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LivestockPest Management:A Training Manual forCommercial Pesticide Applicators(Category 1D)

Edward D. WalkerJulie A. Stachecki

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Preface This manual is intended to prepare pesticideapplicators in category 1D, livestock pest man-agement, for certification under the Act 451, Nat-ural Resources and Environmental Protection Act,Part 83, Pesticide Control, Sections 8301 to 8336.Read the introduction to this manual to under-stand your responsibilities for obtaining theappropriate credentials to apply pesticides andhow to use this manual.

AcknowledgementsThis manual, “Livestock Pest Management: ATraining Manual for Commercial Pesticide Appli-cators (Category 1D),” was produced by Michi-gan State University, Pesticide EducationProgram in conjunction with the MichiganDepartment of Agriculture. The following peopleare recognized for their reviews, suggestions andcontributions to this manual:

George Atkeson, Ionia county agriculture agent,Michigan State University Extension, Ionia, MI

Linda S. Mansfield, VMD, PhD, Microbiologist,laboratory chief, Animal Health Diagnostic Labo-ratory, College of Veterinary Medicine, MichiganState University, East Lansing, MI

Larry G. Olsen, PhD, pesticide education coordi-nator, Michigan State University Extension, EastLansing, MI

Pamela L. Ruegg, DVM, MPVM, Dip. ACVPM,ABVP-Dairy, previously Project Leader-Veteri-nary Extension, Michigan State University Exten-sion, East Lansing, MI

Barbara Straw, VMD, PhD, Ellis Swine Professor,Department of Large Animal Clinical Sciences,Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI

Paul Wylie, Allegan county agriculture and nat-ural resource agent, Michigan State UniversityExtension, Allegan, MI

Materials from several sources were used to com-pile this information with input from North Car-olina Extension, Key to Insect and Mites; FlyControl in Confined Livestock and Poultry Pro-duction, Ciba-Geigy Agricultural Division,Greensboro, NC; Managing Insect Problems onBeef Cattle, Kansas State University, Manhattan,KS; Poultry Pest Management for Pennsylvaniaand the Northeast, The Pennsylvania State Uni-versity, Extension Service, College of Agriculture,University Park, PA; Pest Management Principlesfor the Commercial Applicator: Animal Pest Con-trol, University of Wisconsin Extension, Madison,WI; and External Parasites of Poultry, PurdueUniversity Extension, West Lafayette, IN, pho-tographs from Harlan Ritchie, Michigan StateUniversity, East Lansing, MI, Ned Walker, Michi-gan State University, East Lansing, MI, VocationalEducation Publications, California PolytechnicState University San Luis Obispo, CA, Ralph Cle-venger, Santa Rosa, CA, and Lepp and Associates,Los Osis, CA.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

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Preface ...................................................................................................................................................................... 2

Acknowledgements ................................................................................................................................................. 2

Introduction .............................................................................................................................................................. 5

Chapter 1: Pests and Integrated Pest Management (IPM)Insects......................................................................................................................................................................... 8Mites and Ticks......................................................................................................................................................... 10Damage Caused by Insects and Insect-like Pests ................................................................................................ 10Integrated Pest Management for Animal Health ................................................................................................ 12Key to Insects and Mites of Medical and Veterinary Importance ..................................................................... 19

Chapter 2: Pesticides and Their Use For Livestock Pest ManagementPesticides ................................................................................................................................................................... 33Classes of Insecticides/Acaricides Used in Livestock Pest Management ....................................................... 34Formulations Used in Managing Animal Pests................................................................................................... 36Methods of Application and Application Equipment........................................................................................ 37Pesticide Use Around Animals .............................................................................................................................. 41Compatibility of Pesticides ..................................................................................................................................... 42

Chapter 3: Mites and TicksMites........................................................................................................................................................................... 45Management of Mites on Animals or in Animal Environments....................................................................... 52Ticks............................................................................................................................................................................ 54Detecting and Identifying Ticks ............................................................................................................................. 55Important Ticks Affecting Animal Health............................................................................................................ 56Management of Ticks on Animals ......................................................................................................................... 57

Chapter 4: Chewing and Sucking LiceChewing and Sucking Lice Comparisons............................................................................................................. 60Life Cycle of Lice ...................................................................................................................................................... 62Effects of Lice on Animal Health ........................................................................................................................... 62Managing Lice on Cattle and Other Livestock .................................................................................................... 65

Chapter 5: FleasFlea Life Cycle........................................................................................................................................................... 67Dog and Cat Fleas: Life History............................................................................................................................. 68Flea Management ..................................................................................................................................................... 69

Chapter 6: FliesBiting, Blood-feeding Flies...................................................................................................................................... 72Management of Blood-feeding Flies...................................................................................................................... 74Nuisance Flies........................................................................................................................................................... 75Management of Filth Flies ...................................................................................................................................... 78Bot Flies...................................................................................................................................................................... 79

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Chapter 7: Host Animals and Their PestsDairy Cattle ............................................................................................................................................................... 83Confined Cattle......................................................................................................................................................... 85Range and Pasture Cattle ........................................................................................................................................ 86Swine.......................................................................................................................................................................... 86Sheep and Goats ....................................................................................................................................................... 87Horses ........................................................................................................................................................................ 88Poultry ....................................................................................................................................................................... 90

Answer Key for Review Questions ...................................................................................................................... 92

Glossary .................................................................................................................................................................... 95

Appendix A: Convenient Conversion Factors ..................................................................................................... 111

Appendix B: Michigan State University Extension Directory ......................................................................... 115

Appendix C: Michigan Department of Agriculture Directory ......................................................................... 117

Michigan Department of Environmental Quality–Environmental Response Division .......... 118

Michigan Groundwater and Fresh Water Protection Act: Sources of information and assistance ....................................................................................... 119

Pesticide Emergency Information ........................................................................................................................ 121

INTRODUCTION

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This manual presents basic pest, pest manage-ment and pesticide handling information for per-sons who apply pesticides on animals or in placeswhere animals are kept – livestock pest manage-ment, category 1D. For purposes of this manual,“livestock” includes poultry when used in gen-eral terms.

Pesticides are used by many people for manydifferent purposes. Pesticides protect humans,food and non-food crops, homes, pets, livestockand keep various industrial processes pest-freeand functioning efficiently. To better protect theenvironment and human health by assuring thesafe use and application of pesticides, the Michi-gan Department of Agriculture (MDA) adminis-ters the certification and registration program forpesticide applicators. Certification or registrationrequires obtaining the necessary knowledge topurchase and safely use pesticides.

There are numerous types of businesses, activi-ties and individuals that are subject to certifica-tion or registered technician status. Thefollowing is a list of pest control categoriesdefined in Regulation 636, part of Act 451, Part83, Pesticide Control:

(1A) Field Crops(1B) Vegetable Crops(1C) Fruit Crops(1D) Animal(2) Forest (2A) Wood Preservation(3A) Turfgrass (3B) Ornamental (Exterior tress, shrubs and

ground covers)(4) Seed Treatment(5) Aquatic (Lakes, ponds, streams, etc.)(5A) Swimming Pools(5B) Microbial (Cooling towers, air

washers, etc.)(6) Right-of-Way(7A) General Pest Management (Pests in, on or

around human dwellings, institutions, food handling establishments, etc.)

(7B) Wood Destroying Organisms(7C) Contractual Public Health(7D) Vertebrate (7E) Interiorscape (7F) Mosquito Management

(7G) Pest Management for Small Animals (companion animals)

(8) Public Health (9) Regulatory (10) Demonstration and Research

This manual presents basic pest, pest manage-ment and pesticide handling information for per-sons who apply pesticides on animals or in placeswhere animals are confined; Livestock Pest Man-agement, category (1D). This manual is notintended to provide all the information necessaryfor effective pest control with the use of pesticideslabeled for use on or around animals. Pesticideapplicators are expected to obtain up-to-dateinformation about recommended materials andmethods from labels, manufacturers, referencemanuals, Extension personnel, veterinarians andprofessional associations. The label carries impor-tant information about proper dilution rates, tim-ing, placement and precautions when usingpesticides for animal health reasons. Be sure tofollow all directions on pesticide labels. The labelis the law.

Suggestions for Studying This ManualThis manual, divided into seven chapters, is

designed to assist commercial applicators meetpesticide certification requirements. You mayalready know some of the material from yourexperience with pesticides. There are learningobjectives at the beginning of each chapter to helpyou identify what you should be able to accom-plish after reading the information. Self-helpquestions are included at the end of each chapter.These questions are to help you study and are notnecessarily the questions on the certificationexamination. If you have problems using themanual, please consult your county extensionagent, your supervisor or a representative of theMDA for help.

Some suggestions for studying the manual are:1. Find a place and time for study where you

will not be disturbed.2. Read the entire manual once to understand

the scope and the manner in which the material ispresented. A glossary at the back of the manualdefines some of the terms used in the chapters.

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3. Study one chapter of the manual at a time.Review the learning objectives for each chapter.These will help you identify important points inthe text. Consider underlining important points inthe manual or take written notes as you study thechapter.

4. Answer, in writing, the self-help questions atthe end of each chapter. These questions areintended to help you study and evaluate yourknowledge of the subject. They are an importantpart of your study.

5. Reread the entire manual once again whenyou have finished studying all of its sections.Review with care any sections that you feel youdo not fully understand.

This manual is intended to help you use pesti-cides effectively and safely when they are needed.We hope that you file it in a convenient place andreview it occasionally to keep the material freshin your mind.

CHAPTER 1

PESTS ANDINTEGRATED PEST MANAGEMENT (IPM)

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Livestock management – the domestication andconfinement of animals (and birds) – tends toincrease insect and mite pest problems. For bothhumane and economic considerations, it is theanimal manager’s challenge to avoid and coun-teract these problems.

Good management must be based on accurateinformation, including a thorough understandingof many interrelated items. The total livestock(including poultry) management system mustprovide for the following:

■ Financing. ■ Health care.■ Source of quality livestock. ■ Personnel.■ Shelter and spatial ■ Schedules.

arrangement.■ Nutrition.

This means, personnel and equipment must beprovided to accomplish the following activities:

■ Purchasing and marketing.■ Breeding and genetic management.■ Livestock handling (cages, pens, gates,

fences, scales, squeeze chutes, loadingchutes, alleyways, barns, etc.).

LEARNING OBJECTIVES:After you finish studying this chapter, you

should be able to:■ Explain the importance of correctly identify-

ing pests.■ Explain the importance of understanding the

life cycles and habits of pests.■ Name two physical characteristics that all

insects have in common.■ List the four primary types of insect mouth-

parts and give an example of an insect thathas each type.

■ Define “metamorphosis”.

■ Pasture and range management.■ Feed storage and handling.■ Water supply.■ Veterinary care and pest management.■ Pesticide storage, application and cleanup.■ Recordkeeping on most of the above.

Many of the items listed above have implica-tions for pest management. For example, the pur-chase of infested animals, overcrowding, poornutrition and inadequate manure handling allcontribute to serious insect and mite problems.Sloppy feed handling and overfilled wateringfacilities create fly-breeding environments. Poorlytrained or insufficient personnel may not detectproblems or make inappropriate or ill-timedattempts to solve them.

Successful pest management is the result ofavoiding or reducing opportunities for peststhrough overall management, combined withsanitation practices and wise pesticide use aimedat maintaining pest populations below economicinjury levels.

■ List other types of pests that resemble insectsor cause similar damage.

■ Understand how endoparasites and ectopar-asites are pests of animals.

■ Explain the factors you should considerwhen deciding whether control of a pest isnecessary.

■ Discuss the five steps of an integrated pestmanagement program.

■ List and give an example of techniques usedin pest management.

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Accurately identifying pests is extremelyimportant because different pests respond to dif-ferent types of management tactics. Failure toidentify the pest properly may result in wastedtime, money, chemicals and effort.

Each species of plant and animal can be identi-fied by its scientific name. Although most plantsand animals also have common names, the scien-tific naming system is universal — it assigns eachorganism one name to be used regardless ofwhere it is found. This naming system categorizesanimals based on their similarities: organismswith common characteristics are placed into largegroups, then subdivided into smaller groups andfinally given unique names.

In this chapter, you will learn to identify com-mon characteristics of insect and insect-like pestsof small animals. Examples of the types of animalinjury caused by these pests are discussed.

INSECTS All insects and related animals, such as mites

and ticks, belong to a large group (phylum) calledArthropoda. Members of this group are calledarthropods and have segmented bodies; seg-mented appendages, some of which are modifiedfor feeding; and a hard exoskeleton (exteriorskeleton). On the basis of common characteristics,arthropods are separated into smaller groupscalled classes. The common classes of arthropodsare Insecta, Arachnida, Crustacea, Chilopoda andDiplopoda. Most arthropod pests are insects orarachnids (mites or ticks from the class Arach-nida).

Insects have unique external features andundergo developmental processes unlike those ofother organisms in the animal kingdom. Correctidentification of pests and a knowledge of theircharacteristics, development and behavior arekeys to effective pest control.

Physical Characteristics of InsectsThese external characteristics set them

apart from other animals. Adult insects have bodies with three regions — head, thorax, andabdomen — and three pairs of jointed legs.

1. Head. The head contains one pair of anten-nae, eyes and mouthparts. Antennae containmany sensory receptors for smell, wind and tem-perature. The four general types of mouthpartsare chewing, piercing-sucking, sponging andsiphoning.

Chewing mouthparts have toothed jaws that biteand tear food. Cockroaches, grasshoppers, antsand beetles have chewing mouthparts.

Piercing-sucking mouthparts consist of a long,slender tube that penetrates plant or animal tis-sue to suck out fluids. True bugs, aphids, mos-quitoes and sucking lice have this mouth type. Sponging mouthparts are tubular, tongue-likestructures with a spongy tip to suck up liquids.This type of mouthpart is found on flies. Siphoning mouthparts form a long tube for suck-ing nectar. Butterflies and moths have this typeof mouth.

Head Thorax Abdomen

Types of mouthparts

EyeEye

Eye

Sponge

Eye

Sheath

Piercing stylets

Beak

Mandible

Chewing Siphoning

SpongingPiercing – Sucking

Antenna

2. Thorax. The thorax consists of three seg-ments with one pair of jointed legs per segment.If one pair of wings is present, they will be on thesecond segment. If two pairs of wings are present,they will be on segments two and three and arecalled forewings and hindwings. The forewingsare modified in some insect groups. Beetles haveshell-like forewings; grasshoppers have leatheryforewings. Forewings of true bugs are part mem-branous, while forewings of moths and butterfliesare membranous but covered with scales. Mosthindwings of insects are membranous.

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3. Abdomen. The abdomen has as many as 11segments, though 8 or fewer visible segments arecommon.

Insect Development and Metamorphosis

The series of events from egg to adult is calledthe insect’s life cycle. Life cycles vary amongspecies, and knowledge of the life cycle isabsolutely essential to apply correct and timelypest management procedures.

Most insect reproduction is sexual — that is, afemale’s egg cell develops only after union withthe male’s sperm cell. The females of many insectspecies lay eggs. Some insects have special modesof reproduction such as those that develop fromunfertilized eggs. The number of eggs producedby females varies from one egg to many thou-sands for some social insects.

A newly hatched insect differs in size and oftenin form from the parents. The change that takes

place before the young insect assumes the adultform is called metamorphosis. The degree ofchange varies widely. In some insects, it is slightand gradual; in others, it is abrupt and complete.

Insects fall into three groups according todegree of metamorphosis:

■ No metamorphosis. Body proportions andinternal organs of these primitive insectsremain similar after each molt. Examples:Collembola (springtails) and Thysanura (sil-verfish).

■ Gradual metamorphosis. Changes are slightand gradual. The young or nymphs resemblethe adults and feed in the same habitat, andwing development is external. Example:grasshoppers.

■ Complete metamorphosis. Drastic alterationsoccur as insects grow through the egg, lar-val, pupal (an inactive, resting stage) andadult stages. This classification includes themajority of insects, such as flies and fleas.

Gradual metamorphosis

Complete metamorphosis

Egg

Egg Larvae Pupa

Nymphs Adult

Adult

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MITES AND TICKSMites and ticks belong to the class Arachnida.

Though they are relatives of spiders, scorpionsand daddy longlegs, mites and ticks belong totheir own scientific grouping within this class,called the Acari (a-CAR-ee). Two features distin-guish mites and ticks from insects. Mites andticks have:

1. Four pairs of legs (insects have three pairs).2. Two major body units—the cephalothorax and

abdomen (insects have three body units —- head,thorax and abdomen).

Unlike insects, ticks and mites do not have seg-mented abdomens.

Mite Development The generalized mite life cycle begins when

mites mate and the females lay eggs. The eggshatch and six-legged larvae emerge. These larvaefeed and molt to become eight-legged nymphs.Later, after feeding, the nymphs molt and becomeadult male or female mites. This entire life cyclecan take as little as eight days to as long as fourweeks, depending on the species of mite and thetemperature and humidity.

Tick DevelopmentTick development starts with the egg stage, fol-

lowed by six-legged larvae, eight-legged nymphsand eight-legged adults. Hard ticks have only onenymphal instar (that is, one molt to the nymphstage, followed by a molt to the adult stage).Soft ticks may go through up to sevennymphal molts, depending on the species of tickand its life cycle.

DAMAGE CAUSED BY INSECTS ANDINSECT-LIKE PESTS

Insects, ticks and mites injure animals, plantsand structures in a variety of ways. The damageor discomfort of the host often provides clues tothe identity of the pest, as well as the fate of thehost (the organism affected by the insect). For example, hair loss (alopecia) under the eyes

and near or on the ears of young animals may bethe first recognizable symptoms of demodecticmange mites. Consult with a veterinarian for cor-rect diagnosis — sampling for burrowing mitesrequires a skin scraping. Scratching may besymptoms of fleas or ticks, and head shaking mayindicate the presence of ear mites.

Animals can be troubled with pests on theirbodies, in their bodies or in their environment.Many arthropods (spiders, mites and ticks) haveevolved to live in close association with animals,and some have become true pests of animals.Arthropods may use animals as hosts for food,hosts to lay their eggs in or on, sites for restingand for other uses.

Arthropods may be ecto- or endoparasites.Ectoparasites live on the outside of the body ofthe host (animal the pest is associated with) moreor less in permanent association. All the manyspecies of fleas are examples of ectoparasitesfound on bodies of wild or domestic animals.Even human beings can have ectoparasites suchas head lice, follicle mites and crab lice.

Arthropod pests that invade internal parts ofthe body are called endoparasites. Most endopar-asite infestations should be referred to veterinari-ans for treatment.

Arthropods can be pests of animals in severalways:

■ They may invade and infest the skin and tis-sues of animals, causing direct damage suchas hot spots (moist eczema) and physicalweakness.

■ Arthropods can cause blood loss and tissuedamage by blood feeding.

■ Infestation and blood feeding can open theskin to secondary infection by bacteria.

■ Blood-feeding can also cause anemia (weak-ness, lack of vitality due to blood loss or irondeficiency).

■ Some arthropods have venomous bites andstings or have body secretions that cause theanimal to have toxic or allergic reactions.

The direct damage and inflammatory reactionof animal skin to arthropod bites or body secre-tions is called dermatitis. Some animals developextreme allergies to insect bites, stings or secre-tions. This kind of allergic reaction is calledhypersensitivity. Veterinarians should be con-sulted to diagnose the cause of dermatitis. Oncethe cause is identified, the licensed veterinarytechnician, animal groomer, kennel manager orother trained animal pesticide applicator can beinvolved in treating the animal and controllingthe problem.

Tick

Tick

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Animals can be greatly annoyed by the pres-ence and activity of certain arthropods. For exam-ple, cattle will bunch up and put their loweredheads together to seek relief when “fly strike” issevere.

Many arthropods transmit disease-causingagents to animals, either by contact, body secre-tions or biting. For example, mosquitoes transmitviruses that cause encephalitis (inflammation ofthe brain) in horses, and ticks can transmit Lymedisease among animals and humans.

The arthropod pests of animals fit into manygroups or taxonomic categories. Table 1.1 liststhese groups and gives both common and scien-tific names with an example of each group. Thefollowing chapters discuss in detail how each ofthese groups affect agricultural animals, as wellas how to detect, identify and manage the arthro-pod pests.

Among these arthropods are arachnids (theclass Arachnida), including mites, ticks and poi-sonous spiders. Spiders will not be considered

further in this manual because they are not nor-mally pests of domesticated animals.

Among the insects (the class Insecta), theimportant pests of animals belong in the follow-ing groups:

■ Biting and non-biting flies.■ Invasive flies (flies whose maggots invade

and infest animal flesh).■ Chewing and sucking lice.■ Fleas.

Stinging wasps and ants sometimes bother ani-mals but will not be discussed in this manual.

The “key” at the end of this chapter, is an illus-trated guide to identifying arthropods of medicaland veterinary importance. To use the key, readthe choices given by each number and select thechoice that best describes the arthropod specimenyou are trying to identify. Some knowledge of thebody structure and life cycles of insects, ticks andmites is required to use this identification key. So,

Group Scientific Name Example

Class Arachnida

Mites Order Acari Scabies or itch mite(Sarcoptes scabei)

Ticks Order Acari American dog tick(Dermacentor variabilis)

Class Insecta

Biting flies Order Diptera Stable fly, dog fly(Stomoxys calcitrans),mosquito, black fly, horsefly, deer fly, horn fly,biting midges, sheep ked

Nonbiting flies Order Diptera House fly (Musca domestica),face fly,eye gnats, other filthflies (flies associated withunsanitary conditions)

Invasive flies Order Diptera Northern cattle grub(causing myiasis) (Hypoderma bovis)

Sucking lice Order Anoplura Hog louse(Haematopinus suis)

Chewing lice Order Mallophaga Cattle biting louse(Bovicola bovis)

Fleas Order Siphonaptera Cat flea(Ctenocephalides felis)

Table 1.1 Major groups of arthropods affecting animal health.

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it is an educational tool as well as an identifica-tion guide. Give it a try! You will not be requiredto use the key to answer questions on the Michi-gan Department of Agriculture pesticide certifica-tion exam. You will need to be able to identify thegeneral appearance of arthropod pests of animalsby looking at a drawing similar to those found inlater chapters, i.e., the difference between a miteand a flea.

INTEGRATED PEST MANAGEMENT FORANIMAL HEALTH

Agricultural animals (those used for produc-tion of food and fiber—livestock) and companionanimals (pets such as dogs and cats) may beaffected by arthropod pests. These pests oftenmust be managed, controlled or prevented toimprove the living conditions, health and well-being of animals and humans. The principles ofintegrated pest management (IPM) apply to theoperational practice of pest control for animals,whether the pests are actually on the animals orin the environment the animals occupy. IPM canbe defined as “the use of all appropriate and eco-nomical strategies to manage pests and theirdamage at acceptable levels with the least disrup-tion to the environment.”

Establishing an IPM program for pests of ani-mals follows the same five steps outlined formanaging any pest (weeds, diseases, etc.).

1. DetectionThe first step in an IPM program is pest detec-

tion. Detection requires thorough and regularmonitoring of animals for pest infestations orother signs and symptoms that indicate a pest ispresent on the animal or in the environmentwhere animals live. Observing an animal’s body,feces, living quarters, bedding, surroundings and

behavior will help you discover potential pestproblems. For example, if an animal is scratchingor chewing more than usual, this behavior maycause the owner to suspect fleas and, therefore, tosearch for fleas on the animal. More severe condi-tions require a veterinarian’s diagnosis of thehealth condition. The problem may be inhalantallergies or a secondary bacterial infection thatshould be treated only by a licensed veterinarian.

Animal health management requires frequentand routine monitoring. Frequent observationsallow for early pest detection. Early detection ofsmall pest populations may allow for more con-trol options. Some control measures may work onlimited numbers of pests but not on larger popu-lations. Early pest detection also reduces or pre-vents the discomfort that would be caused by thepest if its population were to increase. Neverattempt a diagnosis that should be made by a vet-erinarian. Always consult a veterinarian if youdon’t find or cannot identify the pest problem.

Two types of traps used for monitoring fly populations in the animals’ environment.

Inspect animals regularly for pest infestations.

Persons who handle animals should be trainedin correct handling and restraining techniques toavoid injury to the handler and the animal. Ani-mals are often apprehensive when confined or at

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veterinary clinics and should be handled withextreme caution. Animal aggression may becomeobvious in strange surroundings or the animalmay react unpredictably out of fear. Correct useof restraining holds and devices may benefit boththe animal and the handler. Inspecting an animalfor pests may be accomplished effectively withtwo persons—one handler-restrainer and theother as examiner.

3. Economical or Medical Significance After detecting and identifying of the pest, the

animal owner, farm operator, veterinarian or pestmanagement applicator must decide if the pest ispresent at an economically or medically signifi-cant level. Consult a veterinarian on medical con-ditions, such as dermatitis and its cause.

In agricultural settings involving livestock, it isoften difficult to establish an economic injurylevel above which pest damage occurs. Forinstance, owners may observe scratching, lickingor other behaviors and signs that the animals areirritated. These irritations may not cause anydirect or topical (skin surface) problems. But ifthe irritation persists it may cause the animalsenough stress to reduce milk or meat produc-tion—an indirect effect and an economic loss.Before the point of economic loss, the pest shouldbe controlled to relieve the stress.

For some animals, pest problems are often nottied to yield or economic loss but rather a percep-tion by the owner or manager that the animalsuffers from the presence and activities of apest. Animal owners or veterinarians may makemedical judgments on the basis of symptomscaused by pests. These judgments then are usedas a basis for pest management decisions.

4. Method SelectionAfter detecting and identifying a pest on an ani-

mal and determining that the pest is causingharm, select a method or methods for managingthe pest. Depending on the situation and thenature of the problem, pesticides may or may notbe required. Usually a combination of pest controlmethods results in the most effective pest man-agement. In any case, the methods should beeffective, practical, economical and environmen-tally sound. Consult with a licensed veterinarianbefore treating pregnant or lactating animals forflea or mite infestations. These animals or theiryoung may be negatively affected by a pesticidetreatment.

5. EvaluationAfter applying the chosen pest management

procedures, evaluate their effectiveness. Keepingrecords and evaluating pest control techniques isnecessary in a successful IPM program. Evalua-tion can include inspecting the animal and itspremises to determine the level of pest controlachieved and regular checks thereafter to deter-mine if the pest returns to unacceptable levels.

When inspecting animals for pests, have them properlyrestrained to protect both you and the animal.

Not all animals require firm restraining. Theamount of restraint needed depends upon theenvironment and the animal’s behavior. Animalbehavior varies greatly and handlers must learnto read the animal’s body language. Speak to theanimal initially in a soothing voice to preventstartling it. Talk to the animal when approachingit. If necessary, speak firmly to the animal. Verbalrestraint can be a useful supplement to the physi-cal restraint of animals. For best results, obtainanimal handling training from a professional toprotect yourself and the animal.

2. IdentificationAfter a possible pest has been detected, the sec-

ond step in an IPM program is to identify theorganism to determine whether it is indeed theorganism causing the discomfort or disorder. Theidentification of the problem, pest and/or theproblem the pest is causing the animal, such asdermatitis, should be made by a veterinarian.Correct pest identification allows the animal man-ager to gain information about its life cycle andbiology so management measures can be targetedat the pest’s susceptible life stage. To follow theexample of our animal’s scratching behavior, itwould not make sense to apply flea control mea-sures to alleviate itching symptoms if the animalactually has a scabies mite infestation or a dermalallergy.

