the Chinese athletes in London were not felt to convey the same positive impression of China. On the contrary, it is likely that these patterns of behaviour would have been interpreted by the Chinese people as signs of China’s submissiveness to its opponents. This probably explains why the athletes’ display of amiability was not used as a means of arousing nationalist sentiment in China.
The question also remains as to why the state media focused on criticising international sporting organisations and condemning theWest. The answer is related to the distribution of power between China and the West in the international sports community. Since the late 1970s, more than 200 Chinese have served in IOC-affiliated international sports federations (IFs). However, only three Chinese individuals have achieved the rank of chairperson, namely Lu Shengrong, Xu Yinsheng and Wei Jizhong, who became the chairpersons of the Badminton World Federation, the International Table Tennis Federation and the International Volleyball Federation, respectively.36 In addition, even though He Zhenliang, Lu Shengrong, Yu Zaiqing, Yang Yang and Li Lingwei have been members of the IOC since the early 1980s, no Chinese individual has yet been its president. On the contrary, all of the IOC presidents from 1894 to 2013 have been from Europe and the USA. Forty six of the current 104 IOC members and 24 of the current 35 IOC-affiliated IF presidents are also nationals of Australia, Canada, the European Union member states, Japan, Monaco, Norway, New Zealand, Switzerland and the USA.37 These data reveal very clearly that the power of the West is stronger than that of China in the international sporting community.
Havingmade their criticisms and condemnations, representatives ofChina’s statemedia sought to identify the causes of the alleged unfair treatment of the athletes, and ways to prevent such treatment in future Olympic Games. They concluded that the unbalanced distribution of power between theWest andChina in the IOC and its affiliated IFs has led the West to treat China unfairly,38 and argued that Chinamust gainmore input (huayuquan) into the decision-making of these international organisations, as this is the onlyway to secure fair treatment for the nation’s athletes.39 Both the criticism and the condemnation, therefore, can be understood as means of urging the state authorities to challenge the status quo of the international sports community in the post-London Olympics era.
Conclusion
It is shown in this essay that the Chinese athletes involved in the 2012 London Summer Olympics responded calmly, respectfully and pleasantly to aspersions cast on their behaviour, controversial judgements and withdrawals, in the interests of remedying negative impressions of China overseas. However, their amiable behaviour was not used as nationalist propaganda by the state media, as it did not satisfactorily illustrate China’s might. The government’s requirement that Chinese athletes display amiability at the London Olympics can thus be understood as a means of rebuilding China’s international reputation rather than arousing nationalist sentiment among the Chinese.
Will Chinese athletes continue to display amiability at future Olympics events? In June 2013, a Chinese company received permission to construct a US$40 billion canal in Nicaragua.40Meanwhile, 124Chinesehavebeenarrested for illegalmining inGhana.41These cases indicate that although China’s influence across the globe is expanding, the behaviour of theChinese overseashas not improved. It is very likely, therefore, thatChinese athleteswill be required to display amiability at future Olympic Games and other international sports events. However, is this really an effective means of rebuilding China’s international reputation?
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Acknowledgement The author would like to thank Professor J.A. Mangan for his comments on this essay.
Notes on Contributor Marcus P. Chu obtained his Ph.D. in political studies from the University of Auckland in 2012. He currently lectures on Chinese politics and international relations in Lingnan University, Hong Kong.
Notes 1. For details of the speeches of Li, Liu and Dai, see “Li Changchun Huijian Canjia Disanshijie
Aoyunhui Zhongguo Tiyu Daibiaotuan” [Li Changchun meets with Chinese Olympic Delegation] (Xinhua, July 10, 2012. Accessed July 11, 2013. http://news.xinhuanet.com/pol itics/2012-07/10/c_112403853.htm); “Zhongguo Jianer Jianzhi Aoyun Lizheng Shixian Sida Mubiao” [Chinese athletes aim to achieve four objectives in the Olympics] (China Sports Daily, July 11, 2012, 1); and “Zhongguo Zhengfu Daibiao Guowu Weiyuan Dai Bingguo Zaikanwang Zhongguo Tiyu Daibiaotuan Shide Jianghua” [Speech DELIVERED By State Councillor Dai Bingguo when he met with the Chinese sports delegation on behalf of the Chinese government] (China Sports Daily, July 28, 2012, 1).
