THE UNIVERSITY OF MELBOURNE

Constructing Environments

Log Book Final Submission

Name : Trishya John

Student ID Number: 699579

1

Contents Week 1 – Introduction to Construction ........................................................................................... 2

Week 2 – Structural Loads and Forces ......................................................................................... 13

Week 3 – Footings and Foundations ............................................................................................. 24

Week 4 – Floor Systems and Horizontal Elements ...................................................................... 57

Week 5 – Columns, Grids and Wall Systems ............................................................................... 81

Week 6 – Spanning and Enclosing Space ..................................................................................... 96

Week 7 – Detailing Strategies 1.................................................................................................. 107

Week 8 - Openings...................................................................................................................... 115

Week 9 – Detailing Strategies 2.................................................................................................. 132

Week 10 – When things go wrong .............................................................................................. 152

Glossary of Terms ....................................................................................................................... 162

Reference List ............................................................................................................................. 182

Appendix ..................................................................................................................................... 187

2

Week 1 – Introduction to Construction

Knowledge maps

Loads on buildings (Ching, 2008)

Structural forces (Newton, 2014)

3

Materials (Newton, 2014)

4

Site Analysis

(Ching, 2008)

5

Theatre Session

We were introduced to the concept of loads on buildings in our first theatre session where we

were given a single sheet of blank A4 paper and tape and asked to build a structure that can

support a brick using only those materials. I formed a four point structure as shown below, which

I strengthened by folding repetitively. I was unable to test the structure at the lecture, so I

performed a test once I got back home by checking if the paper structure was able to support the

load of all my textbooks.

It was able to support my textbooks when the

thicker side of the structure made contact with

the ground, but not when the thinner side made

contact with the ground. One of the things that I was able to learn from this experience was that

it was crucial for a structure to have a very strong base in order to support an immense load. I

also realized that one of the reasons why my structure was successful was because the

symmetrical shape of it may have enabled an even distribution of the load of the textbooks

throughout the structure. These were some of the key elements that I tried to apply to our

structure that was built during the studio session.

Shape allows an even

distribution of the load of the

textbooks throughout the

structure

6

Studio Session

Construction procedure

In our first studio session we were divided into groups of 3 and given blocks of the same size and

shape made of MDF. As this was a compression challenge, blocks were an efficient building unit

as blocks are commonly used in structures that rely on compression forces, such as arches. We

were then told to make a tower as tall as possible that could accommodate a toy horse provided

by our tutor, which meant that we had to integrate an opening into our structure. Our first step

was to measure how high the opening had to be for the object to be able to enter the structure,

and we did so by stacking the blocks one on top of each other next to the horse until they were a

bit taller than the horse.

However, we then realized that constructing the

tower by placing the blocks as shown on the left

would result in a structure that was very likely to

collapse due to its instability, so we then decided to

place the blocks flat on top of each other as shown

below. We then had to re-estimate the height of the

horse using the height shown in the image on the

left.

Estimating height of the object

Re-estimating height of the object

7

We then decided to slightly change the laying of the blocks and place them the conventional way

bricks were laid in a building instead of merely stacking them one on top of each other. This

would have been more stable than originally planned, as the load from a block will be transferred

to two bricks below it instead of just one and thus be spread out more evenly.

We then started to build the structure

as shown below. Our aim was to pack

the blocks as tightly as possible in the

first ten rows to create a stable base

and then decide on how to change the

way the blocks were laid once the

structure gained a reasonable height.

Packing the blocks tightly together will

result in more blocks being laid at the

base, which then increases the

compression forces, causing the blocks

to be compact. This is what will ensure

stability for the whole structure.

Original block laying technique Modified block laying technique

Foundation of the structure

Aimed height of the opening

8

However, this layout of the structure had to

be changed once again. This was because

the object had to be rotated once it was

inside the building in order to make it fit

inside the structure. Therefore, there was a

risk of the structure collapsing if we rotated

the horse while sending it into the opening.

We then decided to remove the blocks from one side of the structure to form an opening as

shown below and covered the gap made in the original building. This would then resolve the

issue of the object being able to enter the structure without having to be rotated.

Details of the block laying

technique – high compression

forces due to tightly packed blocks

9

Even though we had now developed a

structure that could accommodate the object,

we still faced the issue of bridging the gap

created in order to form a doorway. We

attempted to stack the blocks in a ‘staircase’

manner on either side, but the blocks fell after

about two or three of them were placed, due

to the increasing load and the inability of the

blocks to support them, so we were unable to

create a bridge as the gap was too wide.

Our next idea was to warp the structure in order

to bring the gap closer so that a fewer amount of

blocks would have to be used in order to form a

bridge.

We attempted to bridge this much smaller

gap by stacking the bricks in a similar

manner to before, but unfortunately we were

unsuccessful again. As we could not make

the gap smaller, we decided to focus on

making the structure as tall as possible. Due

to the limit on the amount of MDF blocks

we were given, we decided to use less blocks to build the rest of the structure. I was able to

conclude that due to the fact that the blocks were packed tightly for approximately twelve rows,

the base would be strong enough to produce a stable structure that was capable of supporting a

heavy load. I based my conclusion on the paper structure I made in lecture 1, which was thick at

the bottom due to the folds, and thus was able to support the weight of all my books. We then

continued to lay the blocks on the structure, but left large gaps in between so that we would be

Attempt at

building a bridge

Modified layout to

accommodate object

Warping structure –

decreases compression

forces at base

10

left with more blocks to add height. As the blocks are now spread out towards the top, the

compression forces of the structure decrease with the height.

Figure 1: Increasing the height of the structure

We completed our structure by following the

same pattern established previously.

Deconstruction procedure

Figure 2: Structure during deconstruction process

We were then told to remove blocks from the

structure one at a time in order to test the

stability of the building. In the process, I was

able to find a method to create a doorway.

Although we had considered this idea before,

we did not think it would work as we

assumed that the structure would collapse,

and we only realized that it would have

worked during the deconstruction process. I

simply removed all the blocks in one area

and created a large gap, as seen on the left.

Compression decreases with height as

blocks are spaced widely

Final structure

Doorway – did not collapse due to

distribution of loads through the structure

11

The fact that our structure did not collapse even though all those blocks were removed indicates

that the loads were transferred through the structure in a manner that was able to prevent the

structure from collapsing. It is possible that our structure may have been able to support a

heavier load, if it had remained in a rectangular shape. This final structure may have encountered

difficulties with doing so because warping the structure pushed the blocks out of proportion in

the base, which may have reduced the compression forces that would have been much stronger if

the blocks were packed tightly together.

Figure 3: Load path diagram of structure with a few blocks removed

Figure 4: Comparison of compression forces between original structure and warped structure

12

Comparison with other groups

This group had built a structure that was most

similar to ours in terms of the way they laid

the blocks, and the fact that they packed the

blocks tightly for the first few rows and

incorporated gaps in the higher rows. The

only differences were the shape of the

building and the fact that they had managed

to successfully integrate a doorway into their

structure.

This was another structure created by one of

the groups, which had a very different block

laying technique and shape compared to the

structures of the other groups. It seems as

though their technique of laying blocks,

although aesthetically appealing, may have

used a relatively larger amount of blocks

compared to the conventional brick laying

technique that all the other groups adapted.

Even though their structure was able to

accommodate the object, they too appeared

to be unsuccessful in bridging the gap.

Strong compression forces enabled

structure to support a load of over

5kg, which was done near the end

of the studio session

The blocks are packed tightly

together, which will increase the

compression forces in the structure

13

Although the block laying technique is not

very visible in this photograph, it appears

that they adopted a similar method to our

structure. However, it appears that they

might have encountered difficulties during

the construction process as they too were

unsuccessful in creating a doorway, and

were not able to create a tall structure. The

blocks appear to be packed tightly together

and they have followed this method to

create the entire structure, which means that

the compression forces will be high.

Week 2 – Structural Loads and Forces

Knowledge maps

Structural systems

(Newton, 2014)

Structural joints

(Newton, 2014)

14

Common Environmentally

Sustainable Design Strategies

(Newton, 2014)

Building systems

(Ching, 2008)

15

Theatre session

We covered the importance of how trusses and a bracing system are key elements in supporting

loads in various structures. This was illustrated by various students having to build a truss on a

plastic cup with straws which had to be attached to the cup with pins. These are diagrams of two

structures that were made during this exercise, one which was successful and one which was not.

This structure was able to support

a load effectively because bending

the straws provided 8 paths for the

load to be transferred to the

ground. Folding also provided a

much shorter distance for the loads

to travel, and ensured structural

stability.

This structure was unable to

support a load because the long

straws were unable to support a

load easily, which caused the

whole structure to collapse. There

were also only four paths for the

load to be transferred.

Successful structure

Unsuccessful structure

16

The unsuccessful structure can be improved by introducing a bracing system as shown in the

figure above. The system is in the shape of triangles, which is a difficult shape to distort, and

therefore adds more stability to the system. It also provides more paths for the loads to be

transferred to the ground.

The concepts illustrated in the lecture were useful for the frame challenge in the studio session,

as they illustrated the different ways in which long, thin members could be used to effectively

carry and transfer loads.