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Techniques Used in Pest ManagementConsider all types of pest management strate-

gies that protect animals from arthropod pests.Combining several strategies achieves the mosteffective and efficient control. Integrated pestmanagement strategies include biological, cul-tural, mechanical, physical, chemical (pesticides),use of resistant breeds, sanitation in the animal’senvironment and legal quarantines to preventspread of pests.

Biological controls introduce, encourage and arti-ficially increase plants and animals that are para-sites or predators of pests. Biological controls aremost commonly used to manage insects, mitesand some weeds in agricultural or landscape set-tings. For instance, releasing parasitic wasps incombination with sanitation practices hasreduced the levels of filth flies in barnyards andstables. Nematode-trapping fungi have beenidentified recently as a means to control internalnematode parasites of cattle.

Cultural pest control includes maintaining overallgood health of the animals. A healthy animal tol-erates low levels of pests better than a weak orstressed animal. Animal diets should be well bal-anced and provided at consistent intervals and inappropriate portions. If animals are kept indoors,provide adequate ventilation to prevent heatstress or the spread of diseases. Provide outdooranimals shelter, especially during severe weather.Make sure that population densities are propor-tional to available space, food supply and water.Overcrowding may encourage pest outbreaks,whether in a kennel, barn or pasture setting.Proper and routine grooming reduces the oppor-tunity for pests to become established.

Animal ailments can be influenced by thespecies, diet, living conditions and treatment ofthe animal by the owner/manager. When any oneor a combination of these things is unsatisfactory,the animal is predisposed by poor living condi-tions to acquire a pest problem. A healthy animalliving in a stress-free and sanitary environment isless likely to suffer pest problems.

Parasitic wasps can greatly reduce fly populations inbarnyards when used in conjunction with good sanitationpractices.

Cultural controls include proper animal diet and nutrition,densities, housing, and other environmental conditionssuch as clean, dry pen areas and travelways.

Mechanical tools for animal pest managementmay include grooming combs, brushes and fleacombs with closely spaced teeth to monitor forinsects and ticks. Electronic devices such as lights

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that attract flying insects may be used aroundbarns or other animal quarters to reduce somenuisance pests. Recognize that beneficial flyinginsects may also be attracted and killed. Trappingrodents that may be carriers of pests is also a pre-ventive mechanical control measure. Ultrasoniccollars and other devices have not been found tobe effective.

Physical control of animal pests may include theuse of sticky flypaper to reduce nuisance flyinginsects in confined areas. Physical control mayalso include cages that separate animals from oneanother. Preventing contact between animalsreduces the spread of insects from infested ani-mals to non-infested animals. When an infestedanimal is removed from a cage, stall or pen, thor-oughly clean and disinfect the area to preventcontamination of the next animal placed there.

Use pest-resistant breeds and breeds adaptedto the conditions of the area where they are raisedto avoid or reduce the effect of pests. Usingbreeds that tolerate the climatic changes and tem-perature extremes that occur in Michigan alsoreduces the likelihood of stress and pest prob-lems. Some animals have been bred for diseaseresistance and other qualities that result inreduced problems, while other species still showsigns of intolerance even in low-stress situations.

Sanitation and habitat modification are the foun-dation of most animal pest management pro-grams. Keeping barnyards, stables, kennels,exercise areas and surrounding areas as clean aspossible discourages pest invasion by eliminatingfood sources and places to breed and live. Clean-ing animal bedding and the surfaces of cages andother animal confinement with disinfectants killspathogens and reduces the spread of disease.

Quarantines help reduce the spread of pest prob-lems. When introducing a new animal to an exist-ing group of animals, isolate the new animal andobserve it for a period of time to confirm that it ispest free before grouping it with other animals.Within an established herd, flock or group of ani-mals, separate those that are suspected to be sickor infested with a pest until the problem is identi-fied and corrected.

In some pest situations, veterinarians orlicensed veterinary technicians may not differen-tiate between pest management and medicaltreatment of the animal; that is, it may be neces-sary to treat the pest-induced condition med-ically. Heavy flea infestations on dogs, forexample, can lead to secondary dermatitis, fleabite allergies or anemia that require veterinarycare. The fleas are considered the arthropod pestthat caused these undesirable conditions on theanimals, but the conditions are treated medically.It is necessary to eliminate the fleas from the ani-mals to prevent the problem from reoccurring.

Adopting a holistic, “IPM attitude” toward themanagement of pests of animals reduces pestproblems. It is possible to manage a pest withoutany true medical treatment. Simply changingenvironmental conditions may prevent or elimi-nate a pest. Veterinarians may need to consultentomologists or commercial pesticide applica-tors for advice on pest life cycles or managementstrategies.

Pesticides are used in IPM programs for animalpests. Often, they are used in combination withother methods of prevention and control or usedwhen other methods have failed or do not apply.For example, there are no effective environmen-tal, cultural or other management options fordeer flies and horse flies. Thus, insecticides orrepellents on animals are the most reliable pestmanagement alternatives.

Sanitation practices around facilities help to reduce pestpressure by eliminating their habitat and food source.This is especially important with fly control and manuremanagement.

Improving drainage and preventing water accumulationwill reduce pest populations.

16

Sometimes pests can be managed effectivelywith drugs or chemicals that veterinariansadminister or prescribe. When a product islabeled as a drug, it is approved and regulated bythe Food and Drug Administration, not the Envi-ronmental Protection Agency. An example of adrug that has antiparasitic properties is iver-mectin (under trade names such as Ivomec®).This drug is injected, sprayed or given orally toan animal to rid the animal of certain ectopara-sites and endoparasites. An example of an insecti-cide that is given to animals like a drug is stirofos(Rabon®). It can be used as a feed additive to cat-tle rations for controlling fly maggots in manure.

Some animals treated with a drug and laterexposed to another chemical pest managementtreatment have gotten sick. It is important thatowners or animal managers are made aware ofthe treatments administered to their animals andthat they communicate this information to otherhandlers of the animal. Animal groomers, breed-ers, farm managers and farm workers should askfor this information before administering anytype of pest treatment. Ask product sales repre-sentatives, the manufacturer or a veterinarianabout any possible negative interactions that mayresult between the products you use and otherproducts to which the animal may be exposed.Because the animal cannot control these situa-tions you are responsible for this knowledge.

The best way to maintain a pest-free andhealthy environment for animals is to deal withpests in an IPM program where many manage-ment tactics are employed and pesticides anddrugs are used when necessary. Treating only thedamage caused by a pest and not controlling thepest results in future injury. Animal pest prob-lems should be controlled through both environ-mental management and animal treatment.

Pesticide use on and around animals requiresspecial care. Pesticides may be toxic to the ani-mals being treated. The applicator must considerdose-response relationships and pesticide choicecarefully when making applications. Be awarethat smaller animals cannot tolerate the same doseof certain pesticides as well as larger animals.

On food animals such as beef cattle or dairycows, pesticide use must be balanced with resid-ual activity of the pesticide on or in the animal’sbodies. The applicator must be aware of the regu-lations regarding pesticide use and slaughteringintervals (withdrawal times) or milk-withholdingtimes. An applicator may need to consult a vet-erinarian to determine the appropriateness andtiming of pesticide applications on animals.Before applying any pesticide to an animal or itsenvironment, the applicator should read andthoroughly understand the directions for use onthe label.

When administering pest management treatments,extreme care must be taken to provide the proper dosefor the size, age, species and condition of the animal.

17

Write the answers to the following questionsand then check your answers with those in theback of this manual.

1. What unique external characteristics do adultinsects have?

2. Which is NOT a type of mouthpart for insects?a. Piercing-suckingb. Filteringc. Siphoningd. Sponginge. Chewing

3. ____________ is characterized by egg, larval,pupal and adult stages and includes the major-ity of insects.a. Gradual metamorphosisb. No metamorphosisc. Complete metamorphosis

4. What is a host?

5. Endoparasites live INSIDE the host body. (True or False)

6. What is dermatitis? Name some causes of dermatitis.

7. List the four groups of important animal insectpests.

Chapter 1 – Review Questions

18

8. Define IPM and explain the five components ofan IPM program.

9. Why is early detection of pests important?

10. Once observed, why must the animal manageridentify the pest?

11. In what settings are economic injury levels ofgreatest concern?

12. What is an important and final step of an IPMprogram?a. Monitoring.b. Selecting a method.c. Detection.d. Evaluation.e. Re-treatment.

13. What must be considered when pesticides areused on or around animals?

14. List five or more strategies/techniques used inIPM programs and briefly describe each.

19

Key To Insects, Ticks and Mites of Medical and Veterinary ImportanceSource: North Carolina State University Cooperative Extension Service

1. Having 6 or 8 legs (Fig. 2) ................................................................................................................................... 2Legless and wormlike maggots (Fig. 3) .......................................................................................................... 34

2. Having 6 legs and a distinct head (Fig. 2A) ..................................................................................................... 3Having 8 legs without a distinct head (Fig. 2B) ............................................................................................. 32

3. One pair of wings (Fig. 4A) ............................................................................................................................... 4Two pairs of wings or no wings (Fig. 4B, C) .................................................................................................. 21

4. Antennae (feelers) with 10 or more distinct segments (Fig. 5A) ................................................................... 5Antennae with 3 segments (Fig. 5B) or the apical segments more or less fused (Fig. 5C) ......................... 7

2A

2B

4A 4B4C

5C 5C 5C

3

20

5. Short antennae with 10 or 11 segments (Fig. 6A); wing veins slender at rear (Fig. 6B); slightly hump-backed fly 4 mm long or less; bite usually painless at first but later causes swelling and pain............................................................................................................................ BLACK FLY or BUFFALO GNATLonger antennae with 12 to 16 segments (Fig. 6C); wing veins all about the same width (Fig. 6D) ....... 6

6. Wings not very hairy, costa vein ending before wing tip (Fig. 7A); bloodsucking fly (Fig. 7B) 0.5 to 5.0mm long ...............................................................................................BITING MIDGE, PUNKIE, NO-SEE-UMWings scaly and with numerous veins, costa vein continuing around wing tip (Fig. 7C); slender, long-legged fly (Fig. 7D) with wings 3 to 4 mm long; has slender proboscis for sucking blood ..... MOSQUITO

7. Each wing with 4 or 5 cells along rear edge (Fig. 8A) ..................................................................................... 8

Each wing with 3 or fewer cells along rear edge (Fig. 8B) .............................................................................. 9

8A 8B

7D

7B

7A

costa

subcosta

7C

6A 6B6C

6D

21

8. Third wing vein branched with vein 3A long and vein 3B ending behind wing tip (Fig. 9A); abdomen-flattened; small- to large-bodied fly (Fig. 9B) 10 to 19 mm long; female inflicts painful bite............HORSEor DEER FLYThird wing vein branched with vein 3A short and vein 3B ending before wing tip (Fig. 9C); dusky-winged, nonbiting fly (Fig. 9D) 15 to 20 mm long; wasplike in appearance; bronze or primarily blackabdomen .......................................................................................................................... BLACK SOLDIER FLY

9. Second antennal segment with seam (Fig. 10A); mesonotal suture on thorax goes all the way across(Fig. 10B) ............................................................................................................................................................. 10

Second antennal segment without seam (Fig. 10C); mesonotal suture absent or note reaching all theway across (Fig. 10D) ........................................................................................................................................ 11

10. Hypopleura (area just above base of hind legs) bare or with sparse, fine hairs (Fig. 11A) ................... 13

Hypopleura with row of strong bristles or with long, dense hairs (Fig. 11 B) ......................................... 19

11. Oral vibrissae (hairs near the front of the mouth) usually present (Fig. 12A); nonbiting, gray to blackfly only about 1.2 mm long; passes easily through 16-mesh screen ........................................... EYE GNATOral vibrissae usually absent (Fig. 12B); fly 15 to 18 mm long ................................................................. 12

9A 9C

9B9D

10A10B 10C

10D 11A 11B

22

12. Spurious (extra) vein present (Fig. 13A) and anal cell nearly reaches wing margin (Fig. 13B);hairy,brownish to black, beelike fly about 15 mm long; has mouthparts but doesn’t bite.... DRONE FLYAnal cell short (Fig. 13C); hairy, brownish to reddish fly about 18 mm long; mouthparts absent................................................................................................................................................................. BOT FLY

13. Slender, shiny black, nonbiting fly (Fig. 14) about 5 mm long ......................... GARBAGE or DUMP FLY

Fly dull, not shiny ............................................................................................................................................ 14

14. Fly usually less than 6 mm long .................................................................................................................... 15

Fly usually longer than 6 mm ........................................................................................................................ 16

15. Brownish-gray to black with yellowish cast to body; blood-sucking; 3.5 to 4 mm long; set of parallelstripes just behind head (Fig. 15A); brownish-red antennae; usually a pest of cattle and horses............................................................................................................................................................ HORN FLYSlender, nonbiting fly 5 to 6 mm long; dark-colored body with or without stripes (Fig. 15B); hoveringand jerky pattern of flight .............................................................................................. LITTLE HOUSE FLY

16. Blood-sucking fly with sharp mouthparts which protrude from head (Fig. 16A); body 6 to 8 mm long; 4dark, longitudinal stripes on thorax; several dark spots on abdomen’ “squats” when at rest ...... STABLEFLY

Mouthparts blunt, not protruding (Fig. 16B); nonbiting fly ...................................................................... 17

12A 12B13A

13B

13C

14

15A 15B

23

17. Pale spot on top of thorax near abdomen; 4 dark, sometimes indistinct, stripes on thorax; abdomenblack or black and red; body about 8 mm long (Fig. 16B) ............................................ FALSE STABLE FLYNot as above ..................................................................................................................................................... 18

18. Abdomen yellow or partially yellow with dark line down the middle; gray fly (Fig. 17A) about 6.5mm long with 4 dark, lengthwise stripes on thorax ................................................................. HOUSE FLYAbdomen primarily black with orange base (female) or orange-brown with black base and dorsalstripe (male); thorax gray with 4 dark, lengthwise stripes (Fig. 17B); body 6 to 8 mm long; commonlyfeeds on moist animal secretions ........................................................................................................ FACE

19. Hypopleura (area above base of hind legs) obscured by long, usually dense hairs; mouthpartsabsent; body about 13 mm long with 2 bands of yellow and white hairs across it (Fig. 18A); reddish-orange hairs at tip of abdomen and on legs; wings dark brown to black .................. CATTLE GRUB FLY

Hypopleura with a row of strong bristles (Fig. 18B) ..................................................................................... 20

16A16B

17A

17B

18A 18B

24

20. Notopleura (“shoulder” of the thorax) usually with 4 bristles (Fig. 19A); gray fly about 10 to 13 mmlong; 3 black stripes on thorax; light and dark checkerboard pattern on abdomen (Fig. 19B) ...... FLESHFLYNotopleural with only 2 bristles (Fig. 19C); black or metallic-colored fly 6 to 14 mm long; no stripesor checkerboard pattern (Fig. 19D) ............................................................................................... BLOW FLY

21. Two pairs of wings; constricted “waist” without nodes (bumps); smooth-bodied, stinging insect (fig.20A) 13 to 25 mm long; color variable; associated with papery nests under or above ground................................................................................................................... HORNET, WASP, YELLOW JACKETNo wings; “waist” constricted with nodes (Fig. 20B) or note constricted (Fig. 20C) ............................. 22

22. Constricted “waist” with nodes (Fig. 20B); body usually reddish or dark brown and 3 to 6 mm long;stinging ant associated with mounds 35 cm or more in diameter and 20 to 25 cm high .... ...... FIRE ANTNo constricted “waist” as above ................................................................................................................... 23

23. Body flattened laterally (from side to side); spiny, hard-skinned insect (Fig. 20C) 1 to 2.5 mm long;hind legs modified for jumping ................................................................................................................. FLEABody not flattened laterally .............................................................................................................................. 24

19A 19B

19C19D

20A 20B 20C

25

24. Pest 1 mm or less in length; associated with slightly larger, 8-legged animals which are otherwise simi-lar in appearance (Fig. 21A, B) (key out the larger, 8-legged pests) ........................................................... 31No association as above; all animals with 6 legs; size variable; body somewhat flattened dorsoven-trally (from top to bottom) (Fig. 21C) .............................................................................................................. 25

25. Chewing mouthparts; yellowish-white louse with broad, flat, reddish head (Fig. 22A); body up to 1.5mm long with 8 dark crossbands on abdomen .............................................................................................. 26Piercing-sucking mouthparts; body somewhat flattened dorsoventrally (from top to bottom) (Fig. 22 B)................................................................................................................................................................................... 27

26. Feeding on cattle ........................................................................................................ CATTLE BITING LOUSEFeeding on skin or feathers of poultry .............................................................................. CHICKEN BODY

27. Jointed beak (Fig. 23A); reddish-brown, oval, flattened insect up to 9 mm long; small, padlike wingremnants (Fig. 23B); pronotum (just behind head) collarlike ........................................................ BED BUG

Beak not jointed, sometimes retracted into head ........................................................................................... 28

21A 21B 21C

22A 22B

26

28. Needlelike mouthparts exposed (Fig. 24A); short, thick legs with apical spurs; body about 6 mm long;blood-sucking parasite of sheep ..................................................................................................... SHEEP KEDMouthparts retracted into head; blood-sucking louse (Fig. 24B) ................................................................ 29

23A

23B

24A24B

29. Parasite of hogs; oval, grayish-brown louse up to 6 mm long; brown and black markings on body; legsclawlike (Fig. 25A) .......................................................................................................................... HOG LOUSEParasite of man; grayish-white louse 4 mm or less in length .................................................................... 30

30. Abdomen longer than wide; body up to 4 mm long without hairy tubercles (Fig. 25B); all legs aboutequal in size .............................................................................................................. HEAD and BODY LOUSEAbdomen about as long as wide; body up to 2 mm long with hairy tubercles (Fig. 25C); front pair oflegs more slender than other pairs .......................................................................................... CRAB LOUSE

31. Abdomen constricted to form a narrow “waist” (Fig. 26A) ...................................................................... 32

No constricted “waist” (Fig. 27); bloodsucking parasite of man and animals; some immature stages 6-legged ............................................................................................................................................................ 33

25A 25B25C

27

32. Spider with black, globular abdomen about 9 by 13 mm with red or yellow, hourglass marking onunderside (Fig. 26A, B) ............................................................................................. BLACK WIDOW SPIDERGrayish- to reddish-brown spider with black, fiddlelike marking on the head and thorax; body 7 to13 mm long with a leg span about the size of a half dollar (Fig. 26C) ......... BROWN RECLUSE SPIDER

33. Hairless body from 0.5 mm up to 7 mm long (immature to adult) (Fig. 27A); usually brown, reddishbrown or gray ............................................................................................................................................... TICKBody with long or short hairs (Fig. 27B, C); body usually 1.25 mm long or less; color variable.............................................................................................................................................. CHIGGER or MITE

34. With a definite head (Fig. 28A) ...................................................................................................................... 35

Without a definite head (the mouthparts are tucked into the thorax, Fig. 28B) ...................................... 36

26A

26B

26C

27A 27B27C

28

35. Body large and flattened, 12 to 27 mm long when fully grown; creamy white to reddish brown; develops in decaying organic matter (Fig. 28A) ......................................... BLACK SOLDIER FLY LARVASlender, aquatic larva up to 10 mm long or curled pupa; transparent to greenish brown; develops instill rather than running water (Fig. 29A and B) ............................... .MOSQUITO LARVA and/or PUPA

36. Body with pointed projections on each segment (Fig. 30A); posterior spiracles (breathing openings) onsmall bumps; white to light brown body up to 8 mm long .......................... LESSER HOUSE FLY LARVABody smooth or with short spines; no long pointed projections; posterior spiracles not on bumps(Fig. 30B) ........................................................................................................................................................... 37

28A 28B

29A 29B

30A 30B

29

37. Leathery; aquatic; larva up to 20 mm long, with long, taillike breathing tube (Fig. 31A) .................. RAT-TAILED MAGGOTLarva without a taillike process (Fig. 31B) ................................................................................................... 38

38. Hard, dark line (peritreme) present around hind spiracles; each spiracle with 3 distinct slits (Fig. 32A)................................................................................................................................................................................ 39No peritreme around hind spiracles (Fig. 32B); or, if peritreme present, then 3 slits absent (Fig. 32C) .......................................................................................................................................................... 45

39. Slits of hind spiracles straight (Fig. 33A) ...................................................................................................... 40

Slits of hind spiracles strongly curved (Fig. 33B) ........................................................................................ 44

31A31B

32A 32B 32C

33A 33B

30

40. Peritreme of hind spiracle very thin on top and bottom (Fig. 34A); spiracles slightly elevated and,when viewed from rear, slanted toward each other; hardened, spiny larva at least 10 mm long whenfully grown; develops in decaying organic matter ................ BLACK GARBAGE or DUMP FLY LARVAPeritreme complete (Fig., 34B) or with only lower portion missing (Fig. 34C) ...................................... 41

41. Hind spiracles with peritreme complete (Fig. 35A); at least one of the two prothoracic spiracles (closeto front end) with 8 or more openings (Fig. 35B, a green bottle fly) or prothoracic spiracles with 6 orless openings (Fig. 35C, a bronze bottle fly); yellowish to white maggot up to 14 mm long; develops indecaying organic matter, sometimes carrion or animal wounds ............................... .BOTTLE FLY LARVAHind spiracles with peritreme incomplete, not enclosing a “button,” (the “button” is a tiny, roundpale area which is sometimes hard to see, Fig. 35D) .................................................................................. 42

42. Slits of hind spiracle not pointing toward opening in peritreme (Fig. 36A); white to yellowish maggot10 t0 22 mm long when fully grown; develops in wounds, carrion or excrement .... FLESH FLY LARVASlits of hind spiracle pointing toward opening in peritreme {Fig. 36B); at least one of the prothoracicspiracles (close to front end) with 10 or more openings (Fig. 36C) .......................................................... 43

34A 34B 34C

35A

35B 35C

35D

36A 36B

36C

31

43. Hind spiracle with button distinct or absent, walls of slits with lateral swellings (Fig. 37A); white oryellowish maggot up to 18 mm long; develops only on dead animal tissues .................... SECONDARYSCREWWORMHind spiracle with button present, walls of slits without lateral swellings (Fig. 37B); white or yellow-ish maggot up to 17 mm long; develops in decaying organic matter, carrion or animal wounds................................................................................................................................ BLACK BLOW FLY LARVA

44. Peritreme of hind spiracle thick (Fig. 38A); nearly white maggot up to 13 mm long; common in moistfeces and decaying organic matter .................................................................................. HOUSE FLY LARVAPeritreme of hind spiracle thin (Fig. 38B); white maggot 6.5 to 7.5 mm long when fully grown; com-mon in fresh bovine feces ................................................................................................ HORN FLY LARVA

45. Small or slender, maggot-type larva usually, but not always, less than 13 mm long, tapering towardthe head (Fig. 39A); develops in decaying organic matter ........................................................................... 46Large, robust larva with very stout spines (Fig. 39B); over 15 mm long when fully grown; internalparasite of animals .......................................................................................................................................... 48

46. Button of hind spiracle centrally located (Fig. 40A); creamy white to pale yellow maggot up to 12 mmlong; develops in moist, decomposing organic matter (usually not in manure piles)............................................................................................................................................... STABLE FLY LARVAButton of hind spiracle not centrally located (Fig. 40B) ............................................................................. 47

47. Slits of hind spiracles strongly curved (Fig. 41A); yellowish maggot up to 13 mm long; develops infresh bovine manure ............................................................................................................. FACE FLY LARVASlits of hind spiracles not strongly curved (Fig. 41B); grayish to cream-colored larva 12 to 18 mm longwhen fully grown; develops in decaying organic matter, including manure .......... FALSE STABLEFLY LARVA

37A37B 38A 38B

39A 39B

40A40B 41A 41B

32

48. Hind spiracles with 3 distinct, slightly curved slits (Fig. 42A); yellowish- to dirty-white larva 17 to 24mm long when fully grown; spines dark brown; internal parasite of horses ..... HORSE BOT FLYLARVAHind spiracle without 3 distinct slits ............................................................................................................ 49

49. Button of hind spiracle not centrally located or enclosed; opening toward button wide (Fig. 42B); whitewhen young; mature larva black, up to 28 mm long and 13 mm wide; subcutaneous along back line ofcattle ......................................................................................................................... COMMON CATTLE GRUBButton of hind spiracle enclosed, centrally located (Fig. 42C); larva more than 15 mm long whenmature; body with stout spines ............................................................................................ SHEEP BOT FLY

42A 42B 42C

CHAPTER 2

PESTICIDES AND THEIR USE FORLIVESTOCK PEST MANAGEMENT

33

LEARNING OBJECTIVES:After you finish studying this chapter, you

should be able to:■ Differentiate between several pesticide

chemistries registered for use on animalsand the precautions necessary when han-dling or using them.

■ Describe symptoms of animals when overex-posed to different insecticide chemistries.

■ Identify the factors to consider when choos-ing a formulation.

■ Explain the various methods of pesticideapplications and application equipmentappropriate for animals and their environment.

■ List the precautions necessary for safe pesti-cide applications on an animal or in its envi-ronment.

■ Explain how and when pesticides may beincompatible.

PESTICIDESPesticides are substances or mixtures of sub-

stances intended to prevent, destroy, repel or man-age pests. In addition, the Federal Insecticide,Fungicide and Rodenticide Act (FIFRA) hasextended the legal definition of a pesticide toinclude compounds intended for use as plantgrowth regulators, defoliants or desiccants, eventhough they are not normally used as pest manage-ment agents, and are usually not effective as such.

More specifically a pesticide may be defined asany chemical used to control pest populationsdirectly or to prevent or reduce pest damage.Though the ending “cide” is derived from theLatin word cida, meaning “to kill,” not all pesti-cides actually kill the target organism. For exam-ple, some fungicides may simply inhibit thegrowth of a fungus without killing it; attractantsand repellents lure a pest to or divert it from aparticular site.

The following chapters discuss a wide varietyof insects, mites and ticks that afflict animals inagricultural settings. Activities or infestations bythese pests can, in many cases, severely compro-mise the health and well-being of individual ani-mals. Though insecticides (control insects) and

acaricides (control arachnids) are not the onlymeans for controlling or preventing these pestsfrom becoming problems, they often play animportant or even a key role. Sometimes, onemust choose between insecticide applications anddrug treatments to deal with insect pests that aretrue parasites.

Pesticides are a mixed blessing. For example,they contribute significantly to agricultural pro-ductivity and to improved public health by man-aging disease-carrying pests, but they canadversely affect people, nontarget organisms suchas fish and wildlife, and the environment.

Before using insecticides, think about the com-ponents of an integrated pest management pro-gram (see Chapter 1). For insect, mite or tick pestsof animals, this means developing managementsystems that employ the full range of physicaland cultural methods available to manage thepests before insecticides are used. For example, inthe case of filth fly (flies associated with poor san-itary conditions) problems in feed lot cattle areas,insecticides should not be used until good farmsanitation practices have been established.Removing manure and using good waste man-agement practices help assure that flies will notreach levels that require insecticide use. Also,

34

purchasing animals from reputable breeders is acultural preventive measure that may mean liceand mange mite infestations can be avoided orkept in check.