2. “Zhongguo Canjia Aoyunhui Daibiaotuan Zaijing Zhaokai Dongyuan Dahui” [Chinese Olympic Delegation hold a meeting at Beijing] (Tiyu Bao, June 9, 1984, 1); “Zhongyang Lingdao Tongzhi Jiejian Zhongguo Tiyu Daibiaotuan Jishi” [The Party leaders meet with Chinese Olympic Delegation] (Tiyu Bao, July 9, 1984, 1); “Dang He Guojia Lingdaoren Weiaoyun Jianer Zhuangxing” [Party leaders see off Chinese athletes] (China Sports Daily, September 3, 1988, 1); “Zhongguo Aoyun Daibiaotuan Shishi” [Chinese Olympic Delegation hold a swearing in ceremony] (China Sports Daily, July 1, 1992, 1); “Zhongyang Lingdao Wei Aoyun Jianer Zhuangxing” [Party leaders see off the Olympic athletes] (China Sports Daily, July 11, 1992, 1); “Zhongguo Aoyun Daibiaotuan Juxing Dongyuan Dahui” [Chinese Olympic Delegation hold a meeting at Beijing] (China Sports Daily, June 21, 1996, 1); “Zhongguo Aoyun Daibiaotuan Zhuangxinghui Longzhong Juxing” [A meeting to see off Chinese Olympic Delegation is held] (China Sports Daily, July 6, 1996, 1); “Li Lanqing Jiejian Zhongguo Tiyu Daibiaotuan” [Li Langqing meets with Chinese Olympic Delegation] (China Sports Daily, September 9, 2000, 1); “Yuan Weimin Dui Daibiaotuan Quanti Jingshi Mingque Tichu Sidian Yaoqiu” [Yuan Weimin gives four requirements to the olympians] (China Sports Daily, September 9, 2000, 1); “Li Changchun Huijian Diershibajie Aoyunhui Zhongguo Tiyu Daibiaotuan” [Li Changchun meets with Chinese Delegation of the 28th Olympics] (China Sports Daily, August 4, 2004, 1); “Zhongguo Aoyun Juntuan Chengli Shishi” [Chinese Olympic Delegation established] (China Sports Daily, July 26, 2008, 1); and “Dangzhongyang De Qinqie Guanhuai Shi Daibiaotuan Qiangda De Jingshen Liliang” [The concern of the CCP Central Committee is the delegation’s spiritual power] (China Sports Daily, July 26, 2008, 1).
3. Amiability covers the meanings of friendliness and pleasantness. See New Oxford Dictionary of English, 37 and Collins English Dictionary and Thesaurus, 36.
4. Taylor, Forum on China-Africa Cooperation; Chan, China’s Compliance in Global Affairs; Johnston, Social State; Kent, Beyond Compliance; Lanteigne, China and International Institutions; Gill and Huang, “Sources and Limits”; Kurlantzick, Charm Offensive; Joseph Nye. “The Olympics and Chinese Soft Power” (The Huffington Post, August 24, 2008. Accessed July 20, 2013. http://www.huffingtonpost.com/joseph-nye/the-olympics-and-chines e_b_120909.html); Paradise, “China and International Harmony”; and Simon Allison. “Fixing China’s Image in Africa, One Student at a Time” (The Guardian, July 5, 2013. Accessed July 20, 2013. http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2013/jul/31/china-africa-students-scholarship-p rogramme).
5. Ted C. Fishman. “The Chinese Century” (The New York Times, July 4, 2004. Accessed July 19, 2013. http://www.nytimes.com/2004/07/04/magazine/the-chinese-century.html).
6. Khadija Sharife. “China’s New Colonialism” (Foreign Policy, September 25, 2009. Accessed July 19, 2013. http://www.foreignpolicy.com/articles/2009/09/25/chinas_new_colonialism?p rint¼yes&hidecomments ¼ yes&page ¼ full); Michael Schuman. “China’s Mining Pit” (TIME, June 19, 2011. Accessed July 19, 2013. http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/
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0,9171,2075236,00.html); Damian Grammaticas. “Chinese Colonialism?” (BBC, July 19, 2012. Accessed July 19, 2013. http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-18901656); Jonathan Watts. “China’s Exploitation of Latin American Natural Resources Raises Concern” (The Guardian, March 26, 2013. Accessed July 19, 2013. http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2013/mar/26/china-l atin-america-resources-concern); Stuart Grudgings and Simon Gardner. “Rising China Threatens U.S. Clout in Latin America” (Reuters, March 16, 2011. Accessed July 19, 2013. http://www.reu ters.com/article/2011/03/16/us-latinamerica-china-idUSTRE72F19C20110316).