Studio session

Construction procedure

This week’s studio introduced the concept of a frame structure, and to illustrate this, we were

told to build a frame tower out of only 20 strips of cut balsa wood in groups of 3. The tower had

to be as tall as possible, and we were encouraged to experiment with different types of joints. We

were told that the towers would have a load placed on it once they were completed to see at

which points they fail. Balsa wood was an efficient material for this challenge as the strips were

light and had a low density, which are properties that would have been needed to make a frame

structure. In order to save strips of balsa wood, we decided to make the tower in the shape of a

triangle instead of a square or rectangle. We cut 3 pieces of wood, of 20cm each, and used them

to form an equilateral triangle for the base. Then, we joined three strips of wood to each of the

corners of the triangle.

How unsuccessful structure can be

improved

17

We then cut a second triangle with sides

measuring 20cm and joined it with the three

strips of wood that were stuck onto the first

triangle.

The strips of wood were joined together

by masking tape, which, in the context

of this structure, can be considered a

fixed joint. A fixed joint resists rotation

and translation in any direction, and

provides force and moment resistance

(Ching, 2008), and as the structure was

relatively stable with an additional

successive level, we decided to

continue using fixed joints.

Sketch of structure we

wanted

Foundation of

structure

18

However, as the structure began to increase in height, we

found that we had to add pins to the joints, thus creating pin

joints, along with the fixed joints, as strips of joined balsa

wood kept detaching, which suggested that just fixed joints

were not strong enough to hold the members together. We

joined the strips of wood with a pin, and then wrapped the

pin with masking tape.

Fixed joint

Details of fixed joint

Structure is stable but a

slight tilt can be observed

due to weak joints

19

Although we assumed that our

combination of pin and fixed joints

were strong enough to keep the

members in place, the tower began

to twist and lean as it increased in

height, possibly due to the

increasing load of the structure.

This was an indication that perhaps

the joints may have not been

efficient enough to transfer the

loads, possibly due to the way we

had attached the members. The

manner in which forces are

transferred from one structural

element to the next and how a

structural system performs depends

on the types of joints used, to a

large extent (Ching, 2008). The addition of the pin may have also caused the member to fold

backwards, based on the way we attached it, which may have also been a factor in causing the

structure to twist because the joints were not stable enough to transfer the loads.

The members were also

rectangular in shape, which

results in uneven distribution

of the load through the strips

of balsa wood. This would

have also been one of the

factors that caused the

torsion of the member,

resulting in the whole

structure twisting. If the

members were in the shape

of a square, there would have

been a more even

distribution of the load,

resulting in less torsion.

Details of pin joint

Load through individual members

20

As seen in this diagram, each joint will be connected

to three members and will thus receive loads in three

directions. If the joint is ineffective in transferring

these loads, the whole structure will be unstable.

Due to the structure twisting and bending as a result of

the joints failing, there came a point where the

structure was unable to stand without support because

it was unable to transfer the load effectively

throughout the structure, which resulted in it being

unable to support the load of the additional members.

This explains why the final structure was unable to

stand

without

support

Our idea was to form a bracing system in order to

prevent the members from twisting, so we cut a strip

of balsa wood and connected it to two of the

members that were twisting the most. However, it

did not fix the problem since the twists were due to

the joints, so we did not continue developing a

bracing system.

Load path

diagram of

structure

Attempt at

bracing

structure Lean in the structure can be

observed clearly due to the

increasing load

21

We finally added 3 more members to the 3rd triangle (excluding triangle made for the base) and

joined them at the ends. These are images of the final structure which was, as seen below, unable

to stand without being supported.

Deconstruction procedure

The structures then had a load applied to them, in order to estimate at which points they started

to fail.

Figure 5: Deconstruction procedure

As seen in the picture, the structure was bending at

the joints when a load was applied. It was mentioned

before that the purpose of a fixed joint was to prevent

rotation of the members, but ours failed to do so

because we connected the members incorrectly. This

was why the structure was bending at the joints.

Structure without a support

system

Point at which

structure was

unable to support

itself

Structure with a

support system

Bending occurring at the joints

when a load is applied – joint

should have resisted load

22

As the load increased, one of the members

that were joined at the second triangle

snapped at its mid-point. This was because

the increasing load was causing an increase

in the reaction force that was acting on the

member. The two forces met at the middle,

which then caused the structure to snap at

that point.

Load path diagram of a section of

structure during deconstruction

process

23

Comparison with other groups

All of the structures built by the other groups had a member snap at its mid-point when a load

was applied, due to the explanation given. However, as seen below, the members did not bend at

the joints the way they did in our structure, because they consisted of more effective joints.

Less bending occurs at the

structural joints when a load is

applied – only the individual

members bend. Structures all

displayed a bracing system that

would have reinforced the overall

stability.

24

Week 3 – Footings and Foundations

Knowledge Maps

Structural elements and concepts

Figure 6: Structural Elements (Newton, 2014)

Figure 7: Structural concepts (Newton, 2014)

25

Construction systems Figure 8: Footings and foundations (Ching, 2008) (Newton, 2014)

26

Materials Figure 9: Mass Materials (Newton, 2014)

Figure 10: Mass Construction (Newton, 2014)

27

Figure 11: Bricks (Newton, 2014)

28

Figure 12: Properties of bricks (Newton, 2014)

29

Figure 13: Concrete (Newton, 2014)

Figure 14: Properties of concrete (Newton, 2014)

30

Figure 15: Stone (Newton, 2014)

31

Figure 16: Properties of stone (Newton, 2014)

32

Theatre Session Figure 17: Olympic Games Park

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Studio report

In the studio session, we examined the features of different buildings, such as the structural

elements, structural systems, joints and materials. The buildings were:

Lot 6 Café

Underground carpark and South Lawn

Arts West Student Centre

Stairs on west end of Student Union

North Court Union House

Beaurepaire Centre Pool

Oval Pavilion (north side of Oval)

Old Geology South Lecture Theatre Entry Structure

Frank Tate Pavilion

Lot 6 Café

Figure 18: Location of Lot 6 Café (The University of Melbourne, 2012)

The Lot 6 Café is located to the south of the Eastern Resource Centre, at the 1888 Building.

34

Structural elements

The ceiling of the café was supported by a beam which extended outside the building and was

supported by a brick column outside the café. The beam and the brick column are both load

bearing – the ceiling transfers loads to the beam, which will then transfer them to the brick

column, which transfers them to the ground.

Figure 19: Beam supporting ceiling (Design. City. Living., 2012)

Figure 20: Beam supported by brick column (Design. City. Living., 2012)

Beam supported by

a brick column

outside the building

Brick column

Beam

supporting

ceiling inside

the cafe

35

The beam supports the

load of the ceiling and

transfers these loads to

the brick column outside

Figure 21: Load path diagram of beam

Figure 22: Load path diagram of column

Beam from the café

transfers loads to the

column, which transfers

loads to the ground

Column transfers

load to the ground

36

Building Systems

The main types of building systems that can be observed are the enclosure system, the structural

system and the mechanical system. The enclosure system consists of walls that are made of

concrete panels and glass, along with glass doors to provide physical access. There is also a flat

roof which forms a part of the enclosure system that cannot be observed in the images, which

may be made of concrete.

Figure 23: Lot 6 Cafe Exterior

The services that can be observed from the outside are the electrical system, seen through the

lights on the concrete panels.

Glass and concrete forming a part

of the enclosure system

37

Materials

The main materials used in this building are concrete, glass, steel and clay bricks. Glass and

concrete were used to form the enclosure system of the building, with glass being used more than

concrete. This was done to allow the entry of natural light into the café in order to minimize

energy consumption through lights. Concrete may have been chosen as it has an excellent

thermal mass, which reduces energy needs from heating and air conditioning (Cement

Sustainability Initiative, 2012).

As seen in the diagram below, beams undergo both compression and tension. Mass materials

such as clay or concrete will not be suitable for a beam as they are strong in compression but

weak in tension. Therefore, steel was chosen as it has the ability to support both tension and

compression (Newton, 2014)

Figure 24: Forces acting on a beam

Bricks were used to construct the load bearing column that supports the steel beam. As columns

experience compressive forces (Newton, 2014) , clay bricks were chosen to build the column as

they are strong in compression (Newton, 2014).

Figure 25: Column

Compression forces experienced by

column

38

Underground car park and South Lawn

Figure 26: South Lawn Car Park (The University of Melbourne, 2012)

The underground car park is located below the South Lawn, within close proximity to the Baillieu Library

and the Brownless Biomedical Library. It was designed by engineering and planning practice Loder and

Bayly. Excavation work began in May 1971 and the car park was complete by November 1972 (Lovell

Chen Architecture & Heritage Consultants, 2011).

Structural Elements

The car park consists of load bearing concrete columns which are evenly spaced.

Figure 27: Typical column

Upper column cap

joined to the ceiling

above

Column drum – joined to upper column cap

with fixed joint

Concrete pad footing

39

Construction systems

The enclosure system consists of reinforced concrete panel walls, along with a concrete ceiling.

There are three pedestrian entrances and one entrance for vehicular access, but no windows as

the car park is underground (Lovell Chen Architecture & Heritage Consultants, 2011).