In another example, flea control for pet dogs orcats must include sanitation and control aroundthe home to eliminate larval fleas and flea eggs.Fleas do occur in very clean houses, but sanita-tion is essential for a successful flea managementprogram. Check the animal frequently, especiallyafter it has been at a boarding or grooming facil-ity or veterinarian’s office. Other animals at theselocations may spread fleas to non-infested ani-mals. Typically, only after an infestation occursshould you consider insecticide use in the homeor on the pet, and then only in conjunction withgood sanitation practices. The exception may bewhen a pet has flea bite hypersensitivity. Treat-ment after a flea population has become estab-lished would be too late to avoid the animal’sdiscomfort. In this case, insect growth inhibitorproducts may be effectively used to prevent aproblem from becoming established.

In this chapter, you will learn about the types ofpesticide chemistry, formulations, applicationmethods and basic concepts of pest control onanimals, and special concerns with pesticide useon and around animals. This knowledge will helpyou use pesticides safely and effectively. Refer tothe Pesticide Applicator Core Training Manual, E-2195, Chapter 3, Pesticides, for a review of pesti-cide classification methods, formulations andchemistry.

CLASSES OF INSECTICIDES/ACARICIDES USED IN LIVESTOCK PESTMANAGEMENT

Eleven chemical classes of insecticides and aca-ricides are used to control pests on or around ani-mals.

1. Chlorinated hydrocarbons . This classincludes lindane and methoxychlor. Lindane hasbecome a restricted use pesticide for mange mitesand lice.

Chlorinated hydrocarbons are easily absorbedthrough the skin and accumulate in the body.Overexposure can occur from excessive use.Common symptoms of animal chlorinated hydro-carbon poisoning may include hypersensitivity,spasms that begin with the eyelids and progressthrough the muscle masses toward the tail, loss ofcoordination, circling and abnormal posture,seizures, salivation, vomiting, coma and death.Continued low dose exposures can cause liverdamage.

2. Organophosphates (OP). An organophos-phate is a synthetic organic pesticide containingcarbon, hydrogen and phosphorus. If the productlabel bears chemical names containing “phos-phoro” and recommendations to use atropineplus pralidoxime (2-PAM) as an antidote for poi-soning, you can assume the product is an OPinsecticide. Organophosphate compounds inhibitcholinesterase (see the Core manual, E-2195,Chapter 6, Pesticides and Human Health).Cholinesterase is a chemical catalyst (enzyme)found in mammals that helps regulate the activityof nerve impulses.

This class of pesticides includes a broad rangeof insecticides/acaricides such as chlorpyrifos,malathion, DDVP, ronnel, stiriphos and others.Organophosphates are effective against a widerange of insects including fleas and ticks. OPs arecommercially available as ready-to-use insectici-dal solutions, emulsifiable concentrates, dips,dusts, baits and flea collars.

These products range from acutely to mildlytoxic to animals. The body has the ability to breakthese compounds down, usually in the first 24hours. Though they are less likely to accumulatein the body than chlorinated hydrocarbons,organophosphates cannot be used in conjunctionwith one another because they can accumulateduring a short period of time immediately follow-ing exposure. Find out whether the animal hasbeen administered an oral, systemic OP. If so, donot treat with a topically applied OP. The twoproducts can have a combined effect oncholinesterase activity.

Overexposure to OPs commonly causes suchsymptoms as increased salivation, inability tocoordinate muscular movements (ataxia), fre-quent urination, vomiting, diarrhea, breathingdifficulty (dyspnea), muscle weakness, tremors(shaking), convulsions, coma and death. Theabove symptoms are listed in order of severity.An animal may progress from mild symptoms tocoma and death in a matter of minutes dependingon the extent of the overexposure.

Onset of symptoms after excessive OP exposureusually occurs within hours but may be delayedup to two days. Severity and development ofsymptoms are influenced by the dosage and theroute of exposure (dermal, oral, etc.). If poisoningfrom an OP is suspected, obtain immediate assis-tance from a veterinarian and provide them thelabel of the suspect insecticide. Atropine is theantidote for all levels of organophosphate poison-ings.

A commonly reported organophosphate insecti-cide-related poisoning scenario among all animaltypes has been from dichlorvos (DDVP). Many

35

foggers contain DDVP in combination with othercholinesterase-inhibiting insecticides. Readingproduct labels and following all precautions anddirections for use greatly reduces the chance ofpoisonings.

3. Carbamates . Carbamates are similar toorganophosphates in activity—they inhibitcholinesterase. Carbaryl, propoxur and methomylare carbamates. Animals have been the victims ofcarbamate poisoning by products labeled for useon sites other than on the animal. These includeant traps, products used for home insect controland agricultural products. Methomyl is particu-larly hazardous because of its inherent toxicity(LD50 of 17 mg/kg in test animals) and the appar-ent palatability of the sugar baits in which it isoften formulated.

Carbamate poisoning is characterized by exces-sive salivation, tremors, vomiting, seizures, diar-rhea and loss of muscle control. If you suspectcarbamate poisoning, contact a veterinarianimmediately. Be sure to provide the veterinarianwith the label of the suspect insecticide. Atropineis the antidote. Victims of carbamate overexpo-sure display similar symptoms as organophos-phate poisonings, but they tend to recover, morecompletely and more rapidly. Carbamates maycause localized skin reactions on sensitive ani-mals.

4. Synthetic pyrethroids. This class of insecti-cides/acaricides includes permethrin, resmethrinand allethrin. Often the formulations contain asynergist (something that enhances the effective-ness of the active ingredient) called piperonylbutoxide, or PBO. By itself, PBO is relatively non-toxic. The synthetic pyrethroids show propertiesof low mammalian toxicity but good activityagainst insects, ticks and mites. They do notappear to be readily absorbed through the skin.

Animals mildly affected by pyrethroids andthose in the early stages of pyrethroid poisoningoften display excessive salivation, vomiting, diar-rhea, mild tremors, hyperexcitability or depres-sion. These symptoms may be confused withsymptoms of organophosphate or carbamate poi-soning. More severely affected animals can havehigh fevers or lowered body temperature, diffi-culty breathing, severe tremors, disorientationand seizures. Death is due to respiratory failure.Generally, these signs begin within a few hours ofexposure. In the case of excessive dermal expo-sure, bathe the animal using mild detergent andrinse repeatedly. Initial assessment of the animal’srespiratory and cardiovascular condition isimportant. Further treatment requires veterinar-ian assistance.

5. Botanicals. Rotenone and pyrethrin arederived from plants. They may be synergized(increased activity) in certain formulations withPBO. With the exception of nicotine, plant-derived insecticides have shown low mam-malian toxicity.

6. Repellents. Repellents, though not strictlyinsecticides, help prevent animal pest establish-ment. Diethyl-meta-toluamide (DEET), butoxy-polypropylene glycol and dipropylisocinchomeronate are repellents with activityagainst certain arthropods. Some formulationscontaining synthetic pyrethroids are repellents.There have been reported deaths of both catsand dogs after excessive exposure to DEET. Themost common signs of poisoning include vomit-ing, tremors, ataxia and incoordination, hyper-activity, excessive salivation, depression, loss ofappetite, seizures and breathing difficulty. Bewatchful of possible overexposure symptomswhen combining repellents with other pesticidetreatments.

7. Lime sulfur (calcium polysulfide). Sulfurand lime-sulfur are two of the oldest insecti-cides. Lime-sulfur is an inorganic chemicaloption for lice control. Lime-sulfur may causethe animal irritation, discomfort or blistering,but it rarely causes death. If overexposure issuspected, bathe the animal to remove anyresidues and rinse repeatedly with clean water.

8. Mineral oil. Mineral oil is useful as a barrieragainst biting flies in ears of horses. It is also adiluent in some ear mite treatments that containcarbaryl.

9. Amitraz. Amitraz is a formamidine chemi-cal with insecticidal and acaricidal properties.

10. Insect growth regulators and hormonemimics . This class of insecticides preventsimmature insects from developing to the adultstage. Methoprene is formulated as a spray forflea control (eggs on animals, larvae in the envi-ronment). These chemicals simulate the activityof juvenile hormone, the hormone in insects thatmaintains immature characteristics in insects.

11. Ivermectins. The ivermectin/avermectingroup of insecticides are labeled as drugs, andthey often come into use for pest control on ani-mals. Because they are drugs, most of themmust be obtained and administered by a veteri-narian for companion animal use. There aresome over-the-counter formulations for horsesavailable.

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FORMULATIONS USED TO MANAGE ANIMAL PESTS

It is important to choose the formulation that isbest for a particular job based on its effectiveness,cost, practicality, and relative safety to you, theanimal being treated and the environment.

Insecticide and acaricide formulations varywidely and must be chosen to fit the particularsituation. A high-pressure hydraulic sprayer isinappropriate for applying a flea shampoo to asheep, to give one extreme example. Under cer-tain conditions, the application method requires aparticular formulation. Sometimes the formula-tion and application method are described by thesame word (e.g., shampoo). Formulations usedfor animal pest management include:

1. Ready to use (RTU). Ready-to-use formula-tions require no mixing or combining with otheringredients or diluents. They usually come in acontainer that serves as the application device,such as an aerosol can, pour-on bottle, roll-on,spot-on or spray bottle. These formulations tendto be the most expensive options because they areconvenient and packaged for application. Becauseof their convenience and effectiveness, these for-mulations are being used instead of spray treat-ments to various sized animals. Ready-to-useproducts may include ointments or gels that helpprevent fly bites.

to an animal’s wet haircoat and worked into alather. Label directions may indicate a length oftime that the shampoo must remain on the animalto achieve effective pest control before being thor-oughly rinsed. Shampoos should be pH balancedand labeled for use on the pet to be treated.Industrial shampoos and dish detergents are notacceptable products for use on small animals.Exercise all caution when applying pesticideproducts to debilitated animals (animals weak-ened by injury, illness or some other stress). Theseanimals should be referred to a veterinarian forclose observation during and after application.

5. Dust. A dust is a ready-to-use dry formula-tion. Protect the animal’s and the applicator ’seyes from the dust. Applicators must wear appro-priate personal protective equipment to protectexposed skin, the respiratory tract and eyes.

6. Feed additive or bolus. These formulationsare mixed into salt blocks, with feed or, in thecase of a bolus, fed directly to an animal.

2. Wettable powders (WP). Wettable powdersmust be mixed with water before application.They are concentrates in solid, powdered formand can be sprayed after mixing.

3. Emulsifiable concentrates (EC). Emulsifiableconcentrates are liquids that must be mixed withwater before application. They can be sprayedafter mixing or sponged on the animal.

4. Shampoo. A shampoo is a formulation ofinsecticide and other ingredients that is applied

7. Ear tags, plastic strips and medallions.Some insecticides and acaricides are formulatedwith plastics, such as ear tags and medallions,that are fixed to an animal and left attached for atime. Plastic straps, for instance, containing aninsecticide can be fixed to horse halters for bitingfly control. In these formulations, the insecticidemoves from the plastic to the hair or coat of theanimal.

8. Pastes, liquids, powders, tablets/pellets andinjectables. These formulations are given orally orinjected into animals to control internal parasites.Some products have restrictions, are regulated asdrugs by the FDA, and may be purchased andadministered only by licensed veterinarians.

9. Baits. Baits are either commercially preparedas dry granules or made as mixes of insecticides,sweeteners and water, as discussed in “Methodsof Application” below.

Some insecticides are formulated into salt blocks.

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METHODS OF APPLICATION AND APPLICATION EQUIPMENT

The methods of application of insecticides/aca-ricides to animals or the animals’ environmentdepend on the target pest, the formulation chosenand the number of animals or size of area to betreated. Sometimes the limiting factor will be theavailability of application equipment or suitablefacilities and helpers. For example, ear tags mustbe applied to individual cattle while they are in ahead chute (used to isolate and immobilize thehead temporarily). Applicators must wear all theprotective equipment required on the pesticidelabel. Labels list minimum requirements. Theapplicator should use common sense and protectbody areas that may be at risk of exposure. Water-proof aprons, gloves, boots and goggles arealways a wise choice.

On premises, feedlots, housing barns, corrals,milk parlors, manure piles, poultry houses andother animal agricultural environments, severaldifferent methods of applying insecticides may be

appropriate. Many involve using spray equip-ment or specialized tools for handling animals.

Dipping VatsDips are a method of applying insecticides to

animals. Dipping vats are large tanks (vats) of liq-uid pesticide solutions used to treat livestock forexternal parasites. Portable dipping vats are usu-ally trailer-mounted tanks with a set of foldingramps and railings. Livestock animals may bedrawn through or placed in a vat of insecticidediluted to the correct label rate for the given ani-mal size and species, and immersed to wet theentire body. Dips have been commonly used forsheep and cattle.

Dips may also be pour-on products that do notrequire total immersion of the animal. The productis poured on a specific region of the animal, suchas along the backbone. Pour-ons are taking placeof the dipping vat method of application becauseof convenience, lower worker exposure and theability to treat the animal at the same time it isbeing vaccinated or handled for other reasons.

The person dipping the ani-mal should wear a water-and chemical-proof apronand gloves. As noted inChapter 6, Pesticides andHuman Health, a human’sgroin area is the mostabsorptive part of thebody and should becompletely pro-tected from pesti-cide exposure.Goggles can pre-vent splashingsolution fromentering the eyes.Always wear theminimum amount of personal protective equip-ment required on the label. It’s okay to wearmore.

Spray-dip MachinesSpray-dip machines have been used to treat

livestock for external parasites. A spray-dipmachine usually consists of a trailer-mountedchute with solid walls and gates at each end. Thechute is located above a shallow tank and isequipped with several rows of large nozzlesmounted so that they direct the spray mixture tothoroughly cover each animal. A large centrifugalpump supplies the pesticide to the nozzles. Sur-plus and runoff spray falls back into the tank,where it is filtered and recycled to the nozzles.

Some pesticides are formulated into plastic ear tags thatare attached to the animal. The pesticide in this formula-tion moves from the plastic to the hair or coat of the animal.

Always wear the appropriate personal protection equip-ment when making a pesticide application.

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Face and Back Rubbers and Dust Bags muscamone. Some fly baits are made by mixingsugar, corn syrup or molasses with water andinsecticide and then applied as a slurry with abrush to surfaces in confined settings. Caution:Do not apply this sweet mixture where animalscan lick it from treated surfaces. This includescompanion animals that may frequent the sameareas.

Applications to the Animal’s Surroundings

A premise spray is an insecticide applicationthat will persist on the surfaces in an animal’s liv-ing area for a period of time. The length of resid-ual depends on the insecticide used rather thanthe method of application. Pest insects, such asfilth flies or fleas, contact these surfaces,encounter the insecticide and die. The spray isintended to offer a few days to a few weeks ofcontrol. Remove all livestock before applying aresidual spray. Avoid exposing hay bales or otherfeed to pesticides and cover all drinking cups. Donot apply a residual spray in a milkroom.

An area spray or space spray does not involvean insecticide with long residual qualities.Instead, the spray, aerosol or fog kills the insectsin the area at the time of the application. Thus, aspace spray is much more temporary than apremise spray.

Some pesticides are applied through back rubbers. Whenthe animal rubs against the apparatus the pesticide istransferred to their hair coat.

Some insecticides are applied to livestock forcontrol of external parasites by self-applicatordevices such as face and back rubbers, cables,ropes and dust bags. Back rubbers, cables andropes are soaked with insecticide mixed with oiland hung over entrances and exits where the ani-mals must pass. When the animal rubs againstthe device, the pesticide is transferred to the ani-mal’s face, back, sides or legs.

Dust bags filled with dust formulations arehung in similar areas for direct contact with pass-ing animals. Animals can be dusted with the useof the shaker in which the product is packaged.The eyes of the animal and the applicator shouldbe protected from dusts.

Dust BoxesDust boxes are used mainly in raised wire bat-

tery-type cages for laying hens or other poultry.These boxes contain a pesticide dust used to con-trol poultry pests, usually mites. Birds wallow inthe boxes and pick up the dust on their feathersand skin. Dust boxes may also be used when 20to 30 birds are in pens on the floor.

Bait Application EquipmentBait stations hold pesticide-treated food that

attracts target pests. They are used for insect con-trol around poultry and livestock housing and forvertebrate control around crops, commoditiesand agricultural buildings.

An insecticidal bait can be purchased ready touse (generally dry, as granules) or can be mixed.Baits can be established at bait stations that lurethe pest toward the insecticide source. Some flybaits contain attractants to draw flies in, such as

A space spray may involve ultra-low volumeequipment—small droplets of insecticide aresprayed at a low rate of application into thespace. An example would be the use of a foggerin a milking parlor.

Hand-held, electrically operated mist foggersare satisfactory for space applications of insecti-cides. They are used primarily for fly control(knockdown). Mist foggers produce a coarse mist,deliver 4 to 5 gallons of spray mixture per hourand project a horizontal airblast 15 to 20 feet.

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These sprayers are not to be confused with ther-mal foggers that generate an insecticidal smokeby heating the spray mixture.

Pesticide dosage depends upon the length oftime the spray mist is directed toward the animalor area. To calibrate a fogger, first determine themaximum number of ounces of insecticidereleased per minute then calculate the time in sec-onds necessary to apply the proper dosage.

In general, use and care for a mist foggers asyou would a sprayer. They do require severalspecial precautions, however:

■ Be sure that the pesticides used in the aerosoland fog generators are registered for thatuse.

■ Keep the pesticides on the target. ■ Because aerosol and fog formulations are

easily affected by weather conditions duringapplication, follow special use instructions.

■ The operator, other people and animalsshould stay out of the fog or smoke cloud.

Applying insecticides or acaricides onto ani-mals can be done in a variety of ways. Coarsesprays are applied directly to animals. With hand-pumped or mechanically pressurized equipment,a coarse spray of the label rate of insecticide isapplied to the animals. Certain coarse sprays, forexample those used for control of mange mites onswine or lice on cattle, must have sufficient pres-sure to thoroughly penetrate the hair and wet theskin.

Hand SprayersHand sprayers are often used to apply small

quantities of pesticides. They can be used instructures or outside for spot treatments or inhard-to-reach areas. Most operate on compressedair supplied by a hand pump.

Compressed air sprayer — This is usually ahand-carried sprayer that operates under pres-sure created by a self-contained manual pump.The air in the tank is compressed by the pump.The compressed air forces liquid pesticidethrough the hose and nozzle whenever the con-trol valve is opened. Capacity is usually 1/2 gal-lon to 3 gallons.

Bucket or trombone sprayer — These sprayersinvolve a double-action hydraulic pump operatedwith a push-pull motion. The pesticide is suckedinto the cylinder and pushed out through thehose and nozzle with the return stroke. Pressuresup to 150 psi can be generated. The separate tankoften consists of a bucket with a capacity of 5 gal-lons or less.

Backpack (knapsack) sprayer — One type of back-pack sprayer is a compressed air sprayer with aharness that allows it to be carried on the opera-tor’s back. Some of these sprayers can generatepressures of 100 pounds per square inch (psi) ormore. Capacity of these types of backpacksprayers is usually 5 gallons or less.

Wheelbarrow sprayer — Wheelbarrow sprayersare similar to backpack sprayers but have a largertank and longer hose line. The tank is mountedon a wheeled cart for easy transport. The capacityof these sprayers is usually less than 25 gallons.

Small Motorized SprayersSome small sprayers have all the components of

larger field sprayers but usually are not self-pro-pelled. They may be mounted on wheels so theycan be pulled manually, mounted on a smalltrailer for pulling behind a small tractor, or skid-mounted for carrying on a small truck. They maybe low-pressure or high-pressure, according tothe pump and other components with which theyare equipped. Standard equipment includes ahose and an adjustable nozzle on a handgun.Some models have multi-nozzle booms.

Advantages:■ Larger capacity than hand sprayers. ■ Low- and high-pressure capability.■ Built-in hydraulic agitation. ■ Small enough for limited spaces.

T handle

Plunger rod

Pressure gauge

Tank

Shoulder strap

Hose

Strainer

Control valve

Spray extension

Supply tube

Pump cylinder

Nozzle

Hand Can Sprayer

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Limitations: ■ Not suitable for large jobs.

Estate sprayers — These sprayers are mountedon a two-wheel cart with handles for pushing.Trailer hitches are available for towing the units.Spray material is hydraulically agitated. Somemodels have 15- to 30-gallon tanks. Pumpsdeliver 1 1/2 to 3 gallons per minute at pressuresup to 250 psi. Larger models have 50-gallon tanksand pumps that deliver 3 to 4 gallons per minuteat pressures up to 400 psi. Power is supplied byan air-cooled engine of up to 5 horsepower.

Power backpack sprayer — This backpack-typesprayer has a small gasoline powered engine. Theengine drives the pump, which forces the liquidpesticide from the tank through a hose and one ormore nozzles. The engine also drives air blowers,which help propel the spray droplets. This modelcan generate high pressure and is best suited forlow-volume applications of dilute or concen-trated pesticide.

Power wheelbarrow sprayer — This sprayer, likethe manually operated wheelbarrow sprayer, has atank mounted on a wheel for easy transport. It maydeliver up to 3 gallons per minute and can developpressures up to 250 psi. The 1 1/2 to 3-horsepowerengine is usually air-cooled. The tank size rangesfrom 12 to 18 gallons. The spray mixture may beeither mechanically or hydraulically agitated.

Large Power-driven Sprayers(High Pressure)

These sprayers are used to spray through densefoliage or thick animal hair and into areas wherehigh-pressure sprays are necessary for adequatepenetration and reach. Often called hydraulicsprayers, they are equipped to deliver large vol-umes of spray — usually 20 to 500 gallons peracre — under pressures ranging from 150 to 400psi or more. Piston pumps are used and provideoutputs up to 60 gallons or more per minute.Large tanks (500 to 1,000 gallons) are requiredbecause of the high application rate per area.Mechanical agitators are usually standard equip-ment, but hydraulic agitators may be used. High-pressure sprayers may be equipped with a hoseand single handgun nozzle for use in sprayinganimals.

Advantages: ■ Provide good penetration and coverage of

animal hair.■ Usually well built and long lasting if given

proper care.

Limitations: ■ Large amounts of water, power and fuel

needed.■ High pressure may produce fine droplets

that drift easily.

Pour-ons and Spot-onsPour-ons and spot-ons are high-concentrate,

low-volume formulations applied directly to ani-mals. They offer a quick and simple method ofapplying insecticides to livestock. The solutions,either an oil or emulsion formulation, are appliedwith a calibrated dipper along the back of the ani-mal at an even rate. Pour-ons were originallydeveloped for application of systemic insecticidesfor cattle grub control but are being used forsome non-systemic formulations. Because of con-venience, reduced applicator exposure and theirefficacy, these types of applications are thebecoming the most frequently used applicationmethod, replacing the dipping vat and sprayingmethods.

Like the pour-on method, spot-ons allow for thedirect application of a measured amount of insec-ticide to the back of the animal. Spot-ons areapplied as concentrates so considerably less mate-rial is needed. Because of the toxicity of the prod-ucts, spot-ons are typically applied by aveterinarian. These products may require that theanimal be completely dried after applicationbefore it contacts humans or other animals.

Wipes are also used as direct applications toanimals—cloths or sponges are saturated with thepesticide andused to wipethe animal.With pour-ons,spot-ons andwipes, the rateof applicationis determinedby the size andweight of theanimal.

The ease of using pour-on formulationsis contributing to this becoming themost common application technique.

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Ear tags, plastic strips, collars and medallions,though technically formulations as describedabove, are also methods of application. These for-mulations come ready to use and are applied byfastening them to the animal or, in the case ofplastic strips, in the animals environment. Theyoffer long-term release of insecticide or acaricideonto the animal.

Feeding insecticides to animals can be accom-plished with feed additives or boluses, saltblocks, or drugs prescribed by or obtained fromveterinarians. Of course, only those insecticideslabeled for oral delivery can be provided in thismanner. Some of the insecticides control pests onthe animal while others are intended to passthrough the digestive systems of the animal to bedeposited in manure for fly maggot control.

PESTICIDE USE AROUND ANIMALSPesticide use on animals or in their environ-

ment must be done with the safety of the animalsand the applicator in mind. Remember that insec-ticides and acaricides are toxic not only to the tar-get pest but also to the animals at certain doses.Thus, the dose-response relationship of the insec-ticide and the targeted animal must be consid-ered. The accurate weight of the animal must bedetermined to dilute and apply the appropriaterate of pesticide.

Many insecticides are labeled with restrictionsand are not to be used on animals of certain ages(especially young ones), in certain reproductivestates (pregnancy, nursing), or on certain breeds.Also, use extreme caution or avoid using pesti-cides on animals just before or just after surgery.The product may interact with the anesthesia.

Apply all insecticides with extreme care. Neverapply insecticides to the eyes, nostrils or mouth.When treating animals using a spray, the applica-tor should wear appropriate protective gear andshield his/her eyes and those of the animal. It isstandard practice to apply an ophthalmic (eye)ointment to protect small animals’ eyes beforedipping, spraying or shampooing. Ointmentsmust be labelled for use in the eye. Petroleum jel-lies are not an acceptable substitute for oph-thalmic ointment. Be sure not to contaminateointments. Handle carefully and wash yourhands between animal treatments.

Insecticides must be applied at the rates andwith the application methods described on thelabel. Labels also usually state to avoid testicleand vulva areas as well as mammary gland areasif the animal is nursing young.

When applying certain insecticides or acaricideson animals, the intent is to create a residual ofsystemic insecticide in the body tissues of the ani-mal. These insecticides are used in ways that donot differ greatly from the way drugs are used foranimal health. In such cases, there may be doselimits established in relation to the weight of theanimal. Thus, only a certain amount of insecticideper unit of body weight can be applied at any onetime. Accurately determining the animal’s bodyweight is critical for issuing the correct dosage.

When using systemic insecticides or some otherinsecticides on animals used for meat or dairyproducts, restrictions often apply with regard towhen slaughtering can occur or how long dairyanimals should be held from milking. Theserestrictions are called treatment-slaughter inter-vals and milk withholding times. These restric-tions are listed on the label. No residualinsecticide should occur in meat or milk whenthese label restrictions are followed.

Many kinds of pesticides are commerciallyavailable. Though different products may havethe same active ingredient, the formulations canvary greatly. The result may be that one productis safe for animal applications and others aredeadly. Use only products specifically labeledfor use on animals or in animal surroundings.Consult with experts such as veterinarians,licensed veterinary technicians, Extension special-ists or product representatives for help in select-ing the best product for your situation. Theexperts can provide you with information to helpmake your decision and support your action inthe most economical manner. When selecting aninsecticide, the label is a primary source of infor-mation. Labels often include package inserts. Ifthe label does not allow the use or method ofapplication you intend to use on the animal, thenthat insecticide formulation cannot be used.When several product choices are available, con-sider the type of and percent of active ingredient,formulation, equipment required to make theapplication, any treatment-slaughter or milkwithholding intervals and requirements forretreatment.

In general, observe the following guidelines forinsecticide use on or around animals:

1. Use only products labeled for use on animalsor in animal environments.

2. Do not exceed label dosages; measure care-fully and know the animals’s exact weight.

3. Read labels before using and follow allinstructions.

4. Provide adequate ventilation while using pes-ticides (remove animals from buildings if it is anarea or premise spray).

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5. Prevent drift or drainage to adjacent cropland,yards, woodlots, lakes or ponds. (Some insecti-cides may severely harm fish and wildlife.)

6. Avoid treatment of animals that are sick, over-heated or stressed (such as after shipping, surgeryor heartworm treatment, or recently weaned).

7. If available, use a dust formulation instead ofsprays on outdoor animals on cold winter days.

8. Avoid contaminating feed (feeders and/orfeed in storage) and water (including waterers,wells and reservoirs). See Chapter 8, Safe PesticideHandling, in the Core manual, E-2195.