7. “Xhongguo Qianwan Fuhao Da 96 Wan Ren Qunyi Zhiku 2011 Hurun Caifu Baogao” [Hurun 2011 Wealth Report is unvailed] (Hurun, April 12, 2011. Accessed July 20, 2013. http://www. hurun.net/zhcn/newsshow.aspx?nid¼87) and “Hurun Yanjiuyuan Yu Qunyi Zhiku Lianxu Diernian Lianhe Fabule Qunyi Zhiku 2012 Hurun Caifu Baogao” [Hurun 2012 Wealth Report is unvailed] (Hurun, July 31, 2012. Accessed July 20, 2013. http://www.hurun.net/zhcn/News Show.aspx?nid¼282).
8. Andrew Jabobs. “In Singapore, Vitriol Against Chinese Newcomers” (The New York Times, July 26, 2012. Accessed July 23, 2013. http://www.nytimes.com/2012/07/27/world/asia/in-singaporevitriol-against-newcomers-from-mainland-china.html?pagewanted¼all); Ian Young. “How Mainland Chinese Immigrants Are Transforming Vancouver?” (South China Morning Post, April 14, 2013. Accessed July 23, 2013. http://www.scmp.com/print/news/china/article/1213977/ how-mainland-chinese-immigrants-are-transforming-vancouver); Sandy Li. “Chinese Buyers’ Long March on Manhattan” (South China Morning Post, December 30, 2011. Accessed July 23, 2013. http://www.scmp.com/article/988800/chinese-buyers-long-march-manhattan); Lauren R. Schuker “Courting the Chinese Buyers” (The Wall Street Journal, June 21, 2012. Accessed July 23, 2013. http://online.wsj.com/article/SB10001424052702304765304577478573004173212. html); James Glynn and Rose Kelly. “Chinese Buyers Sway Australia Property Market” (The Wall Street Journal, June 26, 2013. Accessed July 23, 2013. http://online.wsj.com/article/ SB10001424127887324328204578568960003796852.html); Anne Gibson. “Call to Limit Foreigners’ Right to Purchase Houses” (New Zealand Herald, July 9, 2013. Accessed July 23, 2013. http://www.nzherald.co.nz/business/news/article.cfm?c_id¼3&objectid ¼ 10895526).
9. Amy Li. “Rich Chinese Buying Properties Overseas Draw Resentment from Locals” (South China Morning Post, January 29, 2013. Accessed July 23, 2013. http://www.scmp.com/news/ china/article/1138460/rich-chinese-buying-property-overseas-draw-resentment-locals).
10. Alexis Okeowo. “China in Africa: The New Imperialists?” (New Yorker, June 12, 2013. Accessed July 23, 2013. http://www.newyorker.com/online/blogs/newsdesk/2013/06/chinazambia-resources-imperialism.html)
11. Chin, “Papua New Guinea in 2009”. 12. Bruce Eimhom. “Chinese Tourists Behaving Badly” (Businessweek, May 28, 2013. Accessed July
23, 2013. http://www.businessweek.com/printer/articles/119976-chinese-tourists-behaving-badly). 13. Hui Li and Ben Blanchard. “Chinese Wonder Why Their Tourists Behave So Badly” (Reuters,
May 30, 2013. Accessed July 23, 2013. http://www.reuters.com/assets/print? aid¼USBRE94T05820130530).
14. Karla Cripps. “Chinese Tourism: The Good, the Bad and the Backlash” (CNN, April 12, 2013. Accessed July 23, 2013. http://edition.cnn.com/2013/04/09/travel/chinese-tourism-impact); Amy Li. “Chiang Mai Locals Shocked by ‘Rude’ Chinese Tourists” (South China Morning Post, February 28, 2013. Accessed July 23, 2013. http://www.scmp.com/news/china/article/ 1162131/chiang-mai-locals-shocked-rude-chinese-tourists) and Mandy Zuo. “Chinese Tourists Carving Out a Bad Reputation Abroad” (South China Morning Post, June 16, 2013. Accessed July 23, 2013. http://www.scmp.com/print/news/china/article/1261692/chinese-tou rists-carving-out-bad-reputation-abroad).