The storm water drainage system from the south lawn consists of 4 inch PVC downpipes

integrated into the centre of each concrete column throughout the Car Park's structural grid.

These downpipes discharge water into large ducts that run east-west in every second bay (Lovell

Chen Architecture & Heritage Consultants, 2011).

Figure 28: Method of drainage (Lovell Chen Architecture & Heritage Consultants, 2011)

40

Materials

The main material used in the car park is concrete. Concrete is a strong material which is capable

of supporting many different types of loads. It is used to build the panels in order to support the

ground pressure that will be exerted on the car park as it is built underground. It is used for the

roof to support the dead and live loads of the South Lawn and is used for the columns for the

same purpose.

Figure 29: Loads of underground carpark

However, due to the South Lawn being directly above the car park, water from the soil has

caused efflorescence in the concrete. This decreases the aesthetic quality of the concrete. This

may have been avoided by adding more than one drainage pipe in each column which will enable

the removal of more excess water from the soil.

Figure 30: Efflorescence

Efflorescence caused by

water from soil

41

Arts West Student Centre Figure 31: Location of the Arts West Student Centre (The University of Melbourne, 2012)

The arts west student centre is located close to the zoology building and the babel building.

Structural elements

The main structural elements visible are beams, which are fixed at only one end to form a

cantilever. They provide additional support to the loads of the large steel structure above it.

Figure 32: Structural elements

Cantilever

supports load of

structure above

[Type a quote from the document

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– will not be enough to support

entire structure without the

additional beams

42

Materials

Figure 33: Timber beams

In the image above, it can be seen that the beams are made of timber, and they are actually two

thinner beams that have been joined together with a smaller steel beam. This will reinforce the

supports and make them more effective in bearing the load of the larger steel structure. The steel

will also be galvanized to prevent corrosion.

The beams have also been placed as shown below in order to prevent bending.

Figure 34: Placing of beams

Timber beams joined together by a

smaller beam, which increases

efficiency as a support system

Steel structure supported by timber

beams – galvanized to prevent

corrosion

Beams placed in this manner, as

less surface are receives the load,

which minimizes bending

Beams are not placed in this

manner, as more surface are

receives the load, which may cause

bending

43

Stairs on west end of student union

Structural elements

The main structural element seen was beams which supported the load of the stairs and were fixed onto

the brick wall.

Figure 35: Stairway with supporting beams

The cables that are connected to the beams appear to be ties which are tension elements.

However, as it is the beams that are the load bearing elements, it seems that the cables are simply

put in place to appear as though the stairs are suspended. However, they do provide lateral

stability to the stairs by supporting the beams as seen below.

Beams – support the

load of the stairs

44

Figure 36: Cables

Structural joints

In this instance, a fixed joint will be used to connect the beam to the brick wall, in order to avoid

rotation and translation of the beam.

Figure 37: Fixed joint between beam and wall

Beams fixed to the

brick wall

Cables provide lateral stability by

supporting beams but do not bear

the load of the stairs

Fixed joint between beam and wall

needed to prevent rotation or

translation of cantilever

45

When connecting the cable to the beam, a pinned joint will be used. This is to accommodate

movement due to the live loads of people walking on the stairs.

Figure 38: Pinned joint

Materials

The stairs are made of stainless steel that has been galvanized to prevent rust.

Pinned joint needed to connect

beam to cable to accommodate

movement of people walking on

stairs

46

North Court Union House Figure 39: Location of North Court (The University of Melbourne, 2012)

Membranes are thin, flexible surfaces that carry loads through tensile stresses (Ching, 2008). The

membrane structure in the North Court is stretched between various columns which receives

these tensile loads and transfers them to the ground through compression.

Figure 40: Membrane structure in North Court

Membrane structure

in tension

47

The membrane structure had a hole in the middle of it, where cables were connected to the

structure around the central hole. These cables were then connected to the ground using pinned

joints. When there are high wind loads, the cables undergo high tension forces.

Figure 41: Cable structures connecting membrane structure to ground

Figure 42: Cables undergoing tension

Cables connecting membrane structure

to ground. They undergo tension

forces.

High wind loads acting on the

membrane structure

This pushes membrane up, which

causes cables to become very tense

48

One of the main reasons why there was a hole in the middle was to allow water to escape during

periods of rain in order to prevent accumulated rain loads on the membrane structure. The hole is

directly above a drain, which the rainwater falls into, as seen in the diagram below.

Figure 43: Rainwater escape

Joints

The main types of joints used in this structure are pinned joints, in order to allow movement of

the membrane due to wind loads.

Figure 44: Pinned joint

Materials

Membranes are usually a woven textile or glass fibre coated fabric with a synthetic material such

as silicone (Ching, 2008). Steel may have been used for the cables because of their good tensile

properties.

Slope of membrane

allows water to flow

towards hole Movement of water towards drainage

Pinned joints are used to connect the

cables from the membrane to the

ground to accommodate movement

caused by wind loads

49

Beaurepaire Centre Pool

Figure 45: Location of Bureaepaire Centre Pool (The University of Melbourne, 2012)

Structural Elements

This structure was supported by flat columns that were placed at an angle to the beams above the

glass. These columns were also connected to large beams that ran across the ceiling inside the

building, and therefore carried the load of the roof structure.

Figure 46: Inside Bureaupaire Centre Pool (Lovell Chen Architecture & Heritage Consultants, 2014)

Beans are placed along the

pitched roof and transfer loads

to the columns

Columns then transfer

loads of the roof

structure to the ground

50

Figure 47: Load path diagram

Beams transferring load from roof

to columns that are outside

building

Glass

Structural steel

framing

Columns

transferring load

to the ground

51

Construction Systems

The glazing found in the Bureaupaire centre pool is not a part of the structural system, but a part

of the enclosure system. It is supported by vertical mullions and horizontal transoms. Without

these elements, the large spans of glass will not be able to support themselves.

Figure 48: Enclosure system

As seen in the image below, the column has a pad footing below it, and the stone below the glass

has a strip footing which indicates that the stone bears the load of the glazing.

Figure 49: Footing systems

Strip footing to bear

a continuous load of

the stone

Pad

footing to

bear load

of column These footing systems may have

been chosen as the centre pool

building does not have a

significantly large amount of loads

that need to be supported

Glazing

panels

Vertical mullions

Horizontal

transoms

Columns

Stone to support loads

of glass

52

Oval Pavilion

Structural elements and construction systems

The structural elements that can be observed are columns below the building which bear the

loads of the building and transfer them to pad footings. The reason why these will be pad

footings and not strip footings is because there are isolated point loads because of the columns as

opposed to a continuous load, which is where strip footings are used.

Figure 50: Foundations of building

Figure 51: Difference between pad footings and strip footings (Ching, 2008)

The columns which support the

building are seen in this image. Pad

footings are used because the

building is small and will have less

loads.

Pad footing – similar to what is

seen in the photograph because of

column

Strip footing supports continuous

load – will be used in load bearing

walls

53

Materials

The wall at the back of the Pavilion (northern side) is constructed out of bricks. As seen in this

image below, there are expansion joints in this wall to accommodate the expansion of bricks

which occurs due to moisture absorption.

Figure 52: Expansion joint

Expansion joint in

brick wall to

accommodate

expansion of bricks

– wall will start to

crack if joint was

absent

Weep holes needed to allow excess

moisture to escape

54

Old Geology South Lecture Theatre entrance

Construction systems

The lecture theatre entrance is circular with a circular slab on the top to enclose it. It comprises

of the enclosure system which are the glass doors and the brick wall. The brick wall also bears

the loads of the slab.

Figure 53: Lecture theatre entry Figure 54: Brick wall of lecture theatre entry

Glass panels with

framing as support

Brick wall on the other

side of the door

55

Materials

The materials used in this area are bricks for the load bearing wall and glass. Because the span of

glass is relatively large in this section, it requires a structural frame for support. Bricks are used

as they are good in compression and therefore are ideal in transferring vertical loads to the

ground. They also contain weepholes to allow moisture to exit.

Figure 55: Weep holes in brick wall

Weep holes needed to allow exit of

excess moisture

56

Frank Tate Pavilion

The main structural elements that can be observed in this image are a beam and a diagonal

column, which are load bearing and transfer the loads of the main structure to the ground.

Figure 56: Frank Tate Pavilion (TimberDesignAwards, 2010)

Figure 57: Load path diagram

Materials

The materials used in this structure are timber and steel. The timber is used for aesthetic

purposes, as indicated by its highly polished finish, and the steel is used for columns and beams

due to its good compressive and tensile properties.