9. Use all appropriate personal protective equip-ment during applications of any pesticide.

10. Do not add new insecticides to old, previ-ously used dipping water. Start with fresh water.

11. Avoid using pesticides when an animal hasbeen, will be or is anesthetized.

12. Keep records of pesticide applications. SeeChapter two, Laws and Regulations, in the Coremanual, E-2195.

13. Always store and dispose of pesticide con-tainers according to label directions.

COMPATIBILITY of PESTICIDES In some situations, applicators may attempt to

manage more than one pest with a single applica-tion by combining pesticides. Such a practice cancreate problems, sometimes more serious andcostly than applying the chemicals alone. Productmixing requires extensive knowledge of pesticideformulations, timing of application and applica-tion techniques.

The important issue is to determine the compat-ibility of the products involved. In simple terms,we are concerned about whether the mixtures canbe used in combination without reducing thesafety and effectiveness of the compounds. Beforecombining any pesticides, check labels, productinformation sheets, company representatives orExtension agents for information on compatibilityof the products in question.

Below are important areas of incompatibility toconsider before attempting to mix products.

Host ToleranceAs mentioned, problems can arise when more

than one organophosphate is applied to an ani-mal at any one time, or when a residual is stillpresent from a previously applied dose. Neveruse more than one OP insecticide on an animal.The combined effects of the OPs may cause irre-

versible damage to the animal or even kill it.Also, some animals are more sensitive to certainproducts than others. Always read the labelbefore applying a pesticide on an animal.

Physical IncompatibilityPhysical incompatibility occurs when two or

more pesticides are mixed together and the resultis an unsprayable mixture because of excessivefoaming, curdling or a gummy deposit. Hardwater and cold water also can cause some physi-cal incompatibilities.

Chemical IncompatibilityThis type of incompatibility occurs when mix-

ing pesticides reduces or destroys the effective-ness of one or all of the compounds. This happensfrequently when materials with a high pH areadded to the mixture. Chemical incompatibility isnot evident in the spray tank but becomes appar-ent when the application fails to control the targetpest adequately.

Timing IncompatibilityPesticides must be applied when the pest is at a

vulnerable stage of development. With manyinsects, diseases or weeds, this may be a rela-tively short period. Timing is important whenusing two or more chemicals to manage morethan one pest. Failing to apply the mixture at thecorrect time in the pests’ life cycles renders themixture ineffective.

This has been a brief summary of pesticidecompatibility problems. Remember, never assumethat pesticides can be mixed together unless thecombination is specifically indicated on a productlabel. If recommendations for use are not givenon the label, the products in the mix must beapplied at a rate not to exceed the label directionsfor use of any component product applied alonefor the same purpose. Many product labels havetoll-free numbers. Call with any questions youmay have before using a product.

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5. Which two types of pesticide chemistry inhibitcholinesterase? What types of pests do thesepesticides control?

6. If an animal is overexposed, it can be killed bypesticide products even though the productsare labeled for use on animals. (True or False)

7. If an animal is dermally overexposed to a syn-thetic pyrethroid, what action should you take?a. Bathe the animal with mild detergent and

rinse it repeatedly.b. Give the animal atropine.c. Give the animal atropine plus 2-PAM.d. Keep it cool and give it water.

8. Protectants are pesticides applied to managepests by rendering them incapable of normalreproduction. (True or False)

9. What might you use for protection against bit-ing flies on the ears of horses that can also serveas a diluent for ear mite treatments?a. Lime sulfurb. Amitrazc. Ivermectind. Mineral oil

Chapter 2 – Review Questions

Write the answers to the following questionsand then check your answers with those in theback of this manual.

1. A pesticide is a chemical that:a. manages only insects and vertebrates.b. directly controls pest populations.c. prevents or reduces pest damage.d. only a certified applicator may apply.e. b and c.

2. Pesticides with chlorinated hydrocarbon chem-istry are not recommended for use on animals.(True or False)

3. If a product label bears chemical names contain-ing “phosphoro” and recommends the use ofatropine plus 2-PAM as an antidote for poison-ing, you can assume the product is a(n):a. Chlorinated hydrocarbon.b. Organophosphate.c. Pyrethroid.d. Carbamate.e. Insect growth regulator.

4. What are the symptoms that an animal mayexhibit as a result of overexposure to anorganophosphate pesticide?

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10. Which of the following are synthetic organicpesticides?a. Chlorinated hydrocarbons.b. Organophosphates.c. Carbamates.d. Synthetic pyrethroids.e. All of the above.

11. Some insecticides are formulated as feed addi-tives and are given to the animal as part oftheir food rations. (True or False)

12. Explain the difference between a premisespray and an area or space spray.

13. Which of the following are self-applicationtechniques used for livestock treatments?a. Back rubbers.b. Dips.c. Ear tags.d. Spot-ons.

14. When choosing among several insecticideproducts, what are some of the things thatmust be considered?

15. List three types of pesticide incompatibility,and give a brief definition of each.

1.

2.

3.

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CHAPTER 3

MITES AND TICKS

LEARNING OBJECTIVESAfter you finish studying this chapter, you

should be able to:■ Describe how mites and ticks differ from

insects.■ Understand the ways that mites can nega-

tively affect animal health.■ Explain what mange is and how it occurs.■ Explain the generalized life cycle of mites.■ List several mites that affect agricultural

animals.

■ Know where mites and ticks are typicallyfound on agricultural animal’s bodies.

■ Describe integrated programs for controllingmites and ticks.

■ Understand the basic life cycles of ticks.■ Describe the appearance of a tick.■ List some of the important tick pests of

animals.

Chapter one of this manual gives specific infor-mation on biology and identification of pestsincluding insects and other arthropods. Reviewthat information to learn arthropod external char-acteristics, life cycles, and ways that they causedamage and act as pests.

MITESThere are more than 200 families of mites and

many thousands of species. Most mites are free-living and feed on plant juices or prey upon otherarthropods. Some mites have evolved to becomeimportant ectoparasitic pests of animals. Somespecies of mites have even become endoparasites,invading the ears, bronchi and lungs, nose andother tissues of animals. More than 50 species ofmites live on or in the bodies of domestic animals.

In general, mites can affect the health of animalsin four ways:

■ Damage tissues and cause dermatitis.■ Cause blood or body fluid loss.■ Cause allergic reactions.■ Create conditions for secondary bacterial

infection.Mites are tiny arthropods, usually less than 1

mm in size, and can be difficult to see and identifywithout the aid of a strong microscope or at least a

hand lens. Figure 3.1 shows a schematic view ofthe general anatomy of a mite. Note that the feed-ing apparatus of a mite is called the hypostome. Itcontains the chelicerae and the paired palpi (sin-gular, palpus). The four pairs of legs are seg-mented, and each joins the body at the coxa.

Figure 3.1 General anatomy of a mite.Source: Centers for Disease Control.

coxa

femur

tibia

tarsus

claw

sternal plate

analplate

hypostome

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The body of a mite consists of two major units –the cephalothorax and abdomen. The body ismade of various hard plates of cuticle connectedtogether by softer cuticle.

Mites breathe directly through their cuticle, inthe smaller species, or through pores in the cuti-cle (called stigmata), which are connected tointernal air tubes. Although the figure does notshow it, mites are often rather hairy lookingbecause of the presence of spines. Mites can varygreatly from this generalized body design, as fig-ures and descriptions given below demonstrate.

The generalized veterinary term for an infesta-tion of mites in an animal is acariasis (pronouncedack-uh-RYE-uh-sis). Mange or scabies is one of themost common problems that mites cause in ani-mals. Mange is a deterioration of the skin’s condi-tion (pathology), leading to hair or feather loss, arash, skin discoloration (inflammation) and, insevere cases, lethargy and weakness. The USDAdefines scabies and mange as it relates to cattle as“any skin condition of man or animals associatedwith a mite; scabies is a particularly serious, debili-tating, reportable mange condition.” The nature ofthe skin effects are determined by the location ofthe mites on the animal’s body.

Life CycleThe generalized life cycle of mites can be

described as follows. Mites mate and the femaleslay eggs. The eggs hatch and six-legged larvaeemerge. These larvae feed and molt to the eight-legged nymph stage. Later, after feeding, thenymphs molt and become adult male or femalemites. This entire life cycle can take as little aseight days to as long as four weeks, depending onthe species of mite, and the temperature andhumidity.

Some mites transmit disease causing microor-ganisms through biting. Other mites are interme-diate hosts of tapeworm parasites that infectcattle and sheep. An intermediate host is an ani-mal that harbors the asexual or immature stagesof a parasite which do not mature until trans-ferred to the next host. For example, if sheep eatthe intermediate hosts containing these parasitestages, they can become infected with the para-site. This is in contrast to the definitive host of theparasite which is the host in which the parasiteundergoes sexual reproduction; there is no inter-mediate host required for progression to maturity.

Mite Pests of AnimalsTable 3.1 lists the common mite pests of domes-

tic animals, both livestock and companion ani-

mals. In general, the important mites that can becontrolled with insecticides (or more properly,miticides) include the following groups:

■ Burrowing mange mites (including the sarcop-tic mange mites, notoedric mange mites andknemidocoptic mange mites).

■ Non-burrowing mange mites (the psoroptidmange mites).

■ Ear mites (psoroptid ear mites and otodecticear mites).

■ Demodectic or hair follicle mites.

■ Fur mites (cat, dog and rabbit fur mites).

■ Chicken roost mite.

■ Northern fowl mite.

These mites all cause adverse skin conditionson their host animals.

The mites that cause scabies in cattle can createsevere injury to skin. Infestations are contagiousand animals are required by law to be quaran-tined and treated.

Burrowing Mange MitesSarcoptic mange mites cause sarcoptic mange.

Sarcoptic mange mites belong to one species, Sar-coptes scabei, with host-adapted varieties (species-specific) that do not cross-infect other animals.This means they usually infect only one species ofanimal host. There are at least seven varietiesinfecting horse, cattle, sheep, goat, swine, dogand fox. Cats, rabbits and fowl are not sarcopticmange mite hosts.

The life cycle of sarcoptic mange mites is similaron different host animals. The mated female mitesburrow deep into the skin and form a tunnel overan inch long where she feeds on lymph fluid (aclear body fluid) by piercing the skin. She lays 40to 50 eggs in the burrow and then dies. Tiny, six-legged larvae hatch from the eggs, leave thefemale’s burrow and wander on the animalsbody. The larvae form new pocket-burrows in theskin, where they feed and molt to two succeedingnymphal stages. The nymphs may also moveabout and make new tunnels. Nymphs molt andbecome adult males or females, which mate. Fig-ure 3.2 shows a sarcoptic mange mite life cycle.

Sarcoptic mange mites, because of their burrow-ing behavior and feeding, cause intense itchingand dermatitis. Affected animals may scratch soheavily that liquid exudes from the affected skin,causing skin crusts, and skin cracking and thick-ening. Secondary infection is common inscratched areas.

Table 3.1 Common ectoparasitic mite pests affecting animal health in the U.S.

Host Common Scientific Tissue Mite Pathological Animal Name Name Affected Activity Condition

Cattle Follicle mite Demodex bovis hair live in hair follicles, demodetic follicles feed on sebum mange

Sarcoptic Sarcoptes scabei skin mites dig tunnels, sarcoptic mange mite var. bovis live in skin mange

Chorioptic Chorioptes skin live on skin or leg, foot andmange mite bovis under scabs tail mange

Psoroptic Psoroptes ovis skin live on skin or scabs, scaly mange mite under scabs mange

Swine Follicle mite Demodex hair live in hair follicles, demodetic phylloides follicles feed on sebum mange

Sarcoptic Sarcoptes scabei skin mites dig tunnels, sarcopticmange mite var. suis live in skin mange

Sheep Follicle mite Demodex ovis hair live in hair follicles, demodeticfollicles feed on sebum mange

Sarcoptic Sarcoptes scabei skin mites dig tunnels, sarcopticmange mite var. ovis live in skin mange

Chorioptic Chorioptes skin live on skin leg, foot aandmange mite bovis or under scabs tail mange

Psoroptic Psoroptes ovis skin live on skin scabs, scalymange mite or under scabs mange

Itch mite Psorergates ovis hair live on skin scaly mangefollicles

Goat Follicle mite Demodex hair live in hair follicles, demodeticcaprae follicles feed on sebum mange

Sarcoptic Sarcoptes scabei skin mites dig tunnels, sarcopticmange mite var. caprae live in skin mange

Ear mite Psoroptes ear live on skin or psoroptic earcuniculi canal under scabs mange

Chorioptic Chorioptes skin live on skin or leg, foot andmange mite bovis under scabs tail mange

Horse Follicle mite Demodex hair live in hair follicles demodeticequi follicles and feed on sebum mange

Sarcoptic Sarcoptes scabei skin mites dig tunnels, scabies,mange mite var. equi live in skin mange

Chorioptic Chorioptes skin live on skin or leg, foot andmange mite bovis under scabs tail mange

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Host Common Scientific Tissue Mite Pathological Animal Name Name Affected Activity Condition

Continued on next page

48

Table 3.1 Common ectoparasitic mite pests affecting animal health in the U.S., Continued

Host Common Scientific Tissue Mite Pathological Animal Name Name Affected Activity Condition

Cat Follicle mite Demodex cati hair live in hair follicles, demodetic follicles feed on sebum mange

Notoedric Notoedres cati skin mites dig tunnels, notoedric scabies mite live in skin scabies, mange

Ear mite Otodectes skin surface live in ear canal, ear mitecynotis in ear canal feed on skin debris infestation

Cat fur mite Cheyletiella skin punctures skin scaly blakei & sucks lymph dermatitus

Dog Follicle mite Demodex canis hair live in hair follicles, demodetic follicles feed on sebum mange

Sarcoptic Sarcoptes scabei skin mites dig tunnels, scabies, mangemange mite var. canis live in skin

Ear mite Otodectes skin surface live in ear canal, ear mitecynotis in ear canal feed on skin debris infestation

Dog fur mite Cheyletiella skin punctures skin scaly parasitivorax & sucks lymph dermatitis

Rabbit Notoedric Notoedres cati skin mites dig tunnels, notoedricscabies mite live in skin scabies, mange

Ear mite Psoroptes ear canal live in skin or psoroptic earcuniculi under scabs mange

Rabbit fur Cheyetiella skin punctures skin scalymite yasguri* and sucks lymph dermatitis

Chicken mite Dermanyssus roosts (free- feeds on blood dermatitus,gallinae living) through skin blood loss

Northern Ornithonyssus skin,, feeds on blood, dermatitis,fowl mite sylviarum feathers through skin blood loss

Scaly-leg Knemidokoptes skin burrow beneath scaly legmite mutans epidermal scales lesions

Depluming Knemidokoptes base of burrow beneath skin irritation,mite laevis var. feathers epidermal scales feather loss

Host Common Scientific Tissue Mite Pathological Animal Name Name Affected Activity Condition

Chicken,turkey,pheasant,cagedbirds

Although all parts of an animal’s body may beaffected, usually the less hairy areas becomeinfested. In swine, the primary infested parts ofthe body are the neck, shoulder, ear, withers, andback to the tail. Sarcoptic mange in horses usuallyoccurs on the chest and at the base of the tail. Indogs, sarcoptic mange occurs on the face, but canspread to other parts of the body.

Detecting and identifying sarcoptic mangemites can be difficult because the mites live in theskin burrows. Deep skin scrapings that causeblood to ooze from the scraping are required toscoop mites out of the burrows. The scrapings arethen examined with a microscope because thesemites are too small to be seen with the naked eye.Figure 3.3 shows a sarcoptic mange mite to illus-

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trate general features. To properly detect andidentify these mites, consult a veterinary derma-tologist, parasitologist or entomologist. Although,veterinary manuals contain information on iden-tification and detection, a trained professional canmake the best diagnosis.

Non-Burrowing Mange MitesThe non-burrowing mange mites, in contrast to

the burrowing mange mites discussed above, donot form burrows in the skin. However, they doinfest animal skin and cause mange. These mitesfeed on lymph (clear body fluid) by puncturingthe skin, or they feed on skin scales and debris.Mite feeding causes fluid to exude from the skinand form scabs, which turn into yellowish crustsif not treated. The mites live at the edge of thesescabs or underneath them. These mites’ life cyclecan be as short as nine days.

There are two important species of non-burrow-ing mange mites. Psoroptes ovis infests the skin ofhorses, cattle and sheep causing infestations com-monly called sheep scab or cattle scab. The veteri-nary term for infestation is psoroptic mange. Theentire body may be infested, but usually thehairier areas are affected, particularly the back,shoulders and sides.

The other important species of non-burrowingmange mite is Chorioptes bovis, which infestshorses, cattle, sheep and goats. The veterinaryterm for infestation by these mites is choriopticmange. Usually, the legs of these animals areaffected, causing stamping and leg-biting inhorses. In cattle, the mites often infest the base ofthe tail. Chorioptic mange mites appear to mainlyfeed on epidermal (skin) debris. Yet, infestation bythese mites still may lead to mange in some ani-mals. Animals may often be infested with choriop-tic mange mites but show no mange symptoms.Figure 3.4 shows a chorioptic mange mite.

Detecting and identifying non-burrowingmange mites requires skin scrapings by a trainedprofessional. These scrapings do not need to be asdeep as those for burrowing mange mites, but aproper diagnosis of burrowing or non-burrowing

Notoedric mange mites are similar to the sarcopticmange mites in biology, pathology, detection, andidentification, except that they are smaller. Theyoccur in cats and rabbits, but also occasionally indogs. These mites infest skin primarily on theback of the neck, ears, face, and paws, but maycover the whole body, especially in young ani-mals. Detection and identification is done in thesame manner as with the sarcoptic mange mites.

The third group of burrowing mange mitesaffects domesticated fowl, including chickens,turkeys, pheasants, and caged pet birds. Thisgroup includes the scaly leg and deplumingmites. The scaly-leg mite, Knemidokoptes mutans,forms burrows under the epidermal scales on thetoes, feet, and legs of birds. The burrowing andfeeding activity of the mites causes inflammation,disfiguration of the skin with crusts, scale andscab formation and swollen legs and feet. Theskin hardens and exudes fluid. Sometimes, thesemites also infest the comb and neck. Heavilyinfested birds may die because of hypersensitiveallergic reactions.

The depluming mite, Knemidokoptes laevis var.gallinae, usually occurs only on chickens. Ratherthan infesting the skin of the legs and feet, thedepluming mites form burrows at the base offeathers in the skin. When mite burrowing andfeeding irritates the birds and they scratch, thefeathers fall out and the bird becomes deplumedin the affected areas of the body. All of thesemites have similar life cycles and detection meth-ods similar to the other burrowing mange mites.

Figure 3.2 “Sarcoptic mange mite life cycle, which iscompleted in the skin: Adult (A) lays eggs (B), whichdevelop into immature nymph stages (C).

Figure 3.3 Sarcoptic mange mite general features.Source: Peter Carrington

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mange mites may require a deep scrape and ashallow scrape. Scraped material should bespread or applied onto glass microscope slidesand examined under a microscope at high power.

Ear MitesEar mites are closely related to the non-burrow-

ing mange mites but they live on the skin of earcanals instead of on the outer skin. There are twospecies of ear mites of importance. Otodectes cyno-tis causes ear mange and lives in the ears of carni-vores including dogs, cats and ferrets. Psoroptescuniculi lives in the ear canals of rabbits, horses,cattle, sheep and goats. It also causes ear mange.The life cycle of these two mites is similar to thenon-burrowing mange mites. The swarming,reproduction and feeding activity of these mitescauses inflammation and intense itching in theears of affected animals. Crusts form on the skin.An infested animal will often shake its head,carry the head to the side, scratch the ears andshow signs of disequilibrium or dizziness byturning in circles. The ears may exude pus. Some-times, in cases with extreme infestation and sec-ondary infection, the ear drum perforates,allowing the middle and inner ear to becomeinfected with bacteria.

Detecting and identifying ear mites is accom-plished by ear scrapings or sampling with an oil-soaked cotton swab and then examining with amicroscope. In some cases, an otoscope (earexamining instrument) may be used to search formites, but infested animals with sensitive earcanals may not tolerate its use and may need tobe restrained. With other animals, examining theear with an otoscope may reveal mites crawlingabout in the ear canal. If mites are detected, noear swabbings are necessary.

Hair Follicle MitesFollicle mites are tiny, elongate mites that live in

the hair follicles or sebaceous (oil) glands associ-ated with hair follicles in mammals. The speciesof major importance to domesticated animalsbelong in the genus Demodex (see Table 3.1).

Follicle mites are common parasites of cats,dogs, horses and other large animals. In healthyanimals, follicle mites do not cause any skin dete-rioration or mange. Animals with severe demod-ectic mange generally have immune systems thatdo not function properly. In weak or diseased ani-mals, two skin conditions can develop. In thescaly skin condition, skin thickens and wrinklesand hair falls out. The skin turns color changingfrom its normal color to red or bruised-looking. Inthe pustular skin condition, pimples or pustulesfilled with pus develop. The pustules can developinto severe abscesses or nodules filled with fluidand pus. This skin condition usually developsafter the scaly condition and reflects the develop-ment of secondary bacterial infections in the folli-cles. In both conditions, itching occurs. These skinconditions are collectively called demodecticmange.

Heavily infested dogs exhibit demodecticmange on several parts of the body, but particu-larly on the face and paws. Demodectic mange indogs is also called red mange. Secondary bacter-ial infection, especially by Staphylococcus, as partof the overall mange condition can lead to deathin dogs. Social stress may contribute to the onsetof mange conditions. In other animals, folliclemite infestation is usually asymptomatic (show-ing no symptoms). However, in swine and cattle,infestations can result in nodules and abscessesresulting in hide damage. Goats and horses canexhibit mild demodectic mange but generally donot develop abscesses or nodules.

Detecting and identifying follicle mites can bedone by a trained professional using a deep skinscrape (as with burrowing mange mites), or byexpressing pustules or abscesses and preparingslides for microscopic examination. Identificationis quite easy after slides have been prepared.There are no other mites that have the elongatedappearance of follicle mites, shown in Figure 3.5.

Figure 3.4 Chorioptic mange mite.Source: Peter Carrington

Figure 3.5 Hair follicle mite.

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Other Mites: Chiggers, Chicken and Fowl Mites

Several other kinds of mites bite or infestdomesticated animals. Larvae of chigger mitesnormally parasitize wild rodents. The larvaeattach to the skin and suck tissue fluids. Larvalchiggers seek hosts by clinging to vegetation nearground level and wait for an animal to pass by.Chiggers typically occur in low-lying, humidenvironments such as stream sides and marsh orlake edges. Pastured cattle or horses may occa-sionally be bitten by chigger mites in these situa-tions. Chiggers may cause itchy lesions onanimals that crust over. They may be found onlegs, feet and ears. The larvae attach to the skinand suck tissue fluids.

Diagnosis of chiggers on animals includes theobservance of bright orange mites, crusty lesions,skin scrapings, and environmental history ofbeing in woods and fields. Treatment includesdips and shampoos with an insecticidal productaccording to label directions. Keep animals out ofcontaminated areas to prevent reinfestation.

Two mites commonly infest poultry. Dermanys-sus gallinae , the chicken roost mite (or justchicken mite), infests domesticated fowl as wellas wild birds such as pigeons and house spar-rows. During the daytime, these mites hide incracks and crevices in the birds’ roosts and inpoultry houses. At night, the mites leave theirrefuge, infest the birds and feed on their blood.Heavy infestations in chicken houses can reduceegg laying, and cause blood loss that may lead todeath in chicks and displacement of layers fromtheir nests. In heavily-infested houses, the birdshave pale combs and wattles. Birds becomedroopy and weak and more susceptible to otherparasites and to disease.

Chicken mite infestations can be detected bycollecting dirt and other material from mite hid-ing places in the roosts and houses and examin-ing the material for mites. You may see masses ofthese small mites, their eggs, and silvery skinscast by the immature mites. Chicken mites aremore of a warm weather (summer) pest and maygo unnoticed unless you examine the birds atnight when the mites are blood-feeding.

Sometimes chicken mites leave the nests ofpigeons or sparrows and invade houses, bitingpeople. This occurs especially when the adultbirds leave their nests after the young havefledged (acquired feathers necessary for flight).

The northern fowl mite , Ornithonyssussylviarum, infests poultry and wild birds. Unlikethe chicken mite, the northern fowl mite spendsmost of its time on the host birds, but also occurs

in nests and houses. Northern fowl mites aremore of a problem in cool weather (winter), butmay be found on birds the year round. Mite pop-ulations can rise rapidly after a bird has beeninfested initially. When conditions are optimal forthe mite, newly infested birds may support mitepopulations in excess of 20,000 per bird within 9to 10 weeks. Mites do not become established inlarge numbers on birds until birds reach sexualmaturity; birds greater than 40 weeks of age usu-ally do not support many mites. The feathers willdarken from the eggs, cast skins, dried blood andexcrement of the mites. Scabs may form in thevent area. The mites suck blood and the resultantwounds can develop into dermatitis and becomeinfected with bacteria. Heavy infestations ofnorthern fowl mites are unhealthy for poultry,causing reduced food intake, weight loss, a palepink comb and decreased resistance to diseaseand other afflictions. Also, there is a lower eggproduction in layers. Detection is accomplishedby direct examination and handling of the birdsand eggs, and skin scraping from potentiallyinfested birds.

The northern fowl mite and the chicken roostmite are similar in appearance, even whenviewed with a microscope. Identification shouldbe attempted with help from entomologists orparasitologists.

Endoparasitic MitesSome mites occur in the internal organs and tis-

sues of animals, particularly the respiratory pas-sages. These mites are appropriately classified asendoparasites. For example, Pneumonyssoides can-inum infests the sinuses and nasal passages ofdogs. Do not deal with these mites strictly asarthropod pests suitable for control with miti-cides by a certified applicator, but rather refer toveterinarians for any necessary treatment.

Mites in the family Oribatidae (commonlycalled oribatid mites) are generally free-livingand occur in soil. Although these mites are nottypically ectoparasitic on domestic animals, someof them are important as intermediate hosts forcertain tapeworms (genus Moniezia) that infectcattle, sheep and goats. The mites ingest tape-worm eggs found in infected animal feces. Insidethe mite, immature stages of the tapeworm(called cysticercoids) develop. Cattle may lateringest the mites as they graze in pasture andbecome infected with the tapeworms. Environ-mental control of the oribatid mites to reduceworm load in the pastured animals is not gener-ally recommended.

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Skin scraping and ear swabbing for mitedetection where mange or ear mites aresuspected.

Mites causing mange or infesting the ears mayinitially be suspected if an animal’s behavior orappearance changes to an abnormal condition.Gross changes in coat or skin condition, or exces-sive licking and scratching can be signs that miteshave infested the animal at unhealthy levels.

Detection (or diagnosis) of mite infestations ofanimal skin and ears can be accomplished byexamining the entire body surface using a handlens. However, mange, ear and fur mites may bemore readily and definitively detected by the skinscrapings performed by a professional.

As discussed, skin scraping may be shallow(i.e., not draw blood) or deep (i.e., slightly drawblood) and can reveal non-burrowing, burrowingand hair follicle mites depending upon the depthof the scrape. Veterinarians trained in skin exami-nation and diagnosis of dermatological and earproblems in animals should be consulted forassistance with these detection methods. Theseexperts can help determine if the perceived prob-lem is caused by mite infestation or somethingelse. Be sure that the animal is adequatelyrestrained during these procedures to ensure thesafety of the person performing the technique.