15. Sharon LaFraniere. “Mainland Chinese Flock to Hong Kong to Give Birth” (The New York Times, February 22, 2012. Accessed July 23, 2013. http://www.nytimes.com/2012/02/23/world/ asia/mainland-chinese-flock-to-hong-kong-to-have-babies.html?pagewanted¼all&_r ¼ 0); Clarissa Sebag-Montefiore. “China’s New Export to America: A Baby Boom” (The Independent, March 10, 2012. Accessed July 23, 2013. http://www.independent.co.uk/ news/world/asia/chinas-new-export-to-america-a-baby-boom-7547400.html); Keith B. Richburg. “For Many Pregnant Chinese, A U.S. Passport for Baby Remains a Powerful Lure” (The Washington Post, July 18, 2010. Accessed July 23, 2013. http://www.washingtonpost.com/ wp-dyn/content/article/2010/07/17/AR2010071701402.html).
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1756 M.P. Chu
16. David Eimer. “Hong Kong Rails against Invasion of Chinese ‘Locusts’” (The Telegraph, February 2, 2012. Accessed July 23, 2013. http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/asia/ hongkong/9056268/Hong-Kong-rails-against-invasion-of-Chinese-locusts.html).
17. Pen Liu. “Zai Lundun Aoyunhui Zhongguo Tiyu Daibiaotuan Zongjiebiaozhang Dahuishang De Jianghua” [Speech given at the meeting of celebrating Chinese Olympic delegation] (China Sports Daily, August 18, 2012, 2).
18. Julia Flynn. “Does China Feed Its Athletes Juice?” (Businessweek , June 18, 1995. Accessed July 29, 2013. http://www.businessweek.com/stories/1995-06-18/does-china-feed-its-athletes-juice).
19. “Le Jingyi Baimi Ziyouyong Dare Shengchu” [Le wins woman’s 100m individual medley] (Oriental Daily News, July 22, 1996, A7).
20. Ross Tucker. “Why Ye Shiwen’s Performance Raises a Lot of Questions?” (The Guardian, July 31, 2012. Accessed July 29, 2013. http://www.guardian.co.uk/sport/2012/jul/31/london2012-ye-shiwen-doping); John Leicester. “China Swimmer Ye Shiwen Smashes Record, Draws Doping Speculation” (CBS, July 31, 2012. Accessed July 29, 2013. http://www.cbs news.com/8301-33747_162-57483133/china-swimmer-ye-shiwen-smashes-record-draws-dop ing-speculation/); Ewen Callaway. “Why Great Olympic Feats Raise Suspicions?” (Nature, August 1, 2012. Accessed July 29, 2013. http://www.nature.com/news/why-great-olympicfeats-raise-suspicions-1.11109).
21. “Ye Shiwen Tanran Miandui Zhiyi” [Ye calmly faces suspicions] (People’s Daily, August 2, 2012, 13).
22. “Sanjianke: Hengaoxing Ye Henyihan” [Three Chinese fencers: very happy but also very regretful] (China Sports Daily, September 25, 2000, 6).
23. “Beishang Dan Bufuqi De Yanshen” [Sadness and recalcitrance come into their eyes] (China Sports Daily, August 22, 2004, 2).
24. “Yinpai Suiyouhan Pinbo Yiwuhui” [Regrettable silver medal and regretless hard work] (People’s Daily, August 4, 2012, 5); “Moleilong: Women Yaoyige Shuofa” [Morelon: we need the reason] (China Sports Daily, August 4, 2012, 1).
25. Chen is the champions of the men’s rings in the Beijing 2008 Olympics, and in the 2006, 2007, 2010 and 2011 World Gymnastics Championships.
26. “Chen Yibing Yiwai Zhaiyin Quecheng Wufa Shensu” [Chen Yibing does not raise appeal after winning silver medal] (Xinhua Daily Telegraph, August 7, 2012, 8).
27. “Baigei Caipan Yibing Congrong” [Chen is calm although he is defeated by the referees] (Xinhua Daily Telegraph, August 8, 2012, 6).
28. Jere Longman. “China’s Big Hope in Track Doesn’t Get Out of Blocks” (The New York Times, August 18, 2008. Accessed July 27, 2013. http://www.nytimes.com/2008/08/18/sports/olymp ics/18hurdles.html?_ r¼0).
29. “Liu Xiang Tuicai Qianhou De Sige Xiaoshi” [Four hours before and after Liu’s withdrawal] (China Sports Daily, August 19, 2008, 3).
30. Ibid. and “Liu Xiang De Shang Women De Tong” [Liu’s Injury and Our Distress] (People’s Daily, August 8, 2012, 17).
31. “Ticao Caipan Zhidu Jixu Gaige” [Gymnastic judging institutions must reform] (Xinhua Daily Telegraph, August 9, 2012, 6).