Beam and column which

support loads of the main

structure

Beam transferring

load to column

57

Week 4 – Floor Systems and Horizontal Elements

Knowledge Maps

Structural Concepts Figure 58: Beams and Cantilevers (Newton, 2014)

Figure 59: Span and spacing (Newton, 2014)

58

Construction systems Figure 60: Floor and framing systems (Newton, 2014) (Ching, 2008)

59

Materials Figure 61: Concrete (Newton, 2014)

60

Figure 62: Pre-cast and in-situ concrete (Newton, 2014)

61

Case study in E Learnings Figure 63: The Pantheon (Hutson, 2014)

62

Theatre session Figure 64: Oval Pavilion – Managers

63

Studio Report

Discussion on Scale

Before beginning the questionnaire, we were divided into groups and told to discuss why and

how scale was used in documenting building projects. Scales are used in order to fit structures

into a paper, as it would be extremely difficult to draw a building in its actual dimensions. Larger

scales will be used to represent plans, which show the building as a whole and do not show many

details. An example is the ground floor plan of the Pavilion which is at a scale of 1:100. Smaller

scales are used when details of specific sections are needed – this would include information

such as structural joints and materials. Most of these details in the Pavilion drawing set are at a

scale of 1:5.

Construction Documentation Tour Questionnaire

TITLE BLOCK

List the types of information found in the title block on the floor plan page

- Consultants contact details e.g. structural and civil engineers, electrical engineers,

landscape architects

- Client name

- Project name

- Drawing title

- Drawing number

- Compass

- Construction issue

Why might this information be important?

Structural and civil engineers are critical for the construction of the building which is why the

contact details are required. The drawing title as well as the drawing number is needed to

categorize information. The drawing number also links to other sections of drawings. The

construction issue indicates that this section of the building is ready for construction.

DRAWING CONTENT – PLANS

What type of information is shown in this floor plan?

The floor plan shows an overview of the structure and includes general information such as

where the different rooms are located, where the stairs are, where the windows and doors are

placed in each room, what the different types of walls are and what materials are used in the

different sections of the building.

64

Provide an example of the dimensions as they appear on this floor plan. What units are

used for the dimensions?

Figure 65: Dimensions shown as distances between grids (Cox Architecture, 2014)

The distances between the grids are represented in

millimetres.

Is there a grid? What system is used for identifying the grid lines?

Yes, there is a grid. The horizontal lines are labelled alphabetically and the vertical lines are

labelled numerically. The gridlines are also dashed.

Figure 66: Grid in plan (Cox Architecture, 2014)

65

What is the purpose of the legend?

The legend symbolizes or abbreviates features of the ground floor plan. For example, ‘carpeted

tiles’ are represented by the abbreviation ‘FL-01’, and it is this abbreviation that is shown in the

plan. This ensures that the floor plan is neat and not cluttered with labels.

Figure 67: Abbreviation used in plan (Cox Architecture, 2014)

Why are some parts of the drawing annotated? Illustrate how the annotations are

associated with the relevant part of the drawing.

Annotations are used to indicate:

Structures that already exist on the site and are supposed to remain there

Figure 68: Structures that are not to be removed (Cox Architecture, 2014)

Features around the building that will be constructed newly

Abbreviation

for ‘carpeted

tiles'

66

Figure 69: Newer features surrounding the Pavilion (Cox Architecture, 2014)

Illustrate how references to other drawings are shown on the plan. What do these symbols

mean?

Figure 70: References to other drawings (Cox Architecture, 2014)

The number at the bottom indicates the page where the drawing will be found and the

number on top indicates the drawing number.

How are windows and doors identified? Provide an example of each. Is there a rationale to their

numbering? What do these numbers mean? Can you find the answer somewhere in the drawings?

Windows and doors are identified through symbols that are shown below.

Figure 71: Symbols for windows and doors (Cox Architecture, 2014)

The number at the top shows the window or door number of the particular room, and the bottom number

shows the room that the window or door belongs too. These numbers also give a reference to the window

or door schedule, which provides detailed information of how the windows or doors are to be constructed.

Symbol for

window Symbol for door

67

The windows are labelled clockwise and doors are labelled anticlockwise.

Figure 72: Labeling of windows and doors in plan (Cox Architecture, 2014)

Illustrate how floor levels are noted on the plan

Figure 73: Representation of floor levels (Cox Architecture, 2014)

FFL stands for

finished floor level

which is shown in

meters above datum

68

Are some areas of the drawing clouded? Why?

Yes. Some areas of the drawing have been clouded, which means that information has been

revised or changed from a previous drawing.

DRAWING CONTENT – ELEVATIONS

What type of information is shown in this elevation? How does it differ from the

information shown on the plan?

The elevation shows the height of the building, as well as the types of materials and finishes. The

plan shows the general information of the Pavilion from an aerial view whereas the elevations

show specific information of the outside of the building in different areas of the Pavilion.

Are dimensions shown? If so, how do they differ from the dimensions shown on the plan?

Provide an example of the dimensions as they relate to the elevation.

Yes, dimensions are shown, which indicates the height of the parapet. This differs from the

dimensions shown on the plan which showed the distances between the grids.

Figure 74: Parapet dimension in South Elevation (Cox Architecture, 2014)

What types of levels are shown on the elevations? Illustrate how levels are shown in

relation to the elevation.

The levels shown are the finished floor level in meters above datum and the spot level – reduced

level in meters above datum, which are indicated in relation to the existing pavilion, the ground

floor and the function parapet.

69

Figure 75: Levels in South Elevation (Cox Architecture, 2014)

Is there a grid? If so, how/where is it shown?

The grid in the elevations is in the form of vertical lines only, as it is in relation to the floor plan

drawings.

Figure 76: Grids in South Elevation (Cox Architecture, 2014)

What types of information on the elevations are expressed using words? Illustrate how this

is done.

Specific details of features of the building are illustrated using words, such as the existing

structures that are to remain, information about new elements that are added to the existing

building.

70

Figure 77: Existing structures to remain in South Elevation (Cox Architecture, 2014)

Figure 78: New structures in South Elevation (Cox Architecture, 2014)

NEW DOUBLE

GLAZED

DOORS TO

MATCH

EXISTING

NEW TIMBER

COLUMNS AND

STRUCTURE

TO EXISTING

VERANDAH

71

Illustrate how doors and windows are identified on the elevations

Doors and windows are labelled with the same symbol shown in the plan. Doors are labelled from left to

right and windows are labelled from right to left.

Figure 79: Windows in South Elevation (Cox Architecture, 2014)

Figure 80: Doors in South Elevation (Cox Architecture, 2014)

Windows labeled from right to left

Doors labeled from

right to left

72

Find where this elevation is located on the plans

The elevations are located at the points shown below, where A is the South Elevation, B is the

North Elevation, C is the East Elevation and D is the West Elevation.

Figure 81: Location of elevations (Cox Architecture, 2014)

73

DRAWING CONTENT – SECTIONS

What type of information is shown in this section? How does it differ from the information

shown in the plan and elevation?

The sections show details of the foundation system of areas in the building as well as the cross

section of different rooms in the building, which the plans and the elevations do not show.

Illustrate how the section drawing differentiates between building elements that are cut

through and those that are shown in elevation.

The elements that are cut through have been backlined and the elements that are shown in

elevation are shown in thin lines.

Figure 82: Elements that are cut through and elements that are in elevation in Section 1 (Cox Architecture, 2014)

This element has been drawn with

thicker lines, indicating that it has

been cut through

This element has been drawn in thin

lines, indicating that it is in elevation

74

Provide examples of how different materials are shown on the sections.

The materials in the sections are not annotated, but are shown with enough detail to be identified.

Figure 83: Materials in the sections (Cox Architecture, 2014)

Find where this section is located on the plan

Brick walls, indicated by the blocks

laid with a stretcher course Foundation made

with concrete

Sections are represented on the ground

floor plan with the symbols shown in

this diagram. The number on top

indicates the section number and the

number at the bottom indicates the

drawing number where these sections

are found

75

DRAWING CONTENT – DETAILS

What sorts of things are detailed?

The walls, internal elements and finishes, the building, the canopy, the plan, the joineries, the stairs and

the external seating are detailed.

Are the details compressed using break lines? Why?

Yes. The details are drawn at a much larger scale, so certain features need to be shortened in order to fit

into the page.

Provide examples of how different materials are shown on drawings at this scale.

At this scale, the drawings provided more detailed descriptions of the materials in different areas of the

pavilion. Most materials were labelled with a reference that could be checked in the Technical Reference

Sheet that could be found at the back of the drawing set. The examples shown below are from the Link

Detail on drawing 46-01 from Cox Architecture (2014).

Figure 84: Material in Link Detail Figure 85: Material in Link Detail

Figure 86: Material in the Link Detail Figure 87: Material in the Link Detail

TIM-10: Internal timber batten screen CLG-06: Timber ceiling lining

INS-09: Thermal insulation RFS-01: Metal deck roof

76

Find the locations of these details on the plans, elevations and sections.

Figure 88: Canopy detail section on ground floor plans (Cox Architecture, 2014)

Figure 89: Canopy detail section on North Elevation (Cox Architecture, 2014)

INS-09: Thermal insulation

77

Figure 90: North Function Wall Detail in Section (Cox Architecture, 2014)

78

Answers to Part 3

How does the information in your drawing compare to what you saw on site last week?

We were not able to observe the Oval Pavilion within a close range last week. The photos were also taken

behind a fence, which impairs the view of the Pavilion under construction.

Figure 91: Pavilion under construction

I was able to locate this area of the building in the drawing set, which was the West Elevation of the

Pavilion. In terms of differences, the information in the drawing set gave the height of the section

observed as well as the materials used to build this part of the building, which could not be identified by

merely observing the building.