MANAGEMENT OF MITES ON ANIMALSOR IN ANIMAL ENVIRONMENTS

Obviously, there are many different species ofmites that affect the health of many differentkinds of domestic animals. Thus, the measures tocontrol mite problems vary with the species ofmite and kind of host animal involved.

The first step in managing mite ectoparasites onlivestock is to provide for good herd healthbecause it helps maintain the animals’ resistanceto mite infestations. Housing, nutrition and sani-tary conditions should be at optimal levels. Ani-mals held under crowded conditions, on poorfeed rations and in unclean housing are morelikely to contract or harbor infestations of mites.Animals in poor health for other reasons also aremore susceptible to mite infestations and may bereservoirs of mites, causing infestations of healthyanimals. Examine new animal additions to a herdor flock for pests and, if necessary, treat to pre-vent contamination of animals already present.Quarantining new animal additions is part ofgood husbandry practices.

Control of mites on animals or in the environ-ment usually requires use of approved pesticides

or drugs. The choice of which pesticide to use, orwhich drug, varies with the mite that is the pestand the animal infested by the mites. Pesticidesthat are used to control mites or ticks are calledacaricides. Note that not all insecticides approvedfor louse (more than one lice) control on livestockare approved or effective for mange mite control.Consult with your veterinarian.

Cattle. The mites on pastured or confined beefand dairy cattle that require control measures arethose that cause mange or scabies. These prob-lems usually occur in winter and reach peak out-breaks in winter and spring. Report anyinfestation of mange or scabies mites in cattle tofederal agricultural officials. The presence of asingle scabies mite is the infestation level (actionthreshold) at which animals should be treated.Affected animals should be culled (removed)from the herd and quarantined. Whole herd quar-antine and treatment may be required.

For beef cattle infested with scabies mite, theanimals twice must be dipped or sprayed in aspray-dip machine at intervals required by thelabel. There are several approved acaricides forthis purpose. Alternatively, cattle may be injectedwith an ivermectin drug. Non-lactating dairy cat-tle can be treated similarly, or with a high-pres-sure spray. In all cases, the applications haveslaughter intervals or milk withholding times thatmust be adhered to.

Swine. Producers will need to decide whether toeradicate mange or to control it. Eradication ispossible, but expensive, and reinfection mayoccur. Under the supervision of a veterinarian,injecting all swine on the farm on the same daywith ivermectin will eliminate mange infestation.However, if even one animal is missed, it canserve as a source of reinfestation for the entireherd.

Alternately, producers may opt for a program ofcontrol that seeks to keep infestation at a verylow and tolerable level. Various acaricides can beused effectively in a control program. The fre-quency of application depends on the initialseverity of infestation. Control starts with thebreeding herd. Severely affected sows should beculled or injected with ivermectin. The remainderof the breeding herd should be treated thor-oughly with a spray-on acaracide either simulta-neously for at least three times at weeklyintervals, or alternately in segregated groupsprior to farrowing. Then a routine program ofspraying the sows with a repeat spray in twoweeks can be carried out twice a year. If produc-tion is in batches, then weaned pigs can betreated when they are moved to the nursery

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facility. Treatment at this age and segregationfrom older animals precludes the necessity ofmore expensive treatment of older, larger animalsin finishing.

Nursery pigs may be treated with spray-ons,ivermectin injection, or ivermectin feed additive.If necessary initially to treat growing, finishingpigs, schedule treatments to prevent conflictswith sales of market animals. Many spray appli-cations have pre-slaughter withholding times andivermectin must be injected more than 18 daysbefore slaughter.

Sheep and goats. Mange mites affecting sheepand goats can be detected by the methods men-tioned previously. Mange mites can be controlledon these animals through the use of approvedacaricides. Dipping and using pour-ons are themethods of choice for acaricide applications.

Poultry. Both the northern fowl mite and thechicken mite are important pests of confinedpoultry. The best method of northern fowl andchicken mite control is preventing the contact ofinfested birds with healthy, pest-free birds andkeeping the houses clean.

Detecting an initial low mite population thatcan be controlled effectively and economically isimportant in a mite-monitoring program. Individ-uals in flocks should be monitored regularly formite presence. At least ten randomly selectedbirds from each cage row (in a caged-layer opera-tions) in the entire house should be monitoredweekly. To reveal the mites, examine the vent areaunder a bright light, and part the feathers. North-ern fowl mites congregate on the bird’s abdomenor around the vent. The actual decision to treat isinfluenced by flock age, time of year, and distrib-ution of the infestation in the house. It is usuallyuneconomical to treat older birds because theirmite populations are unlikely to increase. A pop-ulation build-up is more likely in a young flock.Mite populations can be expected to increase incooler months and decrease in warmer months.An infestation restricted to one part of a housemay not spread, but the infested area must bemonitored closely. Detecting mites in broiler-feedoperations generally means the entire flock mustbe treated. Once mites become established onbirds, the use of acaricides is an important part ofmanagement.

When treatment for mites is necessary, applythe insecticide to the birds in the late afternoonbefore their eggs have hardened in the oviduct.This reduces the potential for egg cracking and,therefore, lower grading of the egg for market.Chemical control of northern fowl mites in caged-layer operations requires applying the insecticide

directly to the vent region with sufficient pressure(minimum 100 to 125 psi) to penetrate the feath-ers. The spray will have to be directed upwardfrom beneath the cages to reach the vent. Liquidsare preferable to dusts for northern fowl mites.Even though they normally live on the host,northern fowl mites can survive off the host fortwo to three weeks at room temperature. There-fore, removing birds from an infested house andreplacing them two weeks later may not solve thepest problem.

Chicken mites visit the poultry at night toblood-feed and hide in cracks, nests and otherprotected sites during the day. Thus, sanitation isa very important management method forchicken mite infestations. Acaricide spraysdirected into these hiding areas, using liquid for-mulations, provides the best approach for chemi-cal control of chicken mites. Through the use ofpremise treatments, chicken mites may be con-trolled without actually having to treat the chick-ens.

There are plastic strips impregnated with acari-cides that can be placed in the areas where birdsnest and congregate. When the birds rub againstthese strips, the insecticide is transferred to theirbodies.

Horses. Horses can be infested by mange mitesthat cause a deterioration of the skin and coat.The mites may severely affect horse health ifinfestations are unchecked. Mange mite treatmentmethods for horses are similar to those for beefcattle. Use high-pressure spray applications ofapproved acaricides at weekly intervals. How-ever, horses’ skin is more sensitive to insecticidetreatment than is the skin of other animals. Con-sult a veterinarian for information on the bestproducts for use on horses.

Companion animals and small animals. Companionanimals (i.e., dogs and cats) and other small ani-mals, such as pet rabbits, can become infestedwith mange mites or follicle mites, leading tounhealthy conditions of the animals. Dogs can beaffected by the scabies mite, Sarcoptes scabei var.canis, while cats and rabbits are affected by theburrowing mange mite Notoedres cati and the furmite, Cheyletiella. The best treatment for mangemites in these animals is dipping in an approvedacaricide. Dusts may be used for light or localizedmange mite infestations. These treatments alsowill kill fur mites.

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TICKSThere are more than 800 species of ticks belong-

ing to two families: the soft ticks (family Argasi-dae, 160 species) and the hard ticks (familyIxodidae, 650 species). Ticks are close relatives ofmites; many scientists feel that ticks evolved frommites into parasitic associations with animalsduring the time of the large reptiles (about 200million years ago).

Ticks are obligatory blood-feeders on vertebratehosts. This means that they depend entirely onblood for food and their survival. They parasitizereptiles, birds and mammals. Unlike mites, thereare no ticks that feed on plant juices or prey onother arthropods.

Ticks are of major world-wide veterinaryimportance for the following reasons:

1. They cause blood loss.2. Their feeding causes inflammation and irrita-

tion of the skin.3. They may stimulate hypersensitive allergic

reactions.4. They may cause a toxic reaction in the host,

complicated by paralysis (called “tick paralysis”).5. They transmit microorganisms that cause dis-

ease. Arthropods that transmit pathogenic microor-

ganisms are called “vectors” of the diseases thatthe pathogens cause. For example, Ixodes scapu-laris, commonly called the deer tick, is a vector ofLyme disease.

Hard TicksTicks are small arthropods, but all life stages

can be seen with the naked eye. Figure 3.6 showsan example of a hard tick. The feeding apparatusof a tick, like that of a mite, is called the hypos-tome. The hypostome allows the tick to suckblood. The legs are segmented. The rest of thebody of the tick is the abdomen. On the back ofthe abdomen of hard ticks is the scutum or shield.The scutum is often colored and has holes andlines in it (called “ornamentation”). The ornamen-tation of the scutum is important identifying hardticks. Some hard tick species have ridges or fes-toons in the abdomen. In female hard ticks, thescutum does not cover the abdomen completely.In male hard ticks, the scutum covers theabdomen. Ticks do not have antennae.

Soft TicksSoft ticks look very different than hard ticks.

The hypostome of soft ticks does not project for-ward — it is tucked underneath the abdomen and

is not visible from above. Soft ticks do not have ascutum, nor do they have elaborate colorationpatterns. Instead, the body is covered with bumpsand folds.

Tick Development and FeedingBiological development of ticks starts with the

egg stage and is followed by three more stages:six-legged larva, eight-legged nymph and eight-legged adult. Hard ticks have only one nymphalinstar (that is, one molt to the nymph stage, fol-lowed by a molt to the adult stage). Soft ticks mayhave up to seven nymphal molts, dependingupon the species of tick and the kind of life cycleinvolved.

Each stage of a tick must feed on blood. Blood isthe sole nutrient source for ticks and allows themto develop and molt to the next stage. For adultfemale ticks, blood provides the nutrients todevelop eggs.

Blood feeding by ticks is a complex behaviorand a physiological interaction with the hostbeing fed upon. Ticks usually locate hoststhrough “questing.” During questing behavior, atick climbs to a perch (such as a blade of grass orend of a branch) and extends its legs. When ananimal brushes against the perch, the tick grabsonto the animal’s fur. The tick then crawls aboutthe body of the animal until it finds a suitableplace to attach its mouthparts. The tick inserts itshypostome into the skin and secretes a cementfrom the salivary glands to hold the hypostome inplace. The tick then starts to take blood. For hardticks blood feeding lasts several days to weeks,depending on the length of attachment. Mostspecies of soft ticks blood-feed for only minutesto hours at a time. Many soft ticks do not quest asdescribed above, but walk to a host to feed.

Figure 3.6 The American dog tick (Dermacentorvariabilis), is an example of a hard tick.

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Tick Life CyclesTicks have complex life cycles involving several

blood meals with the same or different animalhosts and may include long periods of time whenthey are not on a host but living in the environ-ment. Indeed, one of the characteristic features ofticks is that even though they are highly depen-dent upon blood for food they may survive awayfrom a blood host for long periods. Some speciesof ticks can live for years without a host.

Soft ticks are usually associated with nests,dens, burrows, or roosts of their animal hosts.Soft ticks usually mate when they are not on ahost. Hard ticks are generally not associated soclosely with their hosts but are free-ranging andonly come into contact with animal hosts forblood feeding. Hard ticks usually mate when theyare on a host, oftentimes while the female isblood feeding. Because soft ticks take small bloodmeals for a short feeding period, the female onlylays a few hundred eggs during her lifetime, witheggs laid at intervals. Hard ticks take large bloodmeals and lay 6,000 or more eggs at one time.

Ticks have four generalized life cycles. Theselife cycles are related to the number of individualanimal hosts a tick will visit and feed on duringits life from egg to adult. The life cycles are calledone-host life cycle, two-host life cycle, three-host life cycle and multihost life cycle. Ticks areoften referred to by the kind of life cycle theyhave, for example, the American dog tick is athree-host tick.

The three-host life cycle has been adopted byabout 625 species of the hard tick family and isthe most common tick life cycle. The larvae find ahost and feed for days, then drop off the host andwait days to weeks for the blood meal to digest.Then they molt to the nymph stage. The nymphfinds a new host (of the same or a differentspecies of animal that the larva was feedingupon), blood-feeds, drops off and digests theblood. It then molts to the adult stage. These ticksquest for a new, third host. They feed and mateon this third host. The females drop off after feed-ing, digest the blood and lay eggs. Males stay onthe host, often do not feed, and die after mating.

In the three-host life cycle, the larvae andnymphs typically feed on smaller animals (forexample, birds or rodents) than do the adult ticks(for example, deer or cattle). Three-host tickcycles may take years to complete, depending onthe environmental and climatic conditions in thearea.

The two-host life cycle occurs in 12 of the hardtick species. This life cycle is very similar to thethree-host life cycle. Two-host ticks generally do

not occur in North America, though in other partsof the world they are extremely important pestsof animals.

The one-host tick life cycle occurs in about 12species of the hard tick family. Larvae, nymphsand adults all feed upon the same animal hostwithout dropping off of it to molt. One-host ticksare important pests of domesticated animals inNorth America and elsewhere.

The multihost life cycle is characteristic ofnearly all of the species of soft ticks. Multihost lifecycles take place in areas where host animalsdwell, such as dens, burrows, nests and othershelters. In this life cycle, many nymphal moltsoccur, and these nymphs are called intermediatestages. Larvae find a host in the shelter and thenfeed. They detach from the host, stay in the shel-ter, digest the blood and molt to the first-stagenymph. The nymphs repeat the feeding and otheractivities of the larvae. Individual nymphs feedand molt several times before molting to the adultstage. Adults quest for and feed on a host in thesame shelter as the nymphs and larvae. The adultticks may feed many times. The female ticks laysmall batches of eggs after each blood feeding.

DETECTING AND IDENTIFYING TICKSTicks can be detected on animals by direct

examination without use of a hand lens or micro-scope. Engorged ticks (those filled with blood) areparticularly easy to see because they are large andobvious, looking somewhat like a castor bean inshape and color. To find ticks on an animal, ruffleor comb hair or feathers to expose the skin andexamine skin directly. Ticks may have preferredattachment sites that protect them to a certaindegree from being dislodged by animal groom-ing. Areas around the head, in the ears, on theshoulders and other parts of the body can harborattached ticks. On cattle, ticks can be found inhighly vascularized areas of the skin (i.e., tail,udder). Unattached ticks can be recovered fromthe host by combing and examining the comb.

Ticks can be identified using references and bio-logical identification keys. Identification is impor-tant because certain tick species transmit agentswhich cause serious diseases, while others do not.Thus, correctly identifying ticks can help animalhealth care professionals decide the need for per-forming diagnostic tests for tick-borne diseases.

A pictorial key to the genera of adult ticks inthe United States is given at the end of this chap-ter. Identification of ticks to particular speciesoften requires contacting experts through localcounty extension offices or health departments.

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Immature ticks, larvae and nymphs, are difficultto identify even with the aid of a microscope.Consult an expert to determine if a particulararthropod is an immature tick and, if so, thespecies of the immature tick.

IMPORTANT TICKS AFFECTING ANIMALHEALTH

There are many species of ticks affecting animalhealth. Ticks may be found on companion ani-mals, livestock and other animals in agriculturalsettings and even animals in pet shops or zoos.Additionally, ticks are important ectoparasites ofwild animals and may seriously affect the vigorof individuals and the fitness of whole popula-tions.

Table 3.2 lists several important tick speciesfound in the United States, their distribution andcommon name, which domesticated animals theticks commonly parasitize and the diseases theyare associated with as vectors. The following textprovides detailed information about the impor-tant ticks of the northcentral part of the UnitedStates.

The American dog tick Dermacentor variabilis,(Fig. 3.6) is widespread in the eastern UnitedStates. The American dog tick is brown withwhite ornamentation on the scutum (shield on theabdomen) in the adult stage. It parasitizes wild,woodland rodents in the larval and nymphalstages, and as an adult it commonly occurs ondogs and wild canines, cattle, horses, raccoons,opossums, and humans.

The American dog tick is a three-host tick. It isan important vector of the microorganisms thatcauses Rocky Mountain spotted fever. This dis-ease is also known as American tick-bornetyphus. Dogs and humans can contract RockyMountain spotted fever, a serious and potentiallyfatal disease characterized by unusual spottedrashes and high fever.

The winter tick, Dermacentor albipictus, (Figure.3.7) is a common tick with an inactive summerperiod but an active winter time. Though inactivein the summer, larvae quest for hosts in the fall.They find and parasitize large animals (rumi-nants and horses) during the winter. It is a one-host tick, spending all of the winter on a host. Inthe northcentral U.S., this tick is a common

Table 3.2 Common ticks affecting animal health in the northcentral region of the United States

Tick TickAnimals Common Scientific Geographical DiseaseParasitized Name Name Distribution Associations

Cattle, horses American Dermacentor Eastern U.S., Rocky Mountaindogs, cats dog tick variabilis California Spotted Fever

Wide range of Lone star Amblyomma Southern states Rocky Mountainbirds, mammals tick americanum east of Texas Spotted Fever

Ruminants, Winter tick Dermacentor North America, horses albipictus widespread

Poultry Fowl tick Argas Southern U.S. &persicus sporadically north

Rodents, Deer, bear Ixodes Upper midwest, Lyme diseasecattle, horses tick scapularis eastern coast deer, dogs, cats states

Dogs mainly Brown dog Rhipicephalus Worldwide,tick sanguineus indoors

TickAnimals Common Scientific Geographical DiseaseParasitized Name Name Distribution Associations

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Figure 3.7 Winter tick (Dermacentor albipictus).Source: Peter Carrington

ectoparasite of white-tailed deer, elk and moose.It will also parasitize cattle and horses that arepastured or ranged in winter. Tick loads canexceed thousands of ticks per animal. The wintertick is not a vector of pathogenic microorganisms,but it can cause problems leading to blood lossand allergic reactions in affected animals.

The lone star tick, Amblyomma americanum,(Figure 3.8) is a common and problematic tick ofthe southcentral and southeastern United States,but these ticks appear every year in north centralstates (probably brought up by northwardlymigrating birds). The tick gets its name from thebright, lone star-like spot on the scutum. Themale and immature ticks lack this spot. Lone starticks are vectors of Rocky Mountain spotted feverrickettsiae. The lone star tick is a three-host tick. Itparasitizes a wide range of birds (particularly bylarvae and nymphs) and mammals, including cat-tle, horses, sheep, dogs and humans.

Figure 3.8 The lone star tick (Amblyomma americanum)is a common and problematic tick of the south centraland southeastern United States. These ticks appearevery year in north central states (probably brought upby northwardly migrating birds).

Ixodes scapularis is the vector (transmitting organ-ism) in the eastern U.S. of Borrelia burgdorferi, thebacterial organism that causes Lyme disease. Lymedisease is a chronic, debilitating disease that ini-tially manifests itself as a rash in humans and maylater lead to chronic arthritis and possibly heartand nervous system problems. Dogs, horses andpossibly cattle show some symptoms of Lyme dis-ease, indicating that they can become infected fol-lowing an infectious tick bite.

Other ticks of veterinary importance in thenorthcentral region of the U.S. include Argasradiatus, the fowl tick. This tick may infest domes-ticated poultry, but it is rare and occurs mainly insouthern states. If importing animals, isolate andexamine the them for ticks.

MANAGEMENT OF TICKS ON ANIMALSManagement of ticks affecting livestock or com-

panion animals varies with the species of tick andkind of animal that needs protection. For largeanimals, such as cattle and horses, tick control canbe enhanced with vegetation management thatmodifies the tick habitat. Animals can then bepastured in areas where tick questing areas havebeen reduced.

On animals, tick control can be achieved usingapproved acaricides by dipping, spraying theentire animal with high-pressure sprays or wholeanimal dusts. Insecticide-impregnated ear tagsoffer some protection and control when ticks areinfesting mainly the ears.

When only a single or a few ticks are on an ani-mal, simply remove them using tweezers or fin-gers. Grasp the tick as close to the skin as possibleand pull firmly away until it detaches. Be sure notto squeeze the tick – you could cause any diseaseorganism in the tick to go into the animal. Do notremove ticks by burning, or using materials suchas kerosene or diesel fuel. With heavy infestations,animals should be dipped, dusted or shampooedwith an acaricide and then combed thoroughly torid the ticks from the body of the animal.

Figure 3.9 Black-legged tick (Ixodes scapularis).

The black-legged tick, Ixodes scapularis, (Figure3.9) is a three-host tick with a prolonged two-yearlife cycle. In the larval and nymphal stages, itquests for woodland rodents, such as mice andchipmunks, but it will also parasitize ground-for-aging birds. Adult ticks are found on larger-sizedwild mammals, but will also parasitize humans,dogs, cats, horses and cattle.

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Chapter 3 – Review Questions

Write the answers to the following questionsand then check your answers with those in theback of this manual.

1. What features of mites and ticks generally dis-tinguishes them from insects?a. Four legsb. Two major body partsc. Three major body partsd. Six legs

2. What four ways do mites affect the health ofanimals?

3. What is one of the most common problems thatmites cause in animals? a. Death.b. Mange.c. Scabies.d. Weight loss.e. b and c.

4. Describe the generalized life cycle of mites.

5. How long is the entire life cycle of a mite?a. Eight days to four weeks.b. 24 hoursc. Two daysd. Two months.

6. Why do sarcoptic mange mites cause intenseitching and dermatitis on the animals theyinfest?

7. Animals affected with sarcoptic mange mayscratch so heavily that liquid exudes from theaffected skin, causing skin crusts and skincracking and thickening. (True or False)

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8. Secondary infection is common in scratchedareas. (True or False)

9. Sarcoptic mange mites typically infest the hairi-est parts of an animal’s body. (True or False)

10. How can you detect and identify non-burrow-ing mange mites?a. Observe with a hand lens.b. Combe the animal with a mite comb.c. Skin scrapings.d. a and b.

11. Follicle mites are common parasites of cats,dogs, horses and other large animals. (True orFalse)

12. In healthy animals, follicle mites normally donot cause any skin deterioration or mangeconditions. (True or False)

13. In weak or diseased animals, follicle mites cancause two skin conditions to develop. Describethem.

14. What are the skin conditions caused by folliclemites called?

15. Both endo- and ectoparasitic types of mitesexist. (True or False)

16. Describe why ticks are of major worldwideveterinary importance.

17. Each developmental stage of a tick must feedon blood because blood is the sole nutrientsource for ticks and allows them to developand molt to the next stage. (True or False)

18. Ticks can be detected on animals by directexamination without use of a hand lens ormicroscope. (True or False)

19. If an animal has ticks, what are the controloptions?

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CHAPTER 4

CHEWING AND SUCKING LICE

LEARNING OBJECTIVESAfter you finish studying this chapter, you

should be able to:■ Tell what sucking and chewing lice feed on.■ Describe the general appearance of lice.■ Explain the general life cycle of lice.■ Know what types of lice are associated with

various agricultural animals.

■ Know where lice typically infest on an agri-cultural animal’s body.

■ Understand how to control lice and preventthe spread of lice on agricultural animals.

CHEWING AND SUCKING LOUSE COMPARISONS

Lice (singular: louse) are insects belonging toeither the sucking louse order (Anoplura) or thechewing or biting louse order (Mallophaga). Alllice are obligatory (dependent on) ectoparasites ofbirds and mammals. There are about 460 speciesof sucking lice and 3,000 species of chewing lice.Sucking lice feed solely on blood and havemouthparts designed for sucking. Their mouth-parts penetrate the skin and actually fit into ablood vessel, from which the blood meal isdrawn. Sucking lice only occur on mammals.

Biting lice have mouthparts designed for chew-ing, not sucking, and they feed on feathers, hairand skin scales. They live on mammals and birds.An infestation of lice is called pediculosis.

Lice are highly host-specific—that is, a particu-lar species of louse is generally associated withonly one kind of animal host. Often, a species oflouse is restricted to one part of the body of onekind of animal host. Lice do not survive long ifthey are removed from their host, so they live onthe host all the time. They are transferred fromhost to host by direct contact. Table 4.1 lists thehosts and the common chewing lice associatedwith them. Table 4.2 lists the hosts and the com-mon sucking lice associated with them.

Infestations of lice are associated with over-crowding and poor sanitation in the animal’senvironment. Infestations are seen mostly in the

winter, primarily because long winter hair coatsare desirable homes for lice. Populations are lim-ited by summer heat.

Lice are wingless insects that are flat from topto bottom. They are usually tiny to minute in size(from 1 to 5 mm in length), though they can beseen with the naked eye. Figure 4.1a shows a typ-ical chewing louse and Figure 4.1b shows a typi-cal sucking louse. The head of a sucking louse ismuch narrower than that of a chewing louse.

Figure 4.1a shows a typical chewing louse; Figure 4.1b isa typical sucking louse. The head of a sucking louse ismuch narrower than that of a chewing louse. As a gen-eral rule, the head of a sucking louse is narrower thanthe thorax (middle body part), whereas the head of achewing louse is wider than the thorax. The legs oftenhave claws to grasp hairs or feathers.

4.1a 4.1b

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Table 4.1 The common chewing (biting) lice affecting animals in the U.S.

Cat Cat biting louse Felicola substrata

Dog Dog biting louse Trichodectes canis

Dog biting louse Heterodoxus spiniger

Horse Horse biting louse Bovicola equi

Cattle Cattle biting louse, Bovicola bovisRed louse

Sheep Sheep biting louse Bovicola equi

Goat biting louse Bovicola caprae

Goat Goat biting louse Bovicola caprae

Angora goat biting louse Bovicola limbatus

Chicken Wing louse Lipeurus caponis

Chicken head louse* Cuclotogaster heterographus

Chicken body louse** Menacanthus stramineus

Shaft louse Menopon gallinae

Fluff louse Goniocotes gallinae

Large chicken louse Goniocotes gigas

Turkey Chicken body louse** Menacanthus stramineus

Large turkey louse Chelopistes meleagridis

* The chicken head louse also infests penned pheasants.** The chicken body louse also infests a variety of other domesticated fowl (guinea and pea fowl,

quail, pheasants, ducks, geese)

Animal Host Common Name Louse Species

As a general rule, the head of a sucking louse isnarrower than the thorax (middle body part),whereas the head of a chewing louse is wider

than the thorax. The legs often have claws tograsp hairs or feathers.

LIFE CYCLE OF LICEThe eggs of lice are called nits and are

cemented to hairs or feathers on an animal host.The eggs hatch and larval lice, called nymphs,emerge. Nymphs blood-feed. Nymphs continueto feed and molt three times before maturing intoan adult male or female louse. The adult lice mateand the females lay eggs onto host hairs or feath-ers. The entire life cycle takes up to 30 days ormore depending upon temperature. All life stagesof lice occur on the host.

EFFECTS OF LICE ON ANIMAL HEALTHA single animal may be infested with thousands

of lice. Their feeding activity results in hair orfeather loss, blood loss, skin irritation and sec-ondary infection. Lousy animals may be weakand susceptible to other infestations or diseases.Infested animals will scratch frequently, worsen-

ing the condition. However, grooming by the hostanimal may remove lice and help lessen theeffects of lice activity. Also, an animal’s immunesystem may affect lice and reduce their numbers.Some animals may be infested with lice and showno ill effects. For example, one study showed that50% of the individuals in a herd of beef cattlewere infested with lice but only 2% were severelyinfested and showed pathological signs.

Cattle LiceRanged, pastured and confined cattle can be

infested with lice. Five different species of licemay infest cattle including both chewing lice (onespecies) and sucking lice (four species). However,only some of these are common enough to havean important effect on animal health and well-being. Another, cattle tail louse, is tropical andoccurs in Florida and the gulf coast states, so itwill not be considered here.

