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LOGOSETHOS
PATHOS
Aristotle’s Proofs
Logos
Arguments rooted in logic and/or reasoning
Uses evidence to support positionsWays to use Logos
InductiveDeductiveCausalAnalogical
Inductive
Reasoning that goes from particular to general
Example: Jane is in great shape, and she jogs.
(Observation) Bill looks terrific, and he jogs. (Observation) Kim’s great muscle definition is from
jogging. (Observation, Inference) Therefore, people who jog look good.
(Generalization)
Evaluating Inductive Arguments
Are the observations accurate?Are there enough observations to
justify the generalization?Don’t Rush to Conclusions!
Evaluation Examples
Example 1Jimmy plagiarized his Com 299 final
paper.All Com 299 students plagiarize.
Example 2My cat is gray.My sister’s cat is gray.The cat at the pet store is gray.All cats are gray.
Deductive Arguments
Reasoning that goes from general to specific.
Example:If you jog, you will look like you’re in
shape. (Major Premise)Jane jogs. (Minor Premise)Therefore, Jane looks like she’s in good
shape. (Conclusion)
More Deductive Examples
Example 1, from MLK, Jr “I Have a Dream”All people are created equal.I am a person.Therefore, I am equal to other people.
Example 2God will reward non-violenceWe are pursuing our dreams non-violentlyGod will grant us our dreams
Evaluating Deductive Arguments
Analyze the accuracy and validity Are the premises true?Can the conclusion be logically derived
from the premises?
Evaluating Deductive Arguments Continued
Compare the following deductive arguments Example 1
People who text and drive are more likely to have accidents than are those who do not.
Jack regularly texts while he drives. Therefore, Jack is more likely to have an accident
than those who do not text and drive. Example 2
People who do not text and drive are more likely to have accidents than are those who do.
Jill never texts and drives. Therefore, Jill is more likely to have an accident
than those who do text and drive
Causal
One condition brings about another
Avoid False Cause FallaciesEnsure that A causes B!
Analogical
Compares something unfamiliar to the audience to something that is/could be familiar
Avoid an invalid analogies
Ethos
Is derived from the speaker or the source of the information
Is composed of competence, character, knowledge, etc of the speaker/source
Pathos
Appeals to audience’s emotionsThe emotions can range from glee to fear
The speaker/writer should always consider the ethics of the communication
FACTVALUEPOLICY
Types of Claims
Claims of FactWhat IS or IS NOT true
Past, present, projectionSomething that can be researched and
proven through researchBurden of Proof
Must define terms, what do your statistics mean?
How does your evidence “prove” something
Claims of ValueWhat is right/wrong, moral/immoral,
good/bad, just/unjustAlways involves quality judgments
Burden of ProofDefine terms…what does it mean to you
to be moral/immoralIdentify the criteria or standard by
which to evaluate the claim of value
Claims of PolicyWhat should be done
Will always involve an agent of actionBurden of proof
Problem existsAn inherent barrier to solving the
problemAn action statement to attempt to
correct the problem
Americans overvalue athletic competition.
VALUE
The United States prison system should increase programs to rehabilitate inmates.
POLICY
Fastening seatbelts saves lives.
FACT
The United States federal government should substantially increase the number of and/or substantially expand beneficiary eligibility for its visas for one or more of the following: employment-based immigrant visas, nonimmigrant temporary worker visas, family-based visas, human trafficking-based visas.
POLICY
Computer technology will change American education.
FACT
Political parties are bad for effective government in the United States.
VALUE
HOW TO CONSTRUCT AN ARGUMENT IN ANY SPEECH OR DISCUSSION
Toulmin’s Model of Argumentation
CLAIM
EVIDENCE
EVIDENCECREDIBILITY
WARRANT
QUALIFIER
REBUTTAL
Claim
An assertion regarding a stance on a topic or
idea
It is an assertion of fact, value, or policy
Posting private information on social networking sites like Facebook poses significant security risks.
Evidence CredibilityThe qualifications of the author of the quoted
workIn debate the evidence credibility is not fully
stated in a debate round, but is typed and available for examination by opponents In a debate round ONLY the LAST NAME and
YEAR of the article/source is read aloudRegular Speech Example: According to the Computer Crime and Intellectual
Property web site developed by the Cyberstalking Division of the U.S. Department of Justice and accessed on September 6, 2008
Debate Example U.S. Department of Justice, Accessed 2008
EvidenceThe quoted words used in debate to support
the claim originally madeIs created by reading only important
underlined material from an article. When making evidence for debate all words
in a paragraph or between paragraphs of quoted material must be present (though not read aloud) to ensure that nothing is taken out of context
Warrant
THE MOST IMPORTANT PART OF TOULMIN’S MODEL!
Connects the Evidence to the claimExplains WHY the evidence matters and how
you are interpreting/applying the evidence to your position/claim
Qualifier
The exceptions to the rule This is where one admits that sometimes a claim is
not true in all instances
Cats are the Best Pet Smith, 2013 “Cats are very loving creatures”
Claim EV Cred EV
Possible Qualifiers?
RebuttalThese are any counter-arguments or
oppositions to a stated claimAs a debater you should research BOTH sides
of the topic so as to anticipate what your opponent(s) may say in opposition to you.
Possible rebuttal to “Cats are the Best pets.”?
Argument Fallacies
BandwagonSlippery SlopeFalse AnalogyRed HerringFalse CauseOthers?