Figure 92: Structure with information from drawing set (Cox Architecture, 2014)

External timber lining External timber

lining

Galvanized roof

sheet

Repair existing roof

turret

Gutters to

existing

roof

Similar in terms of appearance to

drawing, but does not provide

information about materials or height

– materials cannot be identified at

distance we were at

79

How does the scale of the building compare to the scale of the drawings?

As stated before, the drawings have to be scaled down as the actual dimensions of the building cannot be

represented in a drawing. The second part of the building viewed was the North Elevation, which can be

seen entirely in the scaled 1:100 drawing. On site, it was just the brick wall that could be seen.

Figure 93: Brick wall of North Elevation

Figure 94: Drawing of part of North Elevation (Cox Architecture, 2014)

Due to larger scale of brick wall, more

details such as an expansion joint and

weep holes can be seen, which the

drawing does not show

Features seen in actual building cannot

be seen in drawing of elevation due to

difference in scale

80

How do architectural and structural drawings differ?

Architectural drawings show details in terms of aesthetics and structural drawings show how

individual elements are linked together. This is illustrated using the canopy as an example.

Figure 95: Architectural drawing of canopy (Cox Architecture, 2014)

Figure 96: Structural drawing (Wood & Grieve Engineers )

Indicates finishes on the

structural steel

Information

about materials

is provided

Shows exactly how all the

members in the truss beams are

linked together – no information

about materials or finishes

81

Week 5 – Columns, Grids and Wall Systems

Knowledge Maps

Structural Concepts Figure 97: Columns (Newton, 2014)

Figure 98: Frames (Ching, 2008)

82

Construction Systems Figure 99: Walls, Grids and Columns (Ching, 2008) (Newton, 2014)

83

Materials Figure 100: From wood to timber (Newton, 2014)

84

Figure 101: Engineered Timber Products (Newton, 2014)

85

Figure 102: Properties of timber (Newton, 2014)

86

Case Study in E Learnings Figure 103: Gehry's Own Home (Lewi, 2014)

87

Theatre Session

88

Studio Report In this studio session, we were divided into groups and had to build a 1:20 model of a section of

the Oval Pavilion.

Actual structure

The structure was the canopy located in the south of the Pavilion. It comprises of truss beams

and columns, which support the metal roof sheeting that is placed on top of it.

Figure 104: Canopy structural system (Wood & Grieve Engineers )

Identifying structural elements

As seen in the diagram above, the main structural elements are a truss beam and columns. The

truss beams bear the load of the metal roof structure that is laid on top and transfers these to the

columns. The columns then transfer the loads to the ground. A truss beam was used as it will

provide multiple load paths.

Figure 105: Load path diagram (Wood & Grieve Engineers )

Truss beam which

bears load of roof

structure

Columns transfer the loads from

the truss beam to the ground

Column transfers load

from a wide area to a

smaller point

89

Materials

The truss system is constructed with steel and has external timber panels and plywood cladding.

Steel was used for the main structural system as it is good in both compression and tension,

which is needed in a beam. It is also used for columns because it is good in compression.

Figure 106: Part of canopy detail section (Cox Architecture, 2014)

Figure 107: Part of canopy detail section (Cox Architecture, 2014)

External plywood

cladding

External timber panels

Structural

joint 1

Metal roof sheeting

External plywood

cladding

Structural

joint 2

Structural joint 3

Metal roof sheeting

Steel structural

system

90

Figure 108: Part of canopy detail section (Cox Architecture, 2014)

Structural joints

The joints that were used to connect the members to each other and to the ground were all fixed

joints, which were needed to prevent rotation and translation of the structural members, which

would have resulted in lateral instability.

Figure 109: Structural joint 1 (Cox Architecture, 2014)

(Cox

Architecture,

2014)

Structural

joint 4

External plywood cladding

Metal roof

decking

Metal roof decking

[Type a quote from the document

or the summary of an interesting

point. You can position the text

box anywhere in the document.

Use the Drawing Tools tab to

change the formatting of the pull

quote text box.]

End cap to match metal roof

decking

Steel angle to edge of

cladding

[Type a quote from the document

or the summary of an interesting

point. You can position the text

box anywhere in the document.

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External timber

panel

91

Figure 110: Structural joint 2 (Cox Architecture, 2014)

Figure 111: Structural joint 3 (Cox Architecture, 2014)

Figure 112: Structural joint 4 (Cox Architecture, 2014)

External plywood

cladding

Brass ceiling trim to mitre joint

External timber

panel

Steel base angle fixed to concrete

slab, paint to expose structural steel

Brass ceiling trim to mitre joint

External timber

panel

92

Materials used in model

As our section comprised of trusses, and columns, we decided to use 1.5mm sheets of balsa

wood cut into strips that were 2.5mm in width as they would facilitate the process of making

these structures.

Process

We started by assembling the individual trusses first, which were found on the structural drawing

number S04.01. As the drawings were on a scale of 1:100 on A1 paper, they were multiplied by

10 in order to get dimensions that would be at a scale of 1:20.

Figure 113: Truss CT2

Figure 114: Truss CT6

Balsa wood members have been

connected using UHU glue to form

fixed joints that do not undergo

rotation or translation

Signs of failure can be observed –

members started to snap as they

were too thin, and had to be fixed

93

Figure 115: Truss CT5

The individual trusses were then put together as shown in the structural drawing S03.02 which

indicated how they were all supposed to be put together. They were joined together with UHU

glue, which formed fixed joints.

Figure 116: Joining truss CT8 and CT9

Column at the end of the truss was

too thin – had to be removed later

Truss CT8

Truss CT9

Beam that connects

the two trusses

Column which transfers loads to

the ground

94

Figure 117: Part of roof structure

Figure 118: Completed roof structure

Although we managed to finish the roof structure, we were unable to turn it over as the structure

could not stand without support, as the thin members were not strong enough to bear the load of

the entire structure. They represented long columns which buckled due to a compression force

that was too large compared to their cross section.

Roof structure with

most of the trusses

Member sizes of columns were

very thin, made it difficult for

structure to stand without support

95

Comparison with other models

Figure 119: Model of another roof system

The other roof system constructed was more stable than our model due to the thicker columns,

which meant that they were able to bear the load of the truss beam. Therefore, the whole

structural system was able to stand without support. The members were also fixed together with

masking tape whereas ours were fixed with glue.

Figure 120: Model of enclosure system

The main structural elements in this model are columns, panels and slabs as this forms an

enclosure system. As there were no thin members in this system, materials like rigifoam and box

board were used, and materials like balsa wood strips were not needed.

Fixed joints between

members with masking tape [Type a quote from the document

or the summary of an interesting

point. You can position the text

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Thicker members

compared to our

model

Box board and rigifoam used to

form enclosure system

96

Week 6 – Spanning and Enclosing Space

Knowledge Maps

Structural concepts

Figure 121: Trusses (Ching, 2008)

97

Figure 122: Plates and grids (Ching, 2008)

98

Construction systems

Figure 123: Roof types (Newton, 2014) (Ching, 2008)

99

Figure 124: Types of roofs (materials) (Ching, 2008) (Newton, 2014)

100

Materials Figure 125: Introduction to metals (Newton, 2014)

101

Figure 126: Properties of metals (Newton, 2014)

102

Figure 127: Ferrous metals (Newton, 2014)

Figure 128: Uses of non-ferrous metals (Newton, W06_m3 Non ferrous Metals, 2014)

103

Case study in E Learnings Figure 129: Spanning Spaces (Lewis, 2014)

104

Theatre Session

Figure 130: Concepts of successful development

105

Studio Report

Knowledge Maps of Site Visit Presentations Figure 131: Yarraville Site

106

Figure 132: North Melbourne Site

107

Week 7 – Detailing Strategies 1

Knowledge maps

Structural concepts

Figure 133: Arches, Domes and Shells (Ching, 2008)

108

Construction systems

Figure 134: Detailing for moisture (Newton, 2014)(Ching, 2008)

109

Figure 135: Detailing for heat (Ching, 2008) (Newton, 2014)

110

Materials

Figure 136: Rubber (Newton, 2014)

111

Figure 137: Properties of rubber (Newton, 2014)

112

Figure 138: Plastics (Newton, 2014)

113

Figure 139: Properties of plastic (Newton, 2014)

114

Figure 140: Paints (Newton, 2014)

Figure 141: Properties of paint (Newton, 2014)

115

Week 8 - Openings

Knowledge Maps

Structural concepts

Figure 142: Geometry and moment of inertia (Ching, 2008)

Figure 143: Deformation (Ching, 2008)

116

Construction Systems

Figure 144: Door elements (Ching, 2008)

117

Figure 145: Door types (Ching, 2008)

118

Figure 146: Door types (materials) (Newton, 2014)

119

Figure 147: Window elements (Ching, 2008)

120

Figure 148: Window types (Ching, 2008)

121

Figure 149: Window types (materials) (Ching, 2008)

122

Figure 150: Glazed curtain walls (Ching, 2008)

123

Materials

Figure 151: Glass components (Newton, 2014)

124

Figure 152: Properties of glass (Newton, 2014)

125

Figure 153: Glass types and manufacturing (Newton, 2014)

126

Figure 154: Other types of glass and products (Newton, 2014)

127

Case Study from E Learnings Figure 155: Glass skins (Sadar, 2014)

128

Studio Report The class was given various areas of the Oval Pavilion to draw at a 1:1 scale on A1 paper. I was assigned

drawing 7 which was a section of a service area in the façade details of the Oval Pavilion. As it is located

in close proximity to the wet area, it functions as a drainage system allowing the exit of moisture through

a cavity flashing. The water then leaves through the weep hole in the brick face.