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Table 4.2 The common sucking lice affecting animals in the U.S.

Dog Dog sucking louse Linognathus setsus

Horse Horse sucking louse Haematopinus asini

Cattle Shortnosed cattle louse Haematopinus eurysternus

Cattle tail louse Haematopinus quadripertusus

Longnosed cattle louse Linognathus vituli

Little blue cattle louse Solenoptes capillatus

Sheep Face and body louse Linognathus ovillus

Sheep foot louse Linognathus pedalis

Goat Face and body louse Linognathus stenopsis

Swine Hog louse Haematopinus suis

Animal Host Common Name Louse Species

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The only species of chewing louse that occurson cattle is the cattle biting louse or the red louse(see Figure 4.2) probably the most important typeof louse on cattle. Like the other species of lice oncattle, populations of the cattle biting louse buildup in the fall and peak during the winter monthswhen animals are crowded together. It occurs onboth beef and dairy cattle. Lice typically infest thebase of the tail, back line and shoulders, but infes-tations spread to other parts of the body as lousenumbers increase. They feed on shed skin scales.

The important sucking lice on dairy cattle arethe longnosed cattle louse (see Figure 4.3) andthe little blue cattle louse (see Figure 4.4). Theshortnosed cattle louse (Figure 4.5) occursmainly on beef cattle but may also occur on dairycattle. These lice typically occur on the head (baseof the horns) and neck, dewlap, back and shoul-ders, base of the tail and rump.

Animals with biting louse infestations may lookshaggy, discolored and ragged. They will spendnoticeable time licking and rubbing themselves.Usually calves, yearlings and old animals arethose that become infested, but cattle of all agescan harbor lice. Transfer of lice from cow to calfprovides a mechanism for louse infestation ofyoung animals. Lice must often be controlled orprevented on cattle.

Experts believe that the effects of lice on cattleare greatly underestimated; the USDA estimatesthat losses in production and costs of control inthe beef industry due to lice exceed $126 millionannually. Whether lice cause reductions in milkproduction in dairy cows is not known. However,there are no good economic thresholds that guidepest control decisions. Some authorities recom-mend louse control if a moderate infestation of 3-10 lice per square inch of skin is detected.Following these guidelines, an infestation ofgreater than 10 lice per square inch is a severeinfestation. Some authorities recommend controlif three lice per square inch are found. Detectinglice on cattle requires direct inspection by two-hand parting of hair and examining hair and skinfor presence of lice and nits. If exact species iden-tification is desired, lice can be mounted on glassslides in oil and examined with a microscope.

Hog LiceOne species of sucking louse occurs on swine,

the hog louse (Figure 4.6). No biting lice occur onswine. The hog louse usually infests its hostbehind the ears and between the legs. In heavyinfestations, the lice will spread to other areas ofthe body. All ages of hogs can be infested. The hoglouse can carry the virus that causes swine pox.

Hog lice bloodfeed in groups while clinging tohost hairs. Lice feeding causes a deterioration ofskin because the animals are irritated and scratchand rub heavily at infested sites. Infested animalsmay become weakened and, consequently, moresusceptible to other diseases. Detecting lice onhogs requires direct examination of affected areas.

Figure 4.2 Cattle bitinglouse or the red louse.

Figure 4.3 Longnosed cattle louse.

Figure 4.4 Little blue cattlelouse.

Figure 4.5 Shortnosed cattle louse. Figure 4.6 Hog louse.

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Low level infestations of sheep foot louse usu-ally occur on their feet. These lice may spreadupward to the legs, scrotum and belly. This louseis more common on rams. It does not cause muchinjury to sheep.

Goats carry two species of chewing lice and onespecies of sucking louse. The goat biting louse(Figure 4.9) feeds on the skin, but burrows intohair follicles causing itching, inflammation, hairloss and poor hair coat quality. The face andbody louse, a sucking louse on goats (Figure 4.10)occurs mainly on the neck, underline and aroundthe udder. Another biting louse, the Angora goatbiting louse occurs on Angora goats. It feeds sim-ilarly to the goat biting louse, is similar in appear-ance and causes damage to the hair coat.

Detection of lice on goats and sheep requiresdirect examination. Wool and hair deteriorationare signs of infestations.

Poultry LiceChickens and other fowl harbor only chewing

lice. Although many species of lice infest poultry(at least six on chickens and two on turkeys), themajor species of concern is the chicken body louse(Figure 4.11). Body lice on chickens are found closeto where the feathers meet the skin. The nits (eggs)are white clusters on the feather shafts. The lice areyellowish-white and can be seen on feathers andskin. They feed on skin scales.

Sheep and Goat LiceSheep harbor two species of sucking louse and

one species of biting louse. Louse infestations onsheep are heaviest in winter. Sheep that are heav-ily louse infested may yield less fleece and fleeceof lower quality than noninfested sheep.

The most common louse on sheep is the sheepbiting louse (Figure 4.7) These lice eat skin scalesand irritate the host. Sheep scratch and rubinfested areas causing wool loss and fleece dam-age. The face and body louse is often called theface louse or sucking body louse (see Figure 4.8).It occurs on all parts of the sheep except thelimbs. Limited infestations are found mainlyaround the face wool.

Figure 4.7. Sheep bitinglouse.

Figure 4.8. Face and bodylouse or the sucking bodylouse.

Figure 4.9. Goat bitinglouse.

Figure 4.10. Face and bodylouse of goats.

Turkeys may also be infested with chicken bodylouse. Another louse pest of turkeys is the largeturkey louse.

In contrast with cattle lice, poultry lice are usu-ally more common in the summer than in thewinter. Chicken body lice can heavily infest hensin caged layer houses. Some authorities estimatethat louse infestations cause as much as 46%decrease in egg production. Lice can be found onpoultry by direct examination of skin and feathershafts.

Figure 4.11. Chicken body louse.

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Lice of Companion Animals and HorsesDogs, cats and horses may occasionally be

infested with lice. There are no sucking lice spe-cific to dogs and cats, but each may be infestedwith chewing lice. Horses may harbor one speciesof sucking louse and one species of chewinglouse. Both are most likely to infest horses in win-ter when the hair is long. The horse biting lousefeeds on skin debris as do other biting lice. Thehorse sucking louse is similar in appearance andbiology to other sucking lice. To prevent lice frommoving among horses in an infested herd, disin-fect saddle blankets, curry combs, brushes andtack. Because horses do not tolerate pressuresprays well, apply insecticides with a wet sponge.

MANAGING LICE ON CATTLE AND OTHERLIVESTOCK

Preventing lice infestations involves isolating orculling chronic louse carriers so that lice will notbe transferred to non-infested animals. Check ani-mals and treat for lice before adding them to aherd or flock.

When lice reach unacceptable numbers on indi-vidual cattle as determined by thresholds, behav-ioral changes or by being spread to othermembers of a herd, then lice must be controlled.Some recommendations suggest pest controltreatments if three lice per square inch are found.An infestation of greater than 10 lice per squareinch is considered severe. Louse control on ani-mals involves use of insecticides. Some insecti-cides cannot be used on calves under 3 months oron lactating cows. Other insecticides have treat-ment intervals related to slaughter times to pre-vent insecticide residuals in the meat. Read alllabel directions and precautions before applyingproducts to animals.

Cattle often have both louse and grub (fly mag-gots, see Chapter 6 – Flies) infestations at thesame time. Early fall applications of some insecti-cides provide both lice and grub control. Theseapplications may be pour-ons, coarse sprays,spot-ons, dips or injections. Once fly grubs enter acow’s body and begin developing (approximatelyNovember 1 to February 1), systemic insecticidescan not be used for louse or grub control. This isbecause if grubs are killed when inside the

animals body they decompose, releasing toxins.These grub toxins cause a toxic reaction in cattleand possibly death. Only surface applied insecti-cides that are non-systemic should be used forlouse control during winter periods. It is duringthe winter that cattle louse numbers often peakand grubs may be developing internally. There-fore, pest managers must select their manage-ment tactics carefully.

Check treated animals for lice at two-weekintervals after application, and retreat if lice arefound. Retreatment is often necessary becausemany insecticides do not kill lice eggs or nits.Eggs that survive an insecticide treatment mayhatch and reinfest the animal.

Lice control measures on hogs are similar tomethods used for mange control (see Chapter 3).The lice life cycle must be completely broken oneach animal. Follow all precautions when han-dling and treating baby pigs since they are verysusceptible to insecticide toxicity. Therefore, theleast risky louse management for swine is to con-trol them on the sow. If the sow does not havelice, the suckling pigs will not be infested fromcontact with their mother.

Certain insecticides are not labeled for use onlactating or gestating sows or young pigs. If liceare present, treat newly weaned pigs and finish-ing pigs. Treat boars for lice before breeding. Theintervals before slaughter vary from 0 to 30 daysdepending on the insecticide used. Apply insecti-cides as coarse sprays, pour-ons, dips, dusts orinjections. As with cattle, monitor swine for lice attwo-week intervals after application and retreat ifnewly hatched lice appear.

Louse control on sheep and goats is accom-plished with sprays, dips or pour-ons of regis-tered insecticides. Lambs under three monthsshould not be treated with some insecticides. Fol-low all label directions carefully. Additionally,treatment-slaughter intervals of 15-30 days applyin certain cases.

Louse control on poultry requires pressurizedspray applications of wettable powder or emulsi-fiable concentrate insecticides to the bodies ofbirds. Dusts or other appropriate insecticide for-mulations must be applied to the nest boxes andlitter at the same time the birds are being treated.Treating one and not the other will not result inan effective louse control program.

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4. List two ways lice infestations can be influenced or reduced on animals.

5. Why is it important to control lice on both adultanimals prior to mating?

6. To prevent reinfestations from surviving eggs,the of the ______________________ lice must becompletely broken on each host animal.

7. The cattle biting lice:a. populations typically build up in the spring

and summer.b. only occurs on beef cattle.c. typically infest the base of the tail, back line

and shoulders first.d. feed on blood.

Write the answers to the following questionsand then check your answers with those in theback of this manual.

1. What do sucking lice eat? How do they obtainit?

2. Lice can survive for extended periods of timebetween hosts. (True or False)

3. Describe the physical difference between sucking and chewing lice.

Chapter 4 – Review Questions

67

CHAPTER 5

FLEAS

LEARNING OBJECTIVESAfter you finish studying this chapter, you

should be able to:■ Identify a flea and describe its appearance.■ Explain the life cycle of fleas.■ Know which stages of the flea live on the

animal and which do not.■ Describe the reasons that fleas are pests to

animals.■ Understand how flea bite dermatitis devel-

ops and affects the animal.■ Develop an integrated flea management pro-

gram.

■ Understand and follow all precautions forhuman and animal safety when selectingand using flea control products.

■ Explain the importance of treating the ani-mal as well as the animal’s environmentwhen controlling flea populations.

■ List the components of an effective flea lar-vae control program.

■ Explain the importance of regular sanitationin controlling fleas.

FLEA LIFE CYCLEFleas are insects of the order Siphonaptera

(meaning siphon-like mouth and no wings). Theyare very small (2 to 4 mm in length), brown andflattened from side to side. Flea eggs are glossywhite and oval. Immature fleas (larvae) are hairyand maggot-like in appearance. There are threeinstars, or developmental stages, of flea larvae,beginning with the larva that hatches from theegg. The second instar molts, or sheds the skin,and emerges out of the first instar. The thirdinstar flea larva does the same, emerging from thesecond instar skin. With each molt, the flea larvagrows larger. The third instar flea larva spins asilken cocoon and covers the cocoon with mater-ial from its environment. It molts inside of thecocoon to become a pupa. After a period of devel-opment the adult flea emerges from the pupa.The entire life cycle of a flea, from egg to adult,may take as few as 12 days or may last as long as140 days, depending on temperature. Also, fleasmay “rest” in the pre-emerged adult stage, insidethe cocoon, if no hosts are available for the adultsto jump onto.

Though there are over 2,000 species of fleas, thelife cycle is similar in almost all of them. Adult

fleas obtain a blood meal from their animal hosts.They do not utilize any other kind of food. Thus,adult fleas are ectoparasites. In contrast, flea lar-vae live in the environment near the host animalbut do not live on the animal. So, flea larvae arenot ectoparasites.

Figure 5.1 Flea life cycle.

EGGSPUPA

LARVAE

ADULT2-3 weeks underoptimal conditions

Commonly 1-2 weeksCommonly 2-12 days

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The fleas of primary importance to domesticanimals, whether companion or food animals, arethe dog flea, cat flea and sticktight flea. Table 5.1lists the scientific and common names of somefleas and shows which animals commonly serve

as their hosts. Dog and cat fleas are intermediatehosts for dog tapeworms. The sticktight flea isfound only in the southern United States in associ-ation with poultry in poorly managed situations.

Table 5.1 Common fleas affecting domesticated animals in the U.S.

Swine Ctenocephalides felis Cat flea

Chicken Echidnophaga gallinacea Sticktight flea

Ferret Ctenocephalides felis Cat flea

Dog Ctenocephalides canis Dog fleaCtenocephalides felis Cat flea

Cat Ctenocephalides felis Cat flea

Host Animal Flea Species Common Name

DOG AND CAT FLEAS: LIFE HISTORYIn many parts of the United States, the dog flea

has been replaced by the cat flea as the most com-monly found flea on both dogs and cats. Thesefleas are so similar in appearance and biologythat we can treat them as basically the same.However, the scientific names are different. Thedog flea is called Ctenocephalitides canis, and thecat flea is called Ctenocephalides felis (dog flea andcat flea will do).

The cat flea is an extremely important pest ofthese animals. In instances of heavy infestationwhere there are many fleas on an individual ani-mal, the blood loss can be great and lead to pooranimal health. Young animals may become ane-mic (weakened by blood loss) from heavy, regularfeeding by fleas. Kittens and puppies can diefrom heavy infestations of fleas. At the least, fleabites are very irritating and cause animals to itch,which leads to scratching, adding to the irritationof their skin. Additionally, many dogs and catsdevelop flea bite dermatitis, an allergic conditionthat can be brought on by a single flea bite in anallergic or sensitized animal. In extreme condi-tions, animals develop “hot spots” (or “acutemoist dermatitis”) where they continually scratchat highly inflamed sites on the skin, creating con-ditions for bacterial infection. A hot spot ispainful to the animal and may exude pus.

Dog and cat fleas have very similar life cycles.(Figure 5.1.) The adult fleas spend virtually all oftheir lives on the host. They mate on the host, andboth male and female fleas feed on blood by bit-ing their host. The fleas feed daily and the femalefleas lay eggs that drop from the host animal intothe environment. A female lays a few eggs eachday and several hundred over the course of herlife. Flea eggs accumulate in areas where the hostspends most of its time. In addition, the fleasdefecate small pellets of digested blood into thehost hair. These feces also drop off into the envi-ronment. A flea comb will gather these feces andflea eggs at the base of the tines. This providesevidence of flea infestation on dogs or cats.

Flea larvae occur indoors and outdoors, wher-ever the eggs have fallen off of the host. Inhouses, flea larvae live in carpeting, furniture,animal bedding and other protected areas withhigh humidity. Flea larvae can also live outdoorsin areas where animals spend time (such as underporches, in dog houses, etc.). Because flea larvaedepend upon the fecal pellets of dried blood pro-duced by the adult fleas for food, larvae cannotsurvive in places that do not get a steady supplyof adult flea feces. Therefore, flea larvae do notlive in lawns or other outdoor areas unless the petfrequents those areas enough to provide food forthe larvae.

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Adult fleas inside the cocoon, called pre-emerged fleas, can stay in that condition forweeks to months if no host is available. However,when disturbed by the presence of a host (such aspassing vibrations, carbon dioxide from exhaledbreath, or other factors), the pre-emerged fleasactivate, leave the cocoon and jump onto the host.This is why it is possible to return to a house orapartment that has been empty for months andfind it full of fleas.

FLEA MANAGEMENTManaging fleas on animals requires an inte-

grated approach. Both the host animal and theenvironment must be treated at the same time tobe effective. Control of fleas on the animal gener-ally requires the use of insecticides. Although fleacombs can remove some fleas, combing is a bettermethod for detecting fleas than for removingthem from the animal.

Insecticides. A range of insecticides in theorganophosphate, carbamate, pyrethrin andpyrethroid categories are available for flea controlon the animal. Greyhounds and cats are more sen-sitive to insecticide products than most dogs.Read all insecticide labels and follow all precau-tions and dose directions. Consult a veterinarian ifyou have questions. The pyrethrins andpyrethroids have the lowest mammalian toxicity.These insecticides come in formulations such asshampoo, dust and powder, mousse, aerosol andnon-aerosol mist or spray, dip, spot-on, roll-onand collar. Organophosphate drugs are also avail-able, by prescriptions from veterinarians, for oraluse. Some on-animal formulations contain insectgrowth regulators that kill flea eggs on the animal.

Treating the animal. When treating an animal, theapplicator must take precautions to protect him-or herself from contact with the insecticide. Allpersonal protective equipment listed on the labelmust be worn. As a minimum, chemical-resistantgloves, apron and goggles should be worn whilemixing insecticides and during application to pre-vent insecticide contact with the skin. The work-ing area should be appropriate for containment ofthe pesticide and should be resistant to causticmaterials. A stainless steel preparation table andstainless steel or ceramic tub have these qualities.

The insecticides used for flea control varywidely in toxicity and efficacy. Considerations forselecting a formulation include the size andweight of the animal as well as the species. Forexample, cats groom themselves more than dogsand are more likely to ingest an insecticide andbecome poisoned by licking the residue from theirfur. Cats are more sensitive to organophosphate

insecticides than are dogs. Some insecticides thatcan be used on dogs cannot be used on cats. Readand follow all label directions. Kittens and pup-pies, because of their smaller size, require a lowerdose than do adult animals. Young animals mayalso require treatment with insecticides of lowertoxicity than adult animals. Some products shouldnever be used on puppies or kittens. Pregnant ornursing animals may be sensitive to certain insec-ticides. Veterinarians should have accurate infor-mation on insecticides and their use for fleacontrol on animals. The insecticide label containsaccurate information on how a particular formula-tion of an insecticide should and should not beused. READ THE LABEL BEFORE OPENINGTHE CONTAINER!

Mixing insecticides before shampooing an animalrequires protective equipment and a good working surface.

Protective equipment (gloves, apron, goggles) should beworn during insecticide applications onto animals.

70

Treating the animal’s environment. The otherimportant part of an integrated flea managementprogram is to control larval fleas in the environ-ment or larval habitat away from the animal. Thiscan be achieved mechanically or physically andwith insecticides.

Mechanical or physical control of flea larvaerequires removing and laundering animal bed-ding and thoroughly cleaning areas frequentedby the animal. Vacuuming with a beater bar andimmediately disposing of the waste bag (to pre-vent eggs from hatching) effectively eliminates upto half of the larvae and eggs in carpet. Do notput insecticides in the vacuum cleaner bag. Thisis an illegal use of the products and can harmyou, your family and pets by creating dusts orfumes that could be inhaled.

Flea management requires patience, time andcareful planning. Vacuuming and cleaning ofareas frequented by dogs and cats should be aregular, routine part of house cleanliness and petcare. The same applies to kennels. If an infesta-tion occurs, insecticide applications on the ani-mals or in the environment may have to berepeated according to the intervals listed on thelabel and depending upon the efficacy of thetreatments. Retreatment and time intervalsbetween insecticide treatments will vary with thekind of insecticide and the formulation.

Successful flea control will not happen if onlyone approach, such as dipping the dog, is used.The animal and the environment in which it livesmust be treated simultaneously, and that treat-ment must be combined with regular sanitationefforts. Read all product labels carefully. Do notoverexpose your pet by combining too manytreatments at one time, such as a collar, a sham-poo and a dust. Pesticides have a cumulativeeffect. Be aware of each product’s toxicity and donot endanger yourself or the animal by usingexcessive amounts of any one product or by com-bining products.

When using insecticides for flea control,remember that the applicator and the animalowner can be exposed to the insecticides at sev-eral times in the management process. The labelmay call for the use of gloves and other protectiveequipment during application and suggest thepet not be handled with unprotected hands untilthe treatment dries. Also, certain parts of the pet’sbody (such as the eyes) may be sensitive to theinsecticides and must be shielded during applica-tion.

The applicator should follow label directionsand application guidelines carefully to minimizeexposure during and after application. Whenusing flea “bombs” (aerosol cans with a self-releasing mechanism), follow all the precautionsand remove the pets from the area being treated.Using excessive rates is illegal and can result infires and even explosions.

Launder animal bedding and thoroughly clean areas theanimal frequents. Dispose of the vacuum waste bag afterevery cleaning.

Carpet shampooing rids the carpet of bloodfeces, an important food for the larvae, and mayalso remove eggs and larvae. In outdoor areas,cleaning up the places where animals like to restreduces eggs and larvae and removes blood pel-lets. In yards and kennels, flea larvae will befound in cracks at wall-floor junctions and infloor crevices. These areas must be thoroughlycleaned and then maintained to prevent anotherinfestation.

Chemical control of flea larvae can be achievedwith insecticides. Organophosphate, carbamate,pyrethrin, pyrethroid and growth regulator (hor-mone mimic) insecticides and certain minerals areavailable for flea control in the environment.These insecticides are formulated as coarsesprays, foggers, dusts or are microencapsulated.All but the growth regulators kill flea larvae oncontact. Insect growth regulators prevent flea lar-vae from developing to the adult stage. Growthregulators may also inhibit egg hatching. A goodflea larval control program incorporates sanita-tion, contact insecticides and growth regulatorsfor good results.

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6. Flea eggs can accumulate on the host as well asin areas where the host animal spends most ofits time. (True or False)

7. Flea larvae feed on:a. Fur.b. Animal dander.c. Lawn grasses.d. Adult flea fecal pellets of blood.e. All of the above.

8. What are two important parts to an integratedflea management program?

9. Cats are more sensitive to organophosphatesthan dogs. (True or False)

10. Releasing excessive rates of flea “bombs” canresult in ________________________________ .

Write the answers to the following questionsand then check your answers with those in theback of this manual.

1. Kittens and puppies can die from heavy infesta-tions of fleas. (True or False)

2. What is “flea bite dermatitis”?

3. How does a flea infestation lead to the develop-ment of “hot spots” (or “acute moist dermati-tis”) on animals?

4. Dogs are the only hosts for dog fleas and catsare the only hosts for cat fleas. (True or False)

5. How many eggs might a female flea lay in aday? How many eggs would she lay in her life?

Chapter 5 – Review Questions

72

CHAPTER 6

FLIES

LEARNING OBJECTIVESAfter you finish studying this chapter, you

should be able to:■ Understand the general life cycle of flies.■ List the three groups of biting and nuisance

flies.■ Explain how various flies are pests of ani-

mals.■ Describe the three components of a biting-fly

management program.

■ Explain why house fly populations canquickly build to enormous levels.

■ Understand the need for an integrated man-agement program for filth flies and animalwaste management.

■ Describe the options available for managingflies on and around animals.

Flies are insects with only one pair of wings.They belong to the insect order called Diptera(meaning “two wings”). Although most kinds offlies are harmless to animals, several families offlies are major pests of animals and often requiremanagement. Some flies are vectors of animaldiseases.

The fly pests of animals fall into three groups:■ Blood-feeding flies not associated with manure

or animal waste.■ Filth flies associated with animal waste or

manure.■ Parasitic bot flies.

All flies have a true metamorphosis life cycle(the immature stages or larvae appear worm-likeand may sometimes be true maggots). Some filthflies, especially the stable fly, are also bloodfeeders.

BITING, BLOOD-FEEDING FLIESBlood-feeding flies: Mosquitoes, black flies, bit-

ing midges, deer flies, and horse flies are blood-feeding flies. Only the female flies take blood.They use it for egg yolk development inside theabdomen. The females have piercing mouthpartsthat are either blade-like and cut the skin or nee-dle-like and pierce the skin. The mouthpartstaken together are called the proboscis. Male fliesin these groups feed on nectar or other sugar

sources. Table 6.1 lists the groups of blood-feeding flies. Various blood-feeding flies areshown in Figure 6.1.

Figure 6.1 Blood-feeding flies: a. Mosquito b. Black flyc. Biting midge d. Deer fly e. Horse fly.

a.b.

c.

d. e.

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Mosquitos’ developmental cycle includes anaquatic larval stage. Mosquito eggs are laid singlyor in clusters on or near water. Larvae hatch fromthe eggs and develop in the water. The larvaefeed on a variety of microorganisms and organicmatter in the water and develop through four lar-val stages or instars to the pupal stage. Adultmosquitoes emerge from the pupae and fly away.Female mosquitoes seek out animal hosts byusing cues such as carbon dioxide and moisturein exhaled breath to find them. Most mosquitoesseek hosts in the evening or at night, thoughsome bite in the daytime. Once they have foundan animal host, mosquitoes search its body untilthey find a bare patch of skin. Then the mosquitoprobes the skin with its needle-like mouthparts,finds a blood vessel and sucks blood. Usuallyonly a few minutes are required for blood feed-ing. Some large animals may experience hun-dreds to thousands of mosquito bites per night ifleft unprotected. After blood feeding, theengorged female mosquito leaves the animal andrests in the environment while the eggs develop.She then lays eggs and seeks a host for bloodagain. A single mosquito may bite several timesin its lifetime.

Many mosquitoes bite domestic animals andcause injury by blood loss and create woundswhere bacteria may invade and cause infection.Some animals may develop allergies to mosquitobites. In addition, mosquitoes transmit diseaseagents to animals. For instance, dog heartworm iscaused by a nematode. Infected dogs end up withadult worms in their hearts. The adult wormsshed tiny, immature worms called microfilariaeinto the bloodstream. When mosquitoes bite aninfected dog, the microfilariae enter the body ofthe mosquito with the blood. The microfilariaedevelop in the mosquito to a stage that is infec-tive to the dog. Days to weeks later, when themosquito locates another dog, it transmits theworms during blood feeding. A single infecteddog in an area can be an infective source for unin-fected dogs for miles around. Thus, it is impor-tant to protect dogs from heartworm throughpreventive drugs and to keep them safe frommosquito bites. If left untreated, heartworms indogs can cause heart failure and death.

Eastern equine encephalitis is a disease of horses,pheasants and humans caused by a virus. Thevirus is transmitted by swamp mosquitoes amongwild birds such as cardinals and cat birds. Some-times the virus extends from its natural swamp-bird cycle to horses and other dead-end hosts bybiting mosquitoes. Encephalitis in horses is asevere disease and usually leads to rapid onset ofsymptoms and death. Horses can and should bevaccinated for encephalitis in areas where the dis-ease occurs to protect them and their ownersfrom disease.

Fowl pox or avian pox is a viral disease of domes-tic fowl and wild birds. The virus can be passedby direct contact among birds, such as chickens inbreeder or broiler houses. Bird-biting mosquitoesin the genus Culex can also transmit the virusamong birds and may be important vectors whenbirds are confined together. Mosquito controlinside poultry houses is an important emergencymeasure during outbreaks of fowl pox in chickenflocks.

Horse Fly

Table 6.1 Blood-feeding flies affectingdomesticated animals in the United States.

Common Name Scientific Family

Mosquito Culicidae

Black fly Simuliidae

Biting midge Ceratopogonidae

Deer fly Tabanidae

Horse fly Tabanidae

Common Name Scientific Family

Mosquito

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Black flies may be severe seasonal parasites oflarge animals in Michigan. The larvae occur inslow- or fast-moving streams and rivers wherethey cling to rocks and filter out food particlesfrom the passing water. The larvae pupate on therocks, then the adult black flies emerge, swim tothe water surface and fly away. Female black fliesswarm around and onto the bodies of animals.The bites are very irritating and large numbers ofbites can cause severe reactions such as toxemiaor anaphylactic shock (allergic reaction). In someinstances, high numbers of black flies causedblood loss so extreme that cattle have died of ane-mia. Black flies can transmit a malaria-like dis-ease to waterfowl.