32. “Shuangchong Biaozhun Yousun Gongping Zhengyi” [Double standard damage fairness and justice] (People’s Daily, August 6, 2012, 6).
33. Diaonan Ye Shiwen Xifang Yulun Tai Xiaoxinyan Le” [Spiting Ye Shiwen the western media are too narrow-minded] (Global Times, August 1, 2012, 14); “Wuduan Biansun Tuxian Aoman Yu Wuzhi” [Derogations without cause reveal pride and ignorance] (People’s Daily, August 2, 2014, 13); and “Weihe Xuanzexing Shiming” [Why selectively blind] (People’s Daily, August 7, 2012, 13).
34. “Lishixing De Tupo” [A historic breakthrough] (People’s Daily, July 31, 1984, 1); “Waida De Yitian” [A great day] (Tiyu Bao, August 1, 1984, 1); “Huihuang De Shengli Jianku De Licheng” [Glorious victory tough journey] (Tiyu Bao, August 9, 1984, 1); “Xin Suizhe Guoqi Feiqilaile” [Hearts fly with the national flag] (China Sports Daily, August 28, 2004, 1).
35. “Bushi Jinpai Shengsi Jinpai” [Not a gold medal but more than a gold medal] (People’s Daily, July 22, 1996, 1).
36. “Zhongguoren Heshi Zaici Danren Guoji Pinglian Zhuxi?” [When Chinese become ITTF President again?] (Xinhua, May 16, 2013. Accessed August 6, 2013. http://big5.xinhuanet. com/gate/big5/news.xinhuanet.com/sports/2013-05/16/c_124722992.htm).
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The International Journal of the History of Sport 1757
37. For the details of the IOC members, see: “IOC Members List”. IOC. Accessed August 6, 2013. http ://www.olympic.org/content/the-ioc/the-ioc-institution/ioc-members-list/. In addition, the 24 IF Presidents are: (1) SeppBlatter (SUI) of International Federation ofFootballAssociation, (2) Poul-Erik Høyer Larsen (DEN) of Badminton World Federation, (3) Yvan Mainini (FRA) of International Basketball Association, (4) Jose Perurena Lopez (ESP) of International Canoe Federation, (5) Pat McQuaid (IRL) of International Cycling Union, (6) Peter Dawson (GBR) of International Golf Federation, (7) Bruno Grandi (ITA) of International Federation of Gymnastics, (8) Leandro Nerge (ESP) of International Hockey Federation, (9) Marius Vizer (AUT) of International Judo Federation, (10) Klaus Schormann (GER) of International Modern Pentathlon Federation, (11) Denis Oswald (SUI) of International Federation of Rowing Associations, (12) Bernard Lapasset (FRA) of International Rugby Board, (13) Carlo Croce (ITA) of International Sailing Federation, (14) Adham Sharara (CAN) of International Table Tennis Federation, (15) Francesco Ricci Bitti (ITA) of International Tennis Federation, (16) Marisol Casado (ESP) of International Triathlon Federation, (17) Tamas Ajan (HUN) of International Weightlifting Federation, (18) Anders Besseberg (NOR) of International Biathlon Union, (19) Ivo Ferriano (ITA) of International Bobsleigh & Skeleton Federation, (20) Kate Caithness (GBR) of World Curling Federation, (21) Rene Fasel (SUI) of International Ice Hockey Federation, (22) Ottavio Cinquanta (ITA) of International Skating Union, (23) Joseph Fendt (GER) of International Luge Federation and (24) Gian-Franco Kasper (SUI) of International Ski Federation.
38. “Aoyun Zhengzhi Rengshi Xiqang Woruo” [Olympic politics is West-strong and China-weak] (Global Times, 6 August, 2012, 15).
39. “Fengshou Wuwang Xuexi” [Do not forget to study when harvest] (People’s Daily, August 12, 2012, 5).
40. Jonathan Watts. “Nicaragua Gives Chinese Firm Contract to Build Alternative to Panama Canal” (The Guardian, June 6, 2013. Accessed August 6, 2013. http://www.theguardian.com/ world/2013/jun/06/nicaragua-china-panama-canal).
41. “Ghana Arrests Chinese for Illegal Mining” (BBC, June 6, 2013. Accessed August 6, 2013. http ://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-china-22793659).
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(2006): 17–36. Johnston, Alastair Iain. Social State: China in International Institutions 1980 – 2000. Princeton, NJ:
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Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2007. Kurlantzick, Joshua. Charm Offensive: How China’s Soft Power Is Transforming the World. New
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