As this was a section of the building, it could not be completely observed from the outside of the Pavilion.

The only visible element of the drawing was the brick face, shown in figure 156, which is why many

photos were not taken.

Figure 156: Brick face of section

Figure 157: Section of service area

Face brickwork

Weep holes

Gap between

brick wall and

ground where

structural steel

angle is

129

This service section is located in the North Function wall. The location of the wet area in relation to the

service section can be seen in Figure 158 and 159.

Figure 158: Part of the north Function Wall (Cox Architecture, 2014)

130

Figure 159: Service section represented in the north function wall on section 2 of Pavilion (Cox Architecture, 2014)

131

An annotated copy of the diagram is shown in Figure 160.

Figure 160: Annotated diagram of section

Face blockwork

(concrete)

Face brickwork

Vapour barrier

Weep holes as required

Cavity flashing

Paint to expose

structural steel to

shelf angle

As this section is located within close proximity to a wet area, the vapour barrier, or the vapour diffusion retarder

was introduced to regulate moisture flow at the molecular level. This moisture control function happens wherever

the VDR is used in the structure. Unlike an air infiltration barrier, the VDR does not have to be continuous,

sealed, or free of holes; a perforation in a VDR simply allows more vapor diffusion in that area compared with

other areas where vapor diffusion is less restrictive (EcoBuilding Pulse, 2009), which explains why the barrier is

indicated using dashed lines.

132

Week 9 – Detailing Strategies 2

Knowledge Maps

Structural concepts

Figure 161: Stress and Structural Members (Ching, 2008)

Figure 162: Structural joints (Ching, 2008)

133

Figure 163: Movement joints (Ching, 2008)

134

Construction systems

Figure 164: Construction detailing (Newton, 2014) (Ching, 2008)

135

Materials Figure 165: Comparing monolithic and composite materials (Newton, 2014)

136

Figure 166: Composite materials (Newton, 2014)

Figure 167: Fibre Glass (Newton, 2014)

137

Figure 168: Aluminium sheet composites (Newton, 2014)

Figure 169: Timber composites (Newton, 2014)

138

Figure 170: Fibre reinforced polymers (Newton, 2014)

139

Figure 171: Finish work

140

Studio Report The site visited was the Watersun site at the corner of Queensbury Street and Dryburgh Street in North

Melbourne. The site consisted of apartments and townhouses which were situated in various areas of the

building.

Location 1 – Basement

The basement of the building was to be used as a car park. The whole area was constructed using

concrete, as it is a load bearing material, and is needed to withstand the loads of the building along with

the loads of the cars that will be parked there.

Retaining walls

As these walls need to withstand ground pressure which acts upon it, they were made of concrete blocks

that were corefilled and reinforced with steel. As concrete is strong in compression but weak in tension,

adding steel in the form of a mesh or bars, which is strong in tension, will improve the structural

performance of concrete (Newton, 2014). This forms a composite material.

Figure 172: Concrete retaining wall

As this section of the building is underground, waterproofing is required to prevent efflorescence taking

place, which will deteriorate the aesthetic quality and structural performance of the concrete. All external

walls are therefore waterproofed using corrugated drip systems.

Concrete retaining wall –

core filled blockwork with

steel reinforcement

141

Columns

Concrete columns were used in the basement to support the loads from the rest of the building. These

columns were cast in situ, where the formwork and reinforcement was first assembled and the concrete

was poured from the top. Concrete was chosen as a material for columns because it is good in

compression. Reinforcement was added to improve the structural performance of concrete, in the same

manner as the blockwork.

Figure 173: Concrete columns Figure 174: Column formwork

Once the concrete is poured, it is then vibrated (generally using poker vibrators) to remove air

bubbles. The formwork may usually be removed the day after the concrete is cast, taking care not

to damage the surface and corners of the concrete (The Concrete Society, n.d.)

In situ load bearing

concrete columns Reinforcement – steel

bars which project

from the ground

Yokes – clamping devices for keeping

column forms and the tops of wall

forms from spreading under the fluid

pressure of concrete

Concrete is poured

from the top

142

Figure 175: Load path diagram of concrete columns

Ceiling

The concrete ceiling was also cast on site, where concrete was poured into formwork sheets, which are

indicated by the lines on the ceiling shown below. As the electrical work was done in the formwork, it

needs to be completed before the concrete is poured.

Figure 176: In situ concrete ceiling

In situ concrete ceiling,

where lines indicate

placement of formwork

Loads from the

building are

transferred to the

foundations

through concrete

columns

143

Service systems

The service systems that are found in the basement are pipes for stormwater drainage, gas and fire service

systems. Sprinklers are included in this category. Suspended cable trays are included to support cables.

Figure 177: Cable trays

Suspended cable tray used to support

cables

144

Location 2 – Roof

Roof details

The second location in the building was the roof, which was a flat roof made out of reinforced concrete.

As it is a flat roof, it requires a continuous membrane roofing material, which was done through two

layers of waterproof coating and a layer of screed. The roof also consisted of an upturned edge beam to

form a parapet wall.

Figure 178: Concrete roof with parapet wall

The roof is also made from in situ concrete, where the formwork has been laid in place and the concrete is

poured using a bubble crane. The bubble crane also assembled the precast concrete panels that formed the

exterior walls of the building. The panels were precast because casting panels in situ will be difficult and

time consuming. As the panels below the concrete slab that forms the roof are load bearing, as will be

discussed later, they will be connected to the roof as shown below.

Figure 179: Connection between slab and bearing panel (Ching, 2008)

Parapet wall

formed by

upturned edge

beam

High density plastic bearing strip

Steel dowel to

connect slab to

panel Parapet wall

Connection is a fixed

joint – maintains

angular relationship

between joined

elements and restricts

rotation and translation

(Ching, 2008), which is

what is needed when

connecting a slab and a

panel.

145

Lightwells

In order to allow natural light into the building, lightwells are constructed on the roof, where the light is

used reaches the apartments and townhouses. This method is beneficial as it reduces the need for

electrical lighting.

Figure 180: Lightwells

Figure 181: Section of lightwell through the building

Lightwell to allow

natural light into

building

Apartments Apartments

Townhouses Townhouses

Section of one lightwell

through building – provides

natural light for all floors

Exterior concrete panels

146

Water escape from the roof

In order to allow water to leave the roof, a downpipe was fitted in the slit shown in the parapet wall below

and sealed in place with concrete. Therefore, the roof will be slightly sloped in order to facilitate the

movement of water towards this pipe.

Figure 182: Section showing downpipe

Figure 183: Section showing flow of water to downpipe

Downpipe which has

been sealed in place

with concrete

Roof slab will be at

a slight angle to

allow movement of

water towards the

downpipe

Downpipe which carries

water away from roof –

prevents penetration into

building

147

Considerations (control joints)

The parapet wall in the roof also had small slits in them, which may be possible areas for control joints to

accommodate the shrinking of concrete. These slits may be fitted with corking and a backrod which will

compress due to shrinkage.

Figure 184: Grooves in parapet wall

Figure 185: Control joint (Ching, 2008) Figure 186: Control joint once expanded (Ching,2008)

Grooves in parapet wall

for control joints

Control joint as installed

Control joint expands due to shrinking

of concrete

148

Location 3 – Apartment section

Walls

The walls in the apartment areas consist of a metal studwork framing system that comprises of

lightweight steel columns. They are used in both exterior loadbearing curtain walls and in nonloadbearing

partition walls within the building (Ching, 2008). The exterior walls transfer the loads of the roof to the

foundations and the steel frame

The steel studs are made from lightweight channel studs.

Figure 187: Channel studs (Ching, 2008)

Figure 103: Metal studwork

Metal studwork in a

partition wall – to be

plastered

Metal studwork in

external load bearing wall

– needed as a frame for

the plaster

Light gauge steel studs are

prepunched to allow piping,

wiring and bracing to pass

through

149

Precast concrete panels and in-situ ceiling

As mentioned before, the panels which formed the exterior walls were pre-cast and lifted into place using

a bubble crane. In Figure 105, the individual panels can be seen in the apartment section. These panels

will be load bearing, and may have metal studwork assembled later to facilitate plastering.

Figure 188: Precast concrete panels

As mentioned before, the roof was formed from in-situ concrete which was poured using a bubble crane.

The evidence of formwork can be seen in the image below.

Figure 189: Formwork for in-situ roof/ceiling

Individual concrete panels

Formwork for the ceiling made

evident through the lines visible in the

concrete slab

150

Connections

Figure 190: Connections between steel members (Ching, 2008)

Figure 191: Connection between member and wall

In both instances, they will be fixed joints as rotation and translation of the two elements will need to be

restricted in order to ensure structural stability.