Biting midges — also called “punkies,” “no-see-ums,” or “sand flies” — are tiny biting flies withspeckled wings. The larvae occur in still or mov-ing water, where they live in the mud, sand ordebris at the bottom. Though these flies are verysmall, their bite is very irritating. Bites may swelland form bloody, weeping lesions similar toblack fly bites. Biting midges transmit a nema-tode parasite of horses that causes a diseasecalled fistulous withers.

Deer flies and horse flies are large-bodied fliesand strong fliers. They live as long as six weeks.The larvae are found in a variety of aquatic andsemi-aquatic conditions and in moist soil, wherethey live in the mud and sediments and preyupon worms and insects. Most horse and deerflies have only one generation per year. Theadults emerge in early to mid-summer. Adultfemales obtain a blood meal and later lay eggs onvegetation above still water or moist soil. Afterhatching, larvae drop into the water, develop andcrawl to drier areas to become pupae. This insectoverwinters as a mature larvae.

Deer and horse fly bites are painful and injuri-ous. The flies bite by a scissors-like action of theirbladed mouthparts causing a pool of blood toform, which they then suck up. The flies bite dur-ing daytime hours. Animals can injure them-selves by attempting to drive off or escape fromthese flies. Deer and horse flies are important vec-tors of the virus that causes equine infectiousanemia or swamp fever of horses. There is notreatment for this disease once a horse becomesinfected.

MANAGEMENT OF BLOOD-FEEDING FLIESManaging biting flies to prevent bites is an

important part of animal health care, for bothcompanion animals and livestock. There are threecomponents to biting fly management. First ismodification of the habitat and environment. Formosquitoes, this means eliminating local sourcesof standing water around the animals. Most mos-quitoes come from true wetlands, however, sodraining larval breeding sites is usually not possi-ble nor desirable and must be done with theapproval and collaboration of natural resourcesauthorities. Control of larval mosquitoes withinsecticides is feasible but this is a specialized dis-cipline requiring training and expertise. The bestapproach to mosquito control is a regional (e.g.,township or county) system utilizing multiplestrategies for control of larval and adult mosqui-toes. Extension bulletin E-2180, “Mosquito Con-trol,” is a training manual for mosquitomanagement and pesticide applicators’ certifica-tion that describes various control measures indetail.

Little can be done about the immature stages ofblack flies, biting midges, deer and horse flies.Black fly larvae can be controlled in streams withinsecticidal bacteria, but this strategy requirespermits and consulting with experts.

The second component to biting fly manage-ment is to separate the animals from the fliesthrough physical means. Animals can be stabledor kept indoors when the flies are biting. Some-times, cattle or horses can be pastured in areasdistant from larval breeding sites of biting flies, orput to pasture at times when fly biting is low.

The third component to biting fly managementis the use of repellents on the bodies of animalsand insecticides applied to the animals directly orin their immediate environment. For mosquitocontrol, residual premise sprays of insecticidesare effective when applied to areas where mos-quitoes rest, including barns or animal dwellings,sheds and vegetation. Ultra-low volume applica-tion of insecticides is an effective way to controlmosquitoes and other small biting flies bothinside and outside premises. Thermal fogs canalso be used inside and outside dwellings formosquito control.

In general, insecticide use for control of bitingmidges, black flies, deer and horse flies is limitedto topical applications directly on animals. Blackflies often attack the ears of animals, so applyingmineral oil or mild insecticides to the ears can pro-vide relief to an animal. Follow all label directions.

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NUISANCE FLIESFilth flies associated with farm and animal waste.

Filth flies often constitute a problem for swine,dairy, beef and poultry production facilities.Though less common, filth flies can also be aproblem in pasture settings. Filth flies affect live-stock production by their annoying or blood-feeding activity which causes reduced milkproduction, decreased weight gains, or otherundesirable consequences. Some filth flies arevectors of disease agents to livestock andhumans.

Additionally, the close proximity between live-stock production facilities and human settlementshas created situations where filth flies become asource of annoyance and concern for farm neigh-bors. On the other hand, maggots of filth fliesplay an important ecological role—they degrademanure to simpler constituents and reduce thevolume of waste material. As pests and diseasevectors, filth flies often must be managed. Table6.2 lists the filth flies and Figure 6.2 shows certainadult filth flies.

House flies are known vectors to cattle of thebacteria causing summer mastitis and pinkeye.House flies can also serve as intermediate hostsfor a roundworm parasite of horses.

Table 6.2 Filth flies affecting domesticatedanimals in the United States.Common Name Scientific Name

House fly Musca domesticaStable fly Stomoxys calcitransFace fly Musca autumnalisHorn fly Haematobia irritans

Common Name Scientific Name

Filth flies, like other true flies of the insect orderDiptera, have four life stages: egg, larva (or mag-got), pupa and adult. Perhaps the most importantfilth fly with widespread distribution in Michiganis the house fly. Larvae of this fly develop in awide range of materials including fresh manure,animal waste mixtures of manure, straw, hay,silage, or feed and garbage. The adult flies aregray/black with yellowish sides and are 6 to 7millimeters long. They have sponging mouth-parts and lap up materials from animal wastesand liquefying matter. Under typical summerconditions, house flies can achieve 10 to 12 gener-ations per year (with 8 to 22 days required for afull development cycle from egg to adult), sothese flies increase in number as the summer pro-gresses. The adult flies commonly migrate 1 to 3miles and movement up to 13 miles within 24hours has been documented.

Figure 6.2 Adult filth flies: a. House fly b. Stable fly c. Face fly.

a.

b.

c.

House Fly

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House fly populations can build to enormousnumbers in agricultural settings. The annoyancefactor for livestock is difficult to assess, but thebuzzing sound of the flies and their aggregationwhen feeding at sores and mucous membranesmay cause undesirable behavioral changes inlivestock. Annoyance of house flies for humans iswell known.

Another filth fly associated with livestock farmsin Michigan is the stable fly (Stomoxys calcitrans).The stable fly is nearly identical to the house fly,but can be distinguished by checkerboard mark-ings on their back and their long, distinctive, bay-onet-type mouthparts. Adults of both sexes areblood-feeders. Both sexes inflict a very painfulbite, irritating to the host. Each fly may bite sev-eral times per day. They are voracious blood feed-ers and have been known to follow livestock forgreat distances. Most of the time, however, stableflies present a problem around feedlots and loaf-ing pens and other animal confinement areas.

The larval habitat of the stable fly also differsfrom that of the house fly. Maggots of stable fliesdo not occur in fresh manure, but are found inmanure-straw mixtures, urine-soaked feed andstraw and other materials that may ferment suchas stored damp feed, grass clipping piles andround hay bales. Calf hutches or swine farrowingareas, for examples, are an important breedingground for stable flies because of the accumula-tion of urine, manure and straw. These fliesswarm onto the bodies of livestock and causeconsiderable annoyance, blood loss and create thepossibility of secondary infection of sores pro-duced by fly feeding. The stable fly serves as abiological vector of Habronema microstoma a para-site of the stomach in horses. The larvae of thisparasite are responsible for summer sores, a skinirritation found around the eyes of horses.

Stable flies on the legs of a calf.

Stable flies harass dogs (one common name forstable fly is “dog fly”) and prefer to feed on theears. Fly bite dermatitis (Fly bite ears) is causedby the rasping teeth and mouthparts of stableflies. These flies affect the faces and ears of dogs.Lesions are seen on tips of ears or at the foldededge of flop-eared breeds. The lesions may havedark crusts and be oozing blood and serum.

Protect animals from stable fly attacks by usingrepellents such as sprays or pastes. Keep the ani-mal indoors or in a shelter when fly populationsare high. Proper handling and disposal of manureand compost are essential and may require insec-ticide treatments.

The adult stable flies prefer strong light and aremore abundant in summer and autumn. Stableflies will migrate long distances (100 miles or far-ther) and may accumulate at shorelines and bitevacationers.

Stable fly.

Figure 6.3 Heads of adult house fly (A) and stable fly (B)showing differences in the mouthparts. Credit: Ciba

A B

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Table 6.3 Comparison of filth flies affecting agricultural animals.

House Fly Fresh manure, animal Gray/black with Sponging Annoyance. Bacterial waste mixtures of yellowish sides, 4 vector to cattle of straw, hay, silage, or dark lengthwise summer mastitis andfeed and garbage stripes on thorax; pinkeye. Also,

6 to 7 mm long. intermediate host fora roundwormparasite of horses.

Stable Fly Manure-straw Four dark Chewing Blood-feeders, inflictmixtures, urine-soaked longitudinal very painful bites,feed and straw and stripes on thorax, irritating to host.other materials that several dark spots Swarm onto livestockmay ferment such as on abdomen; 6 to and cause consider-stored damp feed, 8 mm long; able annoyance, bloodgrass clipping piles “squats”when at loss and createand round hay bales. rest. possibility ofNot in fresh manure. secondary infection

of sores produced bytheir bites.

Face fly Strictly in freshly Abdomen black Sponging Feed on mucus excreted manure longitudinal secretions of the eyes,in pasture areas. with orange base nose and mouth of

(❁ ); thorax gray cattle and horses.with black base Vectors of pinkeye-and dorsal stripe causing bacteria and(❀ ); thorax gray intermediate hosts forwith 4 dark, eyeworms of cattle.lengthwise stripes;6 to 8 mm long.

Horn fly Exclusively in Brownish-gray Chewing Harassment.undisturbed, fresh to black with Blood-feedingmanure. yellowish cast resulting in blood loss.

to body; set ofparallel stripes just behind head,brownish-redantennae; 3.5 to5 mm long.

Common Egg laying and Adult description Mouth Pest behavior Name larval habitat parts

The face fly (Musca autumnalis), is another filthfly of concern to animal agriculture. Maggots ofthis fly develop strictly in freshly excretedmanure in pasture areas. Consequently, the adultfemale flies frequent pastures where they feed onthe mucus secretions of the eyes, nose and mouthof cattle and horses. Their mouthparts consist of

small teeth-like structures which they use to dam-age eyes to increase tear secretion. Owing to theirfeeding habits and behavior, these flies are impor-tant vectors of the bacteria causing pinkeye andare also intermediate hosts for eyeworms (The-lazia spp.) of cattle. Face flies usually only visit ananimal for about 30 minutes per day and spend

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the rest of the time in the environment near theiranimal hosts. Face flies are more difficult to con-trol than horn flies because they may feed onother protein sources besides facial secretions sothat treating the animals doesn’t necessarily meaneffective fly control. Some insecticides for use inbackrubbers or as sprays or facial smears areapproved for use on lactating dairy cattle.

Another pasture fly which occurs in Michigan isthe horn fly (Haematobia irritans). It has been esti-mated that this species is responsible for moreloss to beef cattle production in the U.S. than anyother single species of arthropod pest. Femaleslay eggs exclusively in undisturbed, freshmanure. Larval (maggot) development proceedsrapidly but depends upon ambient temperature.Both sexes of this fly bite cattle for blood. Theharassment caused by blood-feeding and bloodloss causes reduced weight gains and loweredmilk production in cattle. Horn flies, unlike theother filth flies associated with cattle, stay on theanimal where they may feed 20 to 30 minutes perday, leaving only to lay eggs. Horn flies will con-gregate on the animals back and head. Bulls gen-erally have more flies per animal than do cowsand young stock. Horn flies are the biologicalvector of Stephanofilaria stilesi, a parasite of cattleand cause of stephanofilariasis, a skin inflamma-tion of the lower abdomen of cattle.

MANAGEMENT OF FILTH FLIESManagement of filth flies must be integrated

with manure management practices. The overallaim is to remove manure. If it cannot be removed,manure must be dried out so maggots cannotdevelop. Good farm sanitation such as regularremoval of manure from confinement settings,composting, thin spreading to facilitate drying,liquefaction or other techniques can greatlyreduce fly problems and are critical in a success-ful pest management program.

Indoor areas where animals frequent or arestalled must be kept clean of accumulating waste.House fly and stable fly development requireswet or moist conditions, thus eliminating stand-ing water and providing good drainage are veryimportant. Stacked manure can be covered withdark plastic to heat it, causing drying which killsfly eggs and maggots. In swine production areas,high pressure sprays can be used to clean andremove material accumulating at the waste pits.Areas along fence lines and boundaries that aredifficult to keep clean will breed large numbers offlies. Obviously, manure management practicescannot be utilized effectively in pasture settingswhere manure pats are naturally dispersed.

Insecticides can be used effectively for adult flycontrol as space sprays, residual sprays, ear tags,feed additives or direct application to animals asdusts, pour-ons or wipes.

Horn flies on the back of cattle.

Chapt6, 4B

Space or area sprays as mist, fog or ultra-lowvolume applications, typically control flies only atthe time of application and for a limited area. Amist blower, fogger, ultra-low volume sprayer orhydraulic sprayer type equipment is required.Area sprays are usually mixed with water todilute them from high concentrates (25-50%) tolow concentrates (0.15-1.0%) before application.The insecticide label gives instructions on properdilutions.

Ear tags help protect the animals from adult fly attacks.

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Residual sprays for filth flies are typically emulsi-fiable concentrates or wettable powders (bothmixed with water, as indicated on the label,before use). They are applied as a wet spray tosurfaces or vegetation where flies rest. In contrastwith area sprays, which offer no residual activity,this approach offers some residual activity.

Larvicides have had limited success in killingmaggots in manure or animal waste, so this con-trol measure is not generally recommended. Incases where the use of larvicides is the onlyoption, then apply labeled rates as a coarse spray.

Insecticide-laden baits can be used for managinghouse flies. Baits can be purchased ready-to-useor prepared as bait stations with residual insecti-cides mixed with sugar and put in burlap orpaper bags. Baits are useful in indoor settings.When baits are used, place them so that animalsor children cannot come into contact with them.Besides baits, certain traps can be used for flycontrol. Sticky traps made of stiff paper or a fiber-glass panel coated with either insecticide or asticky glue will attract stable flies and offer local-ized control. Jars baited with fish heads or othersmelly materials typically attract green blow fliesand do not control house flies or stable flies.

Feed additives can be used for control of maggotsin manure. The additives are mixed with animalfeed or provided in a salt block. The specializedinsecticide moves through the animals digestivesystem and later comes into contact with the mag-gots. Because house flies and stable flies breed inmaterials in addition to manure, feed additivesare not completely effective unless combined withother control measures.

Certain insecticides can be directly applied ontoanimals according to label directions to protectthem from flies. The insecticide applications aredips, wet sprays, pour-ons (typically along themidline), dusts applied directly onto the animal orindirectly with a dust bag and mixed with oil andsaturated in a back rubber. In addition, insecti-cide-impregnated ear tags can be used. In eachcase, the specific application depends upon thetarget insect pest and the species and condition ofthe animal. Many restrictions apply to insecticideapplications on young animals, lactating mothers,milking dairy cows, recently freshened cows, orthose due for slaughter. Read and follow all labelprecautions and directions carefully.

Fly control in dairy parlors and milk roomsrequires special care. Dairy farmers should con-trol flies to prevent contamination of milk, butonly certain insecticides may be used in dairy set-tings as directed on the labels. Generally, baits atstations or in bait sprays, or diluted space or

residual sprays are acceptable. An example of amechanical pest control for flies is an electronic“bug-zapper” with ultraviolet lights. Thesedevices provide limited reduction in fly numbersin indoor areas.

Certain “biological control” agents, such aspredators, parasites and pathogens of the imma-ture stages of filth flies can be integrated withother control methods. These agents work best inwarmer, southern states or indoors where theycan overwinter. In northern states, these agentsare mainly experimental. Obviously, any use ofbiological control agents such as fly parasites ofthe fly pupae is useful when combined with otherphysical, cultural and insecticidal methods. Someparasites can be purchased commercially.

BOT FLIESBot flies, also called warble flies or gad flies,

are important, common parasites of horses, cattle,sheep and potentially foxes and mink in furfarms. Additionally, bot flies are common para-sites of wild rodents, deer and rabbits, as well asother wild mammals. Infestation of bot flies inanimals occurs when the larval stages are livinginside the skin or tissues of the animal. This kindof fly infestation is called obligatory myiasis(pronounced my-EYE-ah-sis). Other kinds of fliesmay be attracted to and lay eggs in wounds orinjuries on animals causing a kind of infestationcalled secondary or facultative myiasis.

The major bot flies or warble flies of concern arethose affecting horses, sheep and pastured cattle.Table 6.4 lists these bot flies and their hosts. Fig-ure 6.4 is an example of a bot fly adult, egg andlarva. The bot flies affecting horses involve threedifferent species that all affect the stomach, i.e.,larval bot flies are internal parasites. Adult flies(large bodied with big heads) lay eggs directly onthe horses.

Figure 6.4 Bot fly. a. Adult bot fly. b. Egg of commonhorse bot fly attached to hair. c. Larva or grub of a bot fly.

A

B

C

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The common horse bot fly lays yellow eggsthat stick to the hairs on a horse’s legs. When ahorse licks the legs during grooming, the eggshatch and the new larvae enter the horses mouth.The larvae burrow into the mucous membranesof the tongue and remain there for two to fourweeks. Then, the larvae leave these tongue gal-leries, move to the stomach and attach themselvesto the lining. The larvae detach from the stomachafter a year and pass out of the animal with thefeces, landing on the soil where they pupate.

The life cycle and behavior of the nose fly ornose bot fly is similar to that of the commonhorse bot fly. However, the nose bot fly lays itseggs, which are black, directly on the animalsnose. The bot larvae hatch in two to four daysand burrow into the lip membranes and tongue,remaining there for five to six weeks. They thenmigrate to the stomach and remain attached tothe stomach wall through the winter. In earlyspring, the full grown larvae detach from thestomach and reattach near the anus before finallydropping to the ground and pupating.

The throat bot fly or chin fly, of horses has alife cycle and behavior similar to the commonhorse bot fly and the nose bot fly. However, thefemale lays eggs on hairs under the horse’s jaw.Larvae hatch in three to five days, crawl to themouth and burrow into the gums, remainingthere for four weeks. The mouth can be severelyirritated. Afterwards, the larvae migrate to thestomach and form clusters.

The egg-laying activity of the nose bot fly andchin fly is called “fly strike.” Fly strike greatly

Table 6.4 Bot flies affecting domesticated animals in the United States.

Horse Common horse bot fly Gasterophilus intestinalis

Horse Throat bot fly Gasterophilus nasalis

Horse Nose bot fly Gasterophilus haemorrhoidalis

Sheep Sheep bot fly Oestrus ovis

Cattle Common cattle grub Hypoderma lineatum

Cattle Northern cattle grub Hypoderma bovis

Host Animal Common name Scientific name

disturbs horses causing them to toss their headsin panic. This behavior is a likely sign of bot flyactivity.

Control of bot flies on horses involves applyinginsecticides by sponge or wet spray directly to theeggs. It is best to use a sponge when applying tothe nose and face, to avoid spraying the mucousmembranes. Bots in the stomach can be killedwith orally-administered insecticides or drugs.The drugs are usually formulated as a pasteapplied by a syringe to the mouth of the horse.Consult a veterinarian for recommended ratesand application methods.

The sheep bot fly (also called the sheep nosefly, sheep gadfly, or sheep head maggot) laysnewly hatched, live larvae on the nostrils ofsheep. The larvae crawl into the nose and eatmucous. Later, the larvae crawl into the sinuses,attach to the walls and continue to feed. Finally,larvae drop from the nostrils and pupate in thesoil. Maggots of the sheep bot fly can damage thenasal tissue and infestations may result in sec-ondary infections. An ivermectin formulation isregistered for control of sheep bot flies.

The two bot flies affecting cattle are the com-mon cattle grub and the northern cattle grub.The adults resemble bumble bees and have beencalled bomb flies or heel flies because when theylay their eggs they strike the legs of cattle. Cattlepanic when this happens and may show gaddingbehavior by stampeding, bunching together, orstanding in water. These fly eggs hatch in fourdays. The larvae or grubs crawl into the skinthrough hair follicles and migrate through the

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body. The common cattle grubs migrate to thegullet and the northern cattle grubs migrate to thespinal column. In these areas, the grubs feed anddevelop. They then migrate internally to the backof the cattle where each grub forms a pocket orwarble between layers of skin. The warble has anopening to the air allowing the grub to breath.They feed on skin secretions in the warbles formonths before leaving through the breathing holeand dropping to the ground to pupate. The north-ern cattle grub generally leaves the host from fourto six weeks after the common cattle grub.

In northern states, warbles usually appear onnative cattle between September and January.Warbles will appear at different times in cattlethat are shipped in from other states or Canada.

Cattle grubs can be controlled by applying sys-temic insecticides during the fall weaning, usu-ally between mid-September and November 1.The insecticides for grub control are available inseveral formulations— ready-to-use pour-on,wettable powder, feed additive, mineral block,spray and ready-to-use spot-on solution. Pour-ons and spot-ons are applied to the animal’s mid-line, usually in one dose, but sometimes repeatapplications may be done following label direc-tions. Some of the insecticides used for grub con-trol in the fall are also registered for cattle lousecontrol; thus grub and louse control can beachieved with one application.

Do not treat cattle for grubs between Novemberand January because of the possibility the deadgrubs release a toxin which may cause swelling ofthe esophagus and spinal column.

Other flies affecting sheep. Sheep can be afflictedwith two other kinds of flies. Wool maggots areone kind of blow fly that lay eggs in the wool ofsheep. These flies lay their eggs in areas wherethe wool is soiled with urine, blood or manure,typically around the tail. Applying 0.05% perme-thrin spray to this area can rid sheep of the woolmaggots. Many cultural practices have evolved insheep production systems to help prevent soilingof the wool. Some practices include “crutching”(the removal of the hair below the tail andbetween the legs) and “docking” (the removal ofthe tail). Reducing the possibility of injury andkeeping the animals dry and clean are of greatervalue in wool maggot management than chemicaltreatment.

Sheep also harbor an odd ectoparasite thatresembles a tick, called the sheep ked. The ked isactually a wingless, blood-feeding fly. Ked controlis important, otherwise infested sheep can sufferblood loss and other debilitating conditions. Kedcontrol can be accomplished in a manner similarto louse control on sheep (see Chapter 4).

Sheep ked: pupae. Sheep ked: adult.

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6. Dog heartworm is caused by a nematode and istransmitted between dogs by mosquitoes. (Trueor False)

7. What are the three components to biting flymanagement?

8. What important ecological role do filth flies ful-fill?

9. Some filth flies are vectors of disease agents toanimals and humans. (True or False)

10. What is the difference between a space or areaspray and a residual spray?

Write the answers to the following questionsand then check your answers with those in theback of this manual.

1. How many pairs of wings do flies have?a. Noneb. Onec. Twod. Three

2. What are the three groups of fly pests of ani-mals?

3. What do the immature stages or larvae of flieslook like?a. Seeds.b. Flat disks.c. Caterpillars.d. Maggots.

4. Name three of the blood-feeding flies. 1.

2.

3.

5. Which of the blood-feeding flies has a develop-mental cycle involving water or aquatic habitats?a. Mosquito.b. Stable fly.c. House fly.d. Horn fly.

Chapter 6 – Review Questions

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CHAPTER 7

HOST ANIMALS AND THEIR PESTS

LEARNING OBJECTIVES:After you finish studying this chapter you

should be able to:■ Identify the primary arthropod pests of live-

stock in Michigan.■ Determine where specific pests are likely to

be located on the host animal or bird.

■ Monitor for pest injury or the presence ofpests on host animals.

■ Identify behavior of animals that may indi-cate the presence of pests.

The previous chapters presented information ongroups of arthropods including identification,biology, their impact on animal hosts, and how todetect and manage them. This chapter provides aprofile of the primary livestock groups in Michi-gan and reviews the arthropod pests that areassociated with them. The livestock profilesinclude dairy cattle, beef cattle (confined or pas-ture), swine, sheep and goats, horses, and poultry.This information is intended as a summary focus-ing on the animal host. Refer to the previouschapters for detailed information on the individ-ual arthropods.

DAIRY CATTLEDairy cattle maintained in typical dairy herd

production systems (milk parlors, barns, drylots,loafing sheds, and pastures) are inflicted byhouse flies, stable flies, horn flies, face flies, mos-quitoes, horse and deer flies, heel flies or cattlegrubs, lice, and mites. The importance of thesearthropods to animal health and to milk produc-tion, and to the corresponding monitoring andmanagement practices required, depends uponthe sex and age of the animals and their stage ofmanagement (e.g., first-year heifers on pasture vs.confined, freshened cows). For example, horn fly

and face fly will generally only be significantpests on cows and bulls in pastures and somedrylots. Different arthropod pest activities varyseasonally, thus monitoring efforts must beadjusted accordingly.

Pest: House Flies House flies are very common in dairy opera-

tions because the larvae or maggots occur inwaste material such as manure. They are commonsummertime pests in feedlot and dairy barns. Inlarge numbers, they annoy animals and people.Also, the flies may function as mechanical trans-mitters of some disease-causing microorganisms.

Monitoring: House flies can be monitored usingfly speck cards or by visual inspection of thepremises and animals.

Management: Sanitation is the primary manage-ment strategy for house flies. Use of insecticidesto reduce fly numbers to more desirable, lowerdensities is a secondary strategy. Insecticide useincludes premise sprays as residual treatments,space sprays, and animal feed-throughs. Use ofinsecticides to control maggots, other than feed-throughs, is not recommended.

Another management strategy includes therelease of parasitic wasps which attack the imma-ture stages (especially pupae) of house flies. Thisbiological control strategy must be used in conjunc-tion with sanitation and must be customized tolocal climates and conditions.

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Pest: Stable Flies Stable flies are biting flies, similar in appearance

to house flies. Monitoring Activities: These flies can be moni-

tored by looking for the biting individuals on thebodies of animals, especially the legs, or by usingsticky traps made of Alsynite panels covered withadhesives to capture the flies. Threshold densitiesof stable flies for control decisions have not beenestablished.

Management: Any level of animal annoyance anddiscomfort should instigate fly managementactions. Stable fly management requires goodsanitation in the animal’s environment. Maggotsof stable flies occur in wet, decaying materialssuch as urine-soaked straw, wet, spilled feed, andstraw-manure mixtures. Calf pens can attract andbe a significant source of stable flies and houseflies. Bedding in animal beds must be cleaned outand then replaced with fresh material—notmerely be covered over with fresh material. Elim-inate breeding sites to greatly reduce stable flypopulations. Other stable fly management meth-ods include those discussed for house flies—premise sprays as residual treatments, spacesprays, and animal feed-throughs.

Pest: Horn and Face FlyBoth the horn fly and face fly occur in open,

pasture settings and secondarily in drylots. Theseflies rest and feed directly on the animals. Hornflies are blood feeders and bite the host animalseveral times per day. Face fly feeding activityinjures the eyes and introduces pink-eye bacteria.The females of both flies lay their eggs in freshly-voided manure.

Monitoring: Watch for peak populations of hornand face flies by late spring/early summer. Faceflies are present throughout the season. Makevisual inspections of the animals for the restingand feeding horn and face flies. Horn flies rest andfeed along the backline of adult animals. Face fliesaggregate on the face of the animals, feeding oneye secretions of both calves and cows. Also,watch for fly avoidance behaviors by the animals,such as when groups of animals bunch together toavoid fly strikes. Some studies suggest that theseflies cause decreased milk production or decreasedfeeding efficiency. Thresholds to assist in manage-ment decisions for these flies have not been estab-lished for dairy cows but consideration ofannoyance and discomfort of the animals are criti-cal factors when deciding on management action.

Management: Horn fly management includesapplying insecticides directly to the animal, either

as a pour-on, dust, spray, or insecticide-impreg-nated ear tags and supplemented with dust bags.For face fly management, options are limited butinclude the use of insecticide-impregnated ear tagsattached to the animals and encouraging animalsto move against dust bags, oilers and back rubbersthat contain insecticides effective against the flies.

Pest: Biting Flies Mosquitoes, black flies, midges, and deer and

horse flies are all biting flies that are primarilypests of outdoor animals, especially those on pas-ture.

Monitoring for these pests is through directexamination of the animals. Presence of these bit-ing flies on their bodies, and observation ofabnormal animal behavior are indicative ofannoyance by biting flies.

Management: Reduce biting fly problems bymoving animals indoors where they are protectedfrom biting insects. Biting flies can be managedwith insecticides applied on the animals.

Pest: Cattle Grub or Heel FlyThe cattle grub or heel fly (two species of flies

in northern states called the common cattle gruband the northern cattle grub) are pests of pas-tured heifers and other pastured dairy cows. Theadult flies are active from spring to early fall andlay eggs on the body of the cows. The eggs hatchinto larvae or grubs that burrow into the host ani-mal. The grubs migrate through the body for sev-eral months before establishing warbles in theskin along the back. Cattle grubs damage the hideand cause deterioration of cattle condition.

Monitoring: Management of cattle grubs beginswith monitoring the pastured animal’s behavior.Kicking of their feet (gadding) and running aboutis evidence that they are attempting to escapebuzzing, striking flies. The pest is know as a heelfly during this stage because they lay their eggsaround the animal’s heels, although some eggsmay be laid on the belly. If producers witness thisactivity, expect grubs to appear in the animals inthe fall. In fall, inspect cattle by feeling along thespine, especially of young animals, to detect thegrubs in elevated areas of the skin called warbles.A hide with five or more warbles is downgraded.

Management: Successful control of this pestrequires community-wide management. To kill thegrubs, use a systemic insecticide or injectable drug.Make these applications or treatments before a fallcutoff period, when the grubs are around the ani-mals’ esophagus or the spinal cord. Grubs killedafter the fall cutoff date may cause inflammation

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Pest: Lice and Mange Mites Dairy cattle may become infested with lice and

mange mites particularly in the winter.Monitoring: Observing the animal’s general con-

dition—coat appearance, presence of skinlesions—provides indications of lice or mite infes-tations. Animal behavior—excessive licking andscratching and rubbing against structures—alsoindicates the pest presence. Producers shouldmonitor for eggs or lice and mites on a regularbasis throughout the winter. Part the animal’shair and examine the hair and skin for the eggsand adults of these pests. Skin scrapes are moreuseful than surface examinations for determiningthe presence of burrowing mites.

Management: To prevent the spread of thesepests, quarantine and monitor new animalsbefore integrating them with existing herds.Oversee, separate and treat infested animals toprevent establishment of mange mite populationsin herds.

Insecticides applied as high pressure sprays,pour-ons or dusts are the chemical approach tolice and mange mite control. For lice, two pesti-cide treatments at weekly or biweekly intervalsmay be necessary. Pesticides are not effectiveagainst eggs therefore, a second application isneeded to kill the lice that hatch after the firsttreatment.

Sarcoptic mange management requires acari-cide applications to control the mite as describedin the mite and tick chapter. Pesticide treatmentsto lactating and nonlactating animals are differ-ent. Be sure to follow all appropriate precautions.Mites other than sarcoptic mites, can be con-trolled with the types of insecticide treatmentsused for lice.

For all arthropod pests of dairy cattle, it isextremely important to use treatments that con-form to regulations regarding withholding timesand residue tolerances for milk. Some treatmentsmay be acceptable for nonlactating cows and forbeef cattle, but may not be acceptable for milkcows. Use of many systemics is prohibited formilking cows. Consult veterinarians, dairy exten-sion specialists, and pesticide labels for informa-tion about restrictions and rates of applications.

CONFINED CATTLEThe arthropod pests of confined beef cattle are

similar to those that inflict dairy cattle. Manuremanagement strategies which are important toreduce pest pressures will differ because of thedifferent housing and operational conditionsbetween confined beef cattle and dairy cows. For

Figure 7.1 Common Pests of Cattle

A. HORN FLY

C. STABLE FLY

E. CATTLE GRUB

H. MITE(widley distributed)

F. LOUSE(widley distributed)

G. HORSE FLY(widley distributed)

D. HEEL FLY

B. FACE FLY

B

F

C

FH

D

G

D

GH AEF A E

FH

A

CD

resulting in choking or paralysis of the host ani-mal. Check with a veterinarian or other authorityfor the cutoff date in your area. In Michigan, treat-ment is typically before November 1.

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example, sanitation and maintenance of fly-freeconditions in milk parlors is critical but does notreflect the low level but tolerable fly thresholds inbeef cattle environments. Confined beef cattle aregenerally not bothered by the open pasture flypests—horn fly and face fly. Although, these fliesoccasionally become problems on feedlots (espe-cially face fly on steers and horn fly on isolatedbulls). Grubs may be a problem in confinement ifthe cattle are brought in from pasture or range forfinishing rations. The other arthropods (house fly,stable fly, lice, and mites) can be important pests inconfined beef cattle operations. Monitoring andmanagement activities for the pests of confinedbeef are the same as for dairy cattle listed above.

RANGE AND PASTURE CATTLEThe arthropod pests of pastured or rangeland

cattle differ somewhat from dairy and confinedcattle. Horn flies and face flies are more impor-tant than house flies and stable flies. Biting flies,such as deer flies and horse flies, are relativelyimportant pests of range and pasture animals.Cattle grubs are also important pests of pasturedcattle. Lice and mange mites may infest pasturedcattle as well. In some areas, ticks are seriouspests of rangeland cattle. Monitoring and man-agement methods for arthropod pests are similarto those described for the dairy and confinedcattle.

SWINEPests: Hog Louse and Mange Mites

The primary arthropod pests of swine are thehog louse and mange mites. Both of these pestsare obligate ectoparasites on the skin of swine.Hog lice are very large (compared with otherlice), and can be detected on the hog’s body inclumps, particularly around the neck and ears.

Monitoring: Signs of excessive scratching or irri-tation by the animal are indications that a pestproblem exists. Direct examination of the ani-mals’ skin is the best method for detecting a liceor mite infestation. Pay close attention to the neckand ear area.

Mange mites are very tiny and burrow into theskin, thus they are not directly visible. Scraping ofthe skin surface, especially at crusty areas where

mite infestations exist, yields a small skin samplethat can be examined under a microscope to con-firm the presence of mites and mite burrows.

Management: Hog lice and mange mite manage-ment involves sanitation through cultural meth-ods, monitoring and pesticide treatment.Sanitation entails culling chronically-infectedindividuals, treatment of sows before farrowingto prevent transfer of lice or mites from sows toyoung pigs, purchasing louse- and mite-freehogs, and quarantining newly acquired hogs.

Direct application of high-pressure acaricidessprays onto the skin of the hogs, or use ofinjectable acaricides are used for mange mite con-trol. Louse control requires similar methods. Thechapter on mites and ticks discusses louse andmite control on swine in detail.

Pest: Flies House fly and stable fly populations occur in

association with animal waste and other wastematerials at swine operations. Biting insects such asmosquitoes and deer flies, also bite and annoyhogs.

Figure 7.2 Common Pests of Hogs

A. STABLE FLY

C. MANGE MITE

B. HOG LICE

A C

B

C

C C

C

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Monitor and employ general fly managementactivities—sanitation, as used in confined cattleoperations See the appropriate managementoptions for biting flies described for cattle and inchapter six, “Flies.”

Pest: Fleas Fleas can be pests of hogs when populations

become established in confined, production facili-ties. The adult fleas spend most or all of theirtime on the animal, while the larval fleas live inthe bedding material and cracks and crevices nearwhere the hogs are confined.

Monitoring: Watch the animals for excessivescratching and rubbing. Directly inspect the ani-mal’s bodies for adult fleas.

Management: Control fleas with sanitationefforts—eliminate eggs, larvae and larval habitat.If large populations exist, crack and crevice andpremise sprays of insecticides may be necessaryto bring the problem under control.

SHEEP AND GOATSThe arthropod pests of sheep and goats include

flies associated with manure, as well as arthro-pods that either blood feed on these animals,annoy them, or infest their wool, skin or other tis-sues. Sheep have a larger number of pests thangoats.

Pest: Biting flies Mosquitoes, deer and horse flies, and biting

midges can severely affect sheep and goats. Monitoring: Watch for biting fly activity around

the animals. Presence of biting stable flies on ani-mals indicates that improved sanitation isrequired to reduce fly numbers.

Management: Due to their association withmanure and waste materials such as wet straw,large stable fly populations can develop amongsheep and goats, in and around barns and out-buildings. House flies may also occur because ofaccumulated manure from sheep and goats.Improve manure sanitation measures to reducestable fly and house fly populations.

Pest: LiceA variety of lice occur on both sheep and goats.

Lice are a minor problem on goats compared tosheep. Their impact varies with the general healthand condition of the individual animals, the typeof lice, and the nature of the wool fleece — fine orthick.

Monitoring: . Most lice are problematic in thewinter months with the exception of the footlouse. Foot louse is most abundant in warmermonths. Animals with a ragged fleece, and thosethat are rubbing and scratching excessively, arelikely to be heavily infested. Make several spotchecks over the animal’s entire body. Locate liceby parting the wool and examine the base of hairnext to the skin. The location of the lice may helpwith identifying the lice species.

On sheep, the sheep biting louse is most com-mon and is widely distributed over the body. Thefoot louse is usually contained on the animal’slegs. Face and body louse are on all parts of thebody except the limbs. When populations are low,the face and body louse is only on the face.

On goats, the goat biting louse is widely distrib-uted as is the Angora biting louse specifically onAngora goats. The face and body louse is on allparts of the body except the limbs. Low levelpopulations of the face and body louse are onlyfound on the animal’s face.

Management: Apply low pressure insecticidesprays and dusts for control of sheep lice. Adetergent in the spray increases the sticking abil-ity of the insecticide. Shearing removes lice popu-lations from the animal.

Pest: Sheep KedsSheep keds are wingless, blood-feeding flies

similar in appearance to ticks. Their feedingdeprives the sheep of nutrition. They are rarelypests on goats.

Monitoring: Sheep keds can be found throughoutthe year in sheep wool. Blood-feeding by the kedsstains the wool and provides evidence of theirpresence. Inspect the belly and neck by partingthe wool to detect sheep keds.

Management: Apply insecticide to each individ-ual in the entire flock to effectively reduce sheepkeds. The appropriate method of insecticideapplication depends on flock size and the avail-ability of facilities and labor. Dips, sprays, dusts,and pour-ons are all acceptable methods of appli-cation. Shearing removes sheep keds from theanimal.

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Pest: Mange Mite on SheepThe primary mange mite of importance on

sheep is the non-burrowing mange mite(Psoroptes ovis). It infests the skin and causes acondition called sheep scab. Other mites of theChorioptes group also infest sheep. Mange mitesare a problem throughout the year.

Monitoring: Detect mite infestations by lookingfor signs of sheep scab—shabby appearance ofthe fleece, excessive scratching and rubbing. Takeskin scrapings and make microscopic observa-tions to determine mite presence. Cull the chroni-cally infected individuals to prevent transmissionto non-infected animals.

Management: Dipping with approved acari-cides is the preferred mite management methodfor sheep.

Pest: Wool Maggots on SheepWool maggots are fly larvae that hatch from

eggs laid in the waste and moisture that accumu-lates around the tail and hind legs of sheep. Adultwool maggots are blow flies. The maggots invadethe fleece and can cause skin injury.

Monitoring: Adult wool maggot flies are active inthe summer. They are attracted to soiled animalsand lay their eggs in soiled wool. Inspect sheepfor wool maggots by examining wool at thebreech and look for manure-laden tags of woolthat harbor maggots.

Management: Keep animals clean. Combineshearing with early season lambing (to removethe breech of ewes that becomes contaminatedwith birthing material) to prevent wool maggotoccurrence. If infestations occur, local or spottreatment of infestations with insecticides is aneffective management method.

Pest: Sheep Bot FlyMaggots of the sheep bot fly (or head grubs)

live in the nostrils of sheep, feeding on mucous.The adult flies lay live larvae (not eggs) into thesheep’s nose.

Monitoring: Sheep hold their heads low or in acorner to escape the striking behavior of flies. Flyactivity occurs throughout the summer. Observesheep behavior and inspect for presence of grubsin the nostrils.

Management: Ivermectin drenches control sheepbot fly problems.

HORSESThe arthropod pests of horses include biting flies,

nonbiting flies, bot flies, lice and mange mites.

Pest: Biting FliesBiting flies such as mosquitoes, deer and horse

flies, black flies, and biting midges are veryimportant pests of horses, particularly those thatare pastured. Monitor and control biting fliesusing the methods described for cattle above.

The stable fly is associated with manure andwaste materials such as wet straw. Large populations develop in poorly maintained horse

Figure 7.3 Common Pests of Sheep

A. BLOW FLY (Wool Maggots) B. SHEEP BOT FLY

C. SHEEP KED(widley distributed)

D. LOUSE(widley distributed)

B

C D

A

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A

D

E

B

C

F

DEF

Figure 7.4 Common Pests of Horses

B. BOT FLYA. STABLE FLY

C. BOT

E. LOUSE

D. HORSE/DEER FLY(widley distributed)

barns and stables. Presence of biting stable flieson animals indicates that improved sanitation isrequired to reduce the numbers of flies.

Monitoring: Directly observe the bodies of thehorses for presence of the biting flies. Also,observe the horse’s behavior watching for signsof irritation and annoyance caused by the flies.

Management of biting flies varies with the kind offly. Consult chapter six, Flies for this information.

Pest: Filth Flies Filth flies, such as house flies, occur because of

accumulated manure. Reduce manure to reducehouse fly densities and their annoying activities.

Sometimes, face flies are attracted to horses anduse them as hosts. Horses kept in pastures are atgreatest risk.

Pest: Bot FliesThe bot flies affecting horses involve three dif-

ferent species. All species affect the stomach. Theadult flies lay eggs directly on the horses, eitheron the legs, nose or on hairs under the horse’sjaw. Larvae hatch in three to five days, crawl tothe mouth and burrow into the gums, lips ortongue. After a period of development, the larvaemigrate to the stomach. The burrowing activity ofthe larvae is very irritating to horses, and thepresence of bots in the stomach can disrupt diges-tion and cause other problems.

Monitoring: Adult bot flies are active throughoutthe summer. Observe horse behavior during “flystrike” (when the flies are laying their eggs).Examine the horses for wounds in the mouth andpresence of eggs.

Management: Apply insecticides by sponge orwet spray directly to the hair coat to kill the botfly eggs. If wounds are found in the mouth, con-tact a veterinarian for further assistance with botfly control. Bots in the stomach are controlledwith orally-administered insecticides or drugs.The drugs are often formulated as a paste appliedwith a syringe into the horse’s mouth.

Pest: Lice and Mange MitesBoth lice and mange mites infest horses. Monitoring: For both lice and mange mites,

inspect the horse’s hair coat for these pests, or forsigns of damage caused by them. Also, a generaldeteriorated condition of the animal can be anindicator of infestation by lice or mange mites.

Management: Routine grooming reduces thechance of lice or mite populations from becoming

established. Control existing lice and mites byrubbing or brushing appropriate acaricides orinsecticides into the hair coat, and treating tack,saddles and blankets. Mites are more difficult tokill then lice.

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POULTRYThe arthropod pests of poultry that infest the

bodies of the birds include bed bugs, ticks, liceand mites. Annoying insects associated with accu-mulated manure, such as filth flies, are potentialproblems in poultry operations (humans may bemore annoyed than the poultry). Darkling beetlesmay invade the structure of poultry facilities.

Pests: Northern Fowl MiteThe northern fowl mite infests the bodies of

birds, and also occurs in nests and houses. Themites are active night feeders. The mites suckblood, creating wounds which develop into der-matitis that can further become infected with bac-teria.

Monitoring and detection: Northern fowl mites areactive throughout the year. Examine the vent areaof potentially-infested birds for presence of dark-ened feathers which is caused by dried blood.The mites may also be seen. Monitor the birdsregularly (biweekly).

Management: Prevent the introduction of mitesby eliminating infested birds and taking precau-tions to integrate only pest-free birds. Once miteshave become established, use of cultural practicesto reduce mite habitat and to prevent transfer ofmites from infested to uninfested areas is impor-tant.

Acaricides are an important element used inmite management. Poultry must be sprayed thor-oughly with a high power sprayer. Liquid pesti-cides are preferable to dusts for northern fowlmite management. The premise may also requirepesticide treatments to rid the building of north-ern fowl mites.

Pests: LiceMany species of lice infest chickens and

turkeys, but the species of most concern is thechicken body louse. Body lice feed on skin scales.

Monitoring: Body lice on chickens are found closeto where the feathers meet the skin. The eggsappear as white clusters on the feather shafts,while the lice are yellowish-white and can be seenon feathers and skin. Poultry lice are usuallymore common in the summer than in the winter.During this time, examine the feather shafts andskin for chicken body lice and the northern fowlmite.

Management of lice on poultry requires applica-tion of wettable powder sprays or emulsifiableconcentrate insecticides to the bodies of the birds,and dusts to the nest boxes and litter.

Pest: Filth FliesAccumulations of manure in poultry houses

provide habitat for a variety of arthropods, someof which may be pests. For example, maggots ofseveral different species of flies (filth flies) live inmanure.

Management: Manure management is an impor-tant component of filth fly management for poul-try production systems. Manure managementstrategies will vary with the kind of productionsystem (layer house, broiler house, turkey house,etc.). Maintain dry manure to eliminate fly mag-got habitat —moist conditions are required formaggot survival.

There are many predators and parasites of thepest insects. It is important to preserve the nat-ural enemies of the pest insects that occur inpoultry manure. Thus, avoid direct insecticideapplications onto manure which kills beneficialarthropods living in it.

C

C

A

AB

B

Figure 7.5 Common Pests of Chicken

A. LOUSE

C. TICK

B. MITE

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6. What part of the sheep’s body should beinspected when looking for sheep keds?a. Back legs.b. Ears.c. Belly and neck.d. Along the backbone.

7. Which arthropod pest requires skin scrapingsand microscope-aided examination to confirmits presence in a host animal?a. Wool maggots.b. Mange mites.c. Bot fly.d. Ticks.

8. The bot flies that affect horses include four dif-ferent species that affect the host animals’lungs. (True or False)

9. When managing filth fly populations, what isthe most effective management activity?a. Putting ear tags on animals.b. Hanging fly strips and making premise

sprays of insecticides.c. Releasing parasitic wasps.d. Improving manure management techniques.

10. What body area on poultry should beinspected for northern fowl mites?a. Vent.b. Combs.c. Feet.d. Under wings.

Write the answers to the following questionsand then check your answers with those in theback of this manual.

1. Dairy cattle have lice and mange mite problemsprimarily in the:a. Springb. Summerc. Falld. Winter

2. Horn and face flies lay their eggs in:a. The animal’s skin.b. Fresh manure.c. Pasture settings only.d. The base of the horns.

3. Confined beef cattle experience similar pests asdairy cattle. (True or False)

4. The primary arthropod pest(s) of swine inMichigan is(are):a. Hog louse.b. Flies.c. Fleas.d. Mange mites.e. A and D

5. What four cultural practices reduce the spreadof lice and mange mites on swine?1.

2.

3.

4.

Chapter 7 – Review Questions

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Answer Key to Livestock Pest Management Review Questions

Chapter 1 – Pests and Integrated Pest Management

1. Adult insects have three body regions; head, thorax and abdomen – and three pairs of legs.

2. b

3. c

4. An organism the pest is associated with.

5. True

6. Dermatitis is direct skin damage. Inflammatory reactions of animal skin may be caused byarthropod bites, body secretions and other irritations.

7. The four groups of important animal insect pests are:-biting and non-biting flies.-invasive flies.-chewing and sucking lice.-fleas.

8. Integrated pest management—the use of all available strategies to manage pests so that an acceptable yield and quality can be achieved economically with the least disruption to the environment.1. Detection, 2. Identification, 3. Economic or medical significance, 4. Control method selection, and 5. Evaluation.

9. Early detection of small pests:-allows the manager more control options.-reduces animal discomfort by preventing increased pest populations.

10. Identifying the pest allows the animal manager to gather information about that particular pest (life cycle, biology) so that the pest’s susceptible life stage can be targeted for control.

11. Economic injury levels are most important in agricultural settings (livestock, etc.).

12. d

13. The applicator must consider dose-response relationships and pesticide choice.

14. IPM strategies include:biological – use of predators and parasites.cultural – keep animal well groomed and its environment clean, provide adequate diet and exercise.mechanical- groom, clean regularly, use lights to attract pests away from animals, trap rodents.physical – sticky flypaper, separate animals, clean up after infested animals.pest-resistant breeds – use breeds of animal that are resistant to certain conditions and characteristics of that area.sanitation – keep kennels, barns, stables, exercise areas, and bedding clean.quarantines – isolate a new animal for a whileto confirm it is pest-free; separate weak or sickanimals from the herd or flock until they recover.chemical- pesticides.

Chapter 2 – Pesticides and Their Use for Livestock Pest Management

1. e

2. False

3. b

4. Tremors, vomiting, excessive salivation, ataxia,loss of appetite, diarrhea, seizures, breathing difficulty, weakness, death.

5. Organophosphates and carbamates. A wide range of insects including fleas, ticks, mites and lice.

6. True

7. a.

8. False

9. d

10. e

11. True

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12. A premise spray will persist in the treated areafor a long period of time. A space or area spray does not have residual qualities and kills only the pests present at the time of application.

13. a14. Identify the pest to be sure the product

is an effective control; determine if the product is labeled for use on animals; determine if there are use restrictions for certain animals; type and percentage of active ingredient; toxicity; formulation; equipment required to make the application; requirements for retreatment.

15. Physical, chemical, host tolerance, timing and timing incompatibility. See these sections of the chapter for definitions.

Chapter 3 – Mites and Ticks

1. b

2. 1. by damaging tissues and causing dermatitis;2. by causing blood or body fluid loss; 3. by causing allergic reactions; or 4. by creating conditions for secondary

bacterial infection.

3. e

4. Mites mate and the females lay eggs. Eggs hatch and six-legged larvae emerge. Larve feed and molt to the eight-legged nymph. Later, after feeding, the nymphs molt and become adult male or female mites.

5. a

6. Because of their burrowing behavior and feeding.

7. True

8. True

9. False

10. a

11. True

12. True

13. In the scaly skin condition, skin thickens and wrinkles and hair falls out. Skin turns color from normal to red or bruised-looking. In the pustular skin condition, pimples or pustules filled with pus develop. The pustules can develop into severe abscesses or nodules filled

with fluid and pus. This skin condition usuallydevelops after the scaly condition and reflects the development of secondary bacterial infections in the follicles. In both conditions, itching occurs.

14. These skin conditions are collectively called demodectic mange.

15. True

16. 1. they cause blood loss, 2. their feeding causes inflammation and

irritation of the skin, 3. they may stimulate hypersensitive allergic

reactions, 4. they may cause a toxic reaction in the host,

complicated by paralysis (called “tick paralysis”), and

5. they transmit microorganisms that cause disease.

17. True

18. True

19. If they are pastured animals, vegetation management can reduce tick habitat. On animals, tick control can be achieved using approved acaricides by dipping, spraying the entire animal or applying whole animal dusts. When only a few ticks are present, remove them using tweezers or fingers.

Chapter 4 – Chewing and Sucking Lice

1. Sucking lice feed on blood. Their mouthparts penetrate the skin of an animal and they draw the food from blood vessels.

2. False

3. The head of a sucking louse is narrower than the thorax.

The head of a chewing louse is wider than the thorax.

4. Grooming; the animal’s immune system can help protect against lice.

5. If parents, especially the mother, do not have lice, offspring will not risk infestation through exposure to the parent.

6. life cycle

7. c

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Chapter 5 – Fleas

1. True

2. An allergic condition that can be brought on by a single flea bite in an allergic or sensitized animal.

3. “Hot spots” occur when the animal continually scratches at highly inflamed sites on the skin caused by flea bites, creating conditions for bacterial infection. A hot spot is painful to the animal and may exude pus.

4. False

5. A few eggs per day and several hundred over the course of her life.

6. True

7. d

8. Treating for fleas on the host animal and in thehost’s environment at the same time.

9. True

10. It is an illegal use of the products and can harm you, your family or your pets by creating dusts or fumes that could be inhaled.

11. They prevent flea larvae from developing to the adult stage.

12. Fires or explosions.

Chapter 6 – Flies

1. b

2. Blood-feeding flies not associated with manure or animal waste.Filth flies associated with animal waste or manure.Parasitic bot flies.

3. d

4. Mosquitoes, black flies, biting midges, deer flies, and horse flies are blood-feeding flies.

5. a

6. True

7. 1. Modification of the habitat and environmentto reduce the sources of the flies.

2. Separate animals from the flies through physical means— i.e., keep animals indoors when flies are biting.

3. Use of repellents on the bodies of animals and insecticides applied to the animals directly or in their immediate environment where the flies occur.

8. They degrade manure to simpler components and reduce the volume of waste material.

9. True

10. Space or area sprays typically control flies at the time of application, whereas residual sprays offer longer activity.

Chapter 7 – Host Animals and Their Pests

1. d

2. b

3. True

4. e

5. 1. Cull chronically infested individuals.2.Treat sows before farrowing. 3. Purchase pest-free hogs. 4. Quarantine newly acquired hogs to confirm

that they are pest-free.

6. c

7. b

8. False

9. d

10. a

CHAPTER 1

GLOSSARY

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Abiotic – Not relating to living organisms.

Abrasive – Capable of wearing away or grindingdown another object.

Absorption – The uptake of a chemical intoplants, animals or minerals. Compare withadsorption.

Acari – Scientific grouping of organisms withinthe class Arachnida, including spiders, mites andticks.

Acariasis – Veterinary term for an infestation ofmites in or on an animal.

Acaricides – Pesticides that control mites or ticks.

Acceptable daily intake – A reference dose for thehealth-based standard for chemicals in food. Fornon-carcinogenic pesticides, it is generally 1/100of the NOEL; for carcinogenic risk, it is1/1,000,000 of the NOEL.

Acidic – Having a pH less than 7. Any of varioustypically water-soluble and sour compounds thatare capable of reacting with a base to form a salt,that are hydrogen containing molecules or ionsable to give up a proton to a base or are sub-stances able to accept an unshared pair of elec-trons.

Acre-foot – A volume of water equivalent to 1acre of water 1 foot deep.

Active immunity – Immunity (antibodies andimmune cells) developed by an animal inresponse to a disease challenge or a vaccine anti-gen, as opposed to passive immunity, which isimmunity conferred by the mother through anti-bodies ingested in the milk (colostrum). Activeimmunity is long-lived. Passive immunity isshort-lived.

Active ingredient – The chemical(s) in a pesticideproduct that