Steel members

(channel studs)

The steel columns are connected to the foundation with an angle

clip which welded to the stud and then bolted to the foundation

In this image, the metal clip appears to

have been bolted into the concrete

wall and then connected to the steel

column

151

Location 4 – Townhouse section

There are two townhouse levels that are connected by a set of stairs for which the formwork is shown

below. This was constructed using timber.

Figure 192: Timber formwork for stairs

Figure 193: Metal stud framing in apartment

Timber formwork for stairs

leading to upper level

townhouse

As seen with the apartments, the concrete walls are loadbearing with a metal stud frame which will then be

plastered over.

Metal stud framing. As with the stud

framing before, there are holes within

the columns for services

152

Week 10 – When things go wrong

Knowledge Maps

Structural concepts Figure 194: Lateral supports (Newton, 2014)

153

Figure 195: Dynamic loads (Ching, 2008)

154

Construction systems Figure 196: Collapses and failures (Ashford, 2014)

155

Materials Figure 197: Heroes and Culprits (Hes, 2014)

156

Figure 198: Building Materials (Ching, 2008)

157

Figure 199: Building Materials (Ching, 2008)

158

Figure 200: The Statue of Liberty - A tale of corrosion (Cameron, 2014)

159

Studio Report For this studio session, we went to the Oval Pavilion and examined our detail and used it to form

the 3D drawings of the detail, which linked the 2D drawing with what was seen on site. The only

elements that were visible were the brick face, the weep holes and the structural steel.

Figure 201: Section on site

Figure 202: Close-up of detail

Brick face

visible

Weep holes to allow

moisture to leave

Gap between brick and

ground as indicated in the

section drawing. Structural

steel visible inside the gap.

160

Detailing decisions and purpose

The service area is in close proximity to a wet area, so the detailing decisions reflect the

waterproofing needed. There is a gap between the concrete wall and the visible brick face within

which there is a cavity flashing, which is put there to allow water from the wet area to leave

through gravity through the weephole.

Figure 203: Detailing decisions (Cox Architecture, 2014)

According to the detail drawings, the steel angle is connected to the flashing. The steel has been

painted instead of galvanized, which may have been done to save costs. The vapour barrier has

been placed on top of the concrete to control the entry of moisture into the structure.

161

Waterproofing elements

The main waterproofing elements in this section are a vapour barrier, a cavity flashing and weep

holes. As mentioned in the studio report of Week 8, the vapour barrier is used to prevent the

entry of moisture, the cavity flashing removes moisture through gravity, which exits through the

weep holes.

Why and where things go wrong

As the structure is located in a wet area, the brick will absorb a lot of moisture. Due to this, the

steel below the cavity flashing has begun to show signs of corrosion as it is extremely close to

the moisture containing bricks. The steel will also absorb moisture from the surrounding soil

Figure 204: Corrosion in structural steel

Economic implications

If the steel continues to corrode, it will have to be replaced which will be an expensive task. If

steel is to be placed next to bricks or in contact with the ground, it needs to be galvanized to

prevent corrosion. Other ways of preventing the steel from corroding is to have it at a higher

height above the ground so that it is in less contact with moisture.

Steel showing signs of corrosion

162

Glossary of Terms Week 1

Beam – rigid structural members designed to carry and transfer transverse loads across space to

supporting elements. The noncurrent pattern of forces subjects a beam to compression and

tension, which must be resisted by the internal strength of the material (Ching, 2008)

Compression forces – an external load pushing on a structural member, resulting on the

shortening of the material (Newton, 2014)

Load path – the route a load takes through a structural system to reach the ground (Ching, 2008)

Masonry – building with units of various natural or manufactured products, usually with the use

of mortar as a bonding agent (Ching, 2008)

Point load– A concentrated load in a specific position on a structural member (WebFinance Inc,

2014)

Reaction force – equal and opposite forces that resist an applied force (Ching, 2008)

Week 2

Brace - A diagonal tie that interconnects scaffold members (WebFinance Inc, 2014)

Columns – rigid, relatively slender structural members designed primarily to support axial

compressive loads applied to the ends of the members (Ching, 2008)

Frame – an assembly of vertical and horizontal structural members (WebFinance Inc, 2014)

Stability – the measure of the ability of a structure to withstand overturning, sliding, buckling or

collapsing (WebFinance Inc, 2014)

Structural joints – connectors used to joint structural elements (Ching, 2008)

Tension - external load pulling on a structural member, causing the material to elongate

(Newton, 2014)

163

Week 3

Moment - tendency of a force to produce rotation of a body about a point or line, equal in

magnitude to the product of the force and the moment arm and acting in a clockwise or

anticlockwise direction (Ching, 2008)

Figure 205: Moment (Ching, 2008)

Retaining wall – structure used to sustain the pressure of the earth behind it (WebFinance Inc,

2014)

Figure 206: Retaining wall (Ching, 2008)

164

Pad footings – individual spread footings supporting freestanding columns and piers (Ching,

2008)

Figure 207: Pad footing (Ching, 2008)

Slab on ground – a concrete slab supported directly by the earth and thickened to carry wall and

column loads from an economical foundation and floor system (Ching, 2008)

Figure 208: Slab on ground (Ching, 2008)

165

Strip footings – continuous spread footings of foundation walls (Ching, 2008)

Figure 209: Strip footing (Ching, 2008)

Substructure – lowest division of the building constructed partially or wholly below the ground.

Primary function is to support and anchor the superstructure above and transmit its loads to the

earth. (Ching, 2008)

Figure 210: Substructure (Ching, 2008)

Week 4

Concrete plank - A hollow-core or solid, flat beam used for floor or roof decking. Concrete

planks are usually precast and pre-stressed (WebFinance Inc, 2014)

166

Girder - A large principal beam of steel, reinforced concrete, timber, or a combination of these,

used to support other structural members at isolated points along its length (WebFinance Inc,

2014).

Figure 211: Girder (Ching, 2008)

Joist - Parallel beams of timber concrete, or steel used to support floor and ceiling systems

(WebFinance Inc, 2014)

Figure 212: Joist (WebFinance Inc, 2014)

167

Spacing – repeating distance between a series of like or similar elements (Newton, 2014)

Figure 213: Spacing (Newton, 2014)

Span – distance measured between two structural supports (Newton, 2014)

Figure 214: Span (Newton, 2014)

Steel decking – corrugated to increase its stiffness and spanning capability. Decking serves as a

working platform during construction and as formwork for an in situ concrete slab (WebFinance

Inc, 2014).

Figure 215: Steel decking (WebFinance Inc, 2014)

168

Week 5

Axial load - The longitudinal force acting on a structural member (WebFinance Inc, 2014).

Figure 216: Axial load (Ching, 2008)

Buckling – the sudden lateral or torsional inability of a slender structural member induced by the

action of an axial load before the yield stress of the material is reached

Figure 217: Buckling (Ching, 2008)

169

Lintel - A horizontal supporting member, installed above an opening such as a window or

a door, that serves to support the load of the wall above it (WebFinance Inc, 2014).

Figure 218: Lintel (WebFinance Inc, 2014)

Noggings – Members placed in rows holding together the long thin members in stud framing

together in order to prevent them from buckling (Newton, 2014)

Figure 219: Noggings (Ching, 2008)

Seasoned timber - Timber that is not green, having a moisture content of 19% or less, and is air-

or kiln-dried.

170

Stud - A framing member, designed to be used in framing walls. Studs are most often 2" x 4",

but 2" x 3", 2" x 6" and other sizes are also included in the stud category. Studs may be of

timber, steel, or composite material (WebFinance Inc, 2014).

Figure 220: Stud (Ching, 2008)

Week 6

Alloy – a mixture of two or more metals (Newton, 2014)

Cantilever – created when a structural member is supported only at one end. The function of a

cantilever is to carry loads along the length of a member and transfer these loads to the support

(Newton, 2014)

Figure 221: Cantilever (Ching, 2008)

171

Eave - the portions of a roof that project beyond the exterior walls of a building (WebFinance

Inc, 2014)

Figure 222: Eave (WebFinance Inc, 2014)

Portal frame – a series of braced rigid frames with purlins for the roof and girts for the walls.

The walls are usually finished with sheet metal (Newton, 2014)

Figure 223: Portal frame (Ching, 2008)

172

Purlin - One of several horizontal structural members that support roof loads and transfer them

to roof beams

Figure 224: Purlin (WebFinance Inc, 2014)

Rafter – a series of sloping parallel beams used to support a roof covering (WebFinance Inc,

2014)

Figure 225: Rafter (WebFinance Inc, 2014)

Soffit - The underside of a part or member of a structure, such as a beam, stairway, or arch.

(WebFinance Inc, 2014)

Figure 226: Soffit (WebFinance Inc, 2014)

173

Top chord – the upper section of a truss (WebFinance Inc, 2014)

Figure 227: Top chord (Ching, 2008)

Week 7

Drip - A groove in the underside of a projection, such as a windowsill, that prevents water

from running back into the building wall (WebFinance Inc, 2014).

Figure 228: Drip (Ching, 2008)

Down pipe – pipe that takes excess water from a roof to a storm water sewer (Ching, 2008)

174

Flashing – thin continuous piece of material installed to prevent passage of water into a structure

from an angle or joint. The upturned edges and sloping surfaces use gravity to lead water to the

outside

Figure 229: Flashing (WebFinance Inc, 2014)

Gutter - A shallow channel positioned just below and following along the eaves of a building for

the purpose of collecting and diverting water from a roof (WebFinance Inc, 2014).

Figure 230: Gutter (WebFinance Inc, 2014)

Insulation - material used to reduce the effects of heat, cold, or sound (WebFinance Inc, 2014)

Parapet – the part of a wall that extends above roof level (WebFinance Inc, 2014).

Figure 231: Parapet (Ching, 2008)

175

Sealant - an impervious substance used to fill joints or cracks in concrete or mortar, or to

exclude water and solid matter from any joints (WebFinance Inc, 2014).

Figure 232: Sealant (Ching, 2008)

Vapour barrier - material used to prevent the passage of vapor or moisture into a structure or

another material, thus preventing condensation within them (WebFinance Inc, 2014)

Figure 233: Vapour barrier (WebFinance Inc, 2014)

176

Week 8

Deflection – the perpendicular distance a spanning member deviates from a true course under

transverse loading, increasing with load and span, and decreasing with an increase in the moment

of inertia of the section or the elasticity of the material (Ching, 2008)

Figure 234: Deflection (Ching, 2008)

Door Furniture – the parts of the door including the rough opening, head, jamb, stop, door

hardware and architrave (Ching, 2008)

Moment of inertia – the sum of the products of each element of an area and the square of its

distance from a coplanar axis of rotation. It is a geometric property that indicates how the cross

sectional area of a structural member is distributed and does not reflect the intrinsic physical

properties of a material (Ching, 2008)

Shear force - The algebraic sum of all the tangential forces acting on either side of the section at

a particular location in a flexural member (WebFinance Inc, 2014)

Figure 235: Shear force (Ching, 2008)

177

Stress - Intensity of internal force exerted by either of two adjacent parts of a body on the other

across an imagined plane of separation. When the forces are parallel to the plane, the

stress is called shear stress; when the forces are normal to the plane, the stress is called normal

stress; when the normal stress is directed toward the part on which it acts it is called compressive

stress; when it is directed away from the part on which it acts it is called tensile stress

(WebFinance Inc, 2014)

Figure 236: Stress (Ching, 2008)

Window sash – the fixed or movable framework of a window in which panes of glass are set. Its

section profile varies with material, manufacturer and type of operation (Ching, 2008).

Figure 237: Window sash (WebFinance Inc, 2014)

178

Week 9

Composite beam - A beam combining different materials to work as a single unit, such

as structural steel and concrete or cast-in-place and precast concrete (WebFinance Inc, 2014)

Figure 238: Composite beam (WebFinance Inc, 2014)

Cornice - An ornamental molding of wood or plaster that encircles a room just below the ceiling

(WebFinance Inc, 2014)

Figure 239: Cornice (WebFinance Inc, 2014)

Sandwich panel - A panel formed by bonding two thin facings to a thick, and usually

lightweight, core. Typical facing materials include plywood, single veneers, hardboard, plastics,

laminates, and various metals, such as aluminum or stainless steel. Typical core materials include

plastic foam sheets, rubber, and formed honeycombs of paper, metal, or cloth (WebFinance Inc,

2014)

179

Skirting – A corner block where a base and vertical framing meet (WebFinance Inc, 2014)

Figure 240: Skirting

Week 10

Braced Frame - a wooden structural framing system in which all vertical members, except

for corner posts, extend for one floor only. The corner posts are braced to the sill and plates

(WebFinance Inc, 2014)

Figure 241: Braced Frame (Ching, 2008)

Corrosion - The oxidation of a metal or other material by exposure to chemical or

electrochemical action such as rust (WebFinance Inc, 2014)

Defect - Any condition or characteristic that detracts from the appearance, strength, or durability

of an object (WebFinance Inc, 2014)

180

Fascia - A board used on the outside vertical face of a cornice (WebFinance Inc, 2014)

Figure 242: Fascia (WebFinance Inc, 2014)

IEQ - An important criterion for green, or sustainable, building design, this refers to

general overall building occupant comfort. Includes humidity, ventilation and air circulation,

acoustics, and lighting (WebFinance Inc, 2014)

Lifecycle - A term often used to describe the period of time that a building or material can be

expected to actively and adequately serve its intended function (WebFinance Inc, 2014)

Shear wall - A wall portion of a structural frame intended to resist lateral forces, such as

earthquake, wind, and blast, acting in the plane or parallel to the plane of the wall (WebFinance

Inc, 2014)

Figure 243: Shear wall (Ching, 2008)

181

Soft storey – has lateral stiffness or strength significantly less than the stories above. Deflects

considerably under seismic loads and will collapse while other floors remain intact, which leads

to the collapse of the whole building.

Figure 244: Soft storey (Ching, 2008)

.

Soft storey

182

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187

Appendix

Construction Workshop

At the construction workshop, we were divided into groups and told to construct a structure that

spans 1000mm.

Materials and tools used

2 boards of plywood 42m x 19mm x 2.4m

2 boards of pine 1200 x 42 x 18

Hammer

Screws

Nails

Saw

Drill

Below is a diagram of our idea of what we wanted the structure to look like.

Figure 245: Intended structure

We used the thicker pine for the whole structural system and used the thinner plywood for

bracing so that the structure will be more stable.

188

Building the structure

The pine was cut into two equal lengths to form the two sides of the triangle. We used the second

piece of pine as the base, and then the remaining pieces from the pine to support the base.

Figure 246: Sides of the triangle

Figure 247: Structure

Pieces of pine for the sides of

the triangle. They were cut at

an angle at the bottom to

facilitate attachment to the

base

Thicker pieces of

pine to form side of

triangle

Plywood to form

bracing, which will

cause the load needed to

break the structure to

increase by providing

structural stability

189

Joints

Screws were used to connect the sides of the triangle to the base and to each other, and smaller

nails were used to fix the bracing together.

Figure 248: Joints

Figure 249: Final structure

Fixed together with

screws and a hammer

Fixed together

with nails and a

hammer

Fixed together

with the drill and

screws

Pine for the

two sides of

the triangle

Plywood bracing

Base for the

structure

190

Structural performance and failure mechanisms

Our structure was able to take a maximum load of 240kg before a structural failure occurred. The

maximum deflection of the beam, on which the triangle was mounted, was 20mm. This large

deflection may have occurred because of the way the beam was placed.

Figure 250: Placement of beam

Beams are in this manner, as more surface are receives

the load, which may cause bending. This caused the large

deflection of 20mm

The failure in our structure was the joints, because at 240kg, the screws connecting the two pine

members together got detached. If the screws had been drilled down instead of being hammered,

in, it is possible that that may have resulted in a more stable structure.

If beams were placed in this

manner, less surface are receives

the load, which would have

minimized bending.

191

Analysis of key concepts

Span

All structures had to span 1m. If we had been able to decrease the span, there may have been less

deflection of the beam.

Figure 251: Deflection of beam with increased span Figure 252: Reduced span

Shape and strength

Our structure could have been improved by providing additional bracing using the plywood

boards. Because the load applied was directed right to the top of the triangle, additional bracing

would have helped withstand a larger amount of load and increased the strength of the structure

as a whole.

Figure 253: Shape and strength

Increased deflection with increased

span of beam

Reduced deflection with decreased

span of beam

192

Material efficiency

The fact that our structure was able to withstand 240kg indicates that the materials were efficient

in terms of forming a stable structure. However, if we had connected them properly and used the

remaining plywood to form bracing, the structural performance of the structure may have been

better.

Joints

All the joints in the structure were pinned joints, because the members would still be able to

rotate if they were not connected at two ends. The structure did fail due to the joints, which may

have been improved by making them with the drill instead of the hammer,

Figure 254: Pinned joint

Comparison with other structures

Figure 255: Team 1 structure

High deflection of

beam due to the way it

was placed (similar to

ours)

Beam has

cracked due to

load

Joints have failed in this section

(similarly to ours), indicates

that members were not joined

together properly

193

Figure 256: Team 3 structure

Figure 257: Team 4 structure

Comparison between working with actual construction materials as opposed to scale model making

materials

Examples of construction materials include brick, concrete and steel, and examples of materials

that can be used for scale model making are balsa wood, cardboard, pine and plywood.

Construction materials will have a much higher strength than scale model making materials, and

would need a substantially larger load to destroy structures made compared to model making

materials. However, they are more difficult to work with. Cutting concrete, for example, will be

more difficult than cutting balsa wood. As a result, it takes a longer period of time to build

structures with construction materials than with model making materials.

Joints came apart with increased

load – however, was not the

main cause of structure failing

Shape was

similar to ours

Beam splintered

with increased load -

showed failure of

materials

Beam cracked in the middle with

increasing load – may have been

able to withstand higher loads if

there was support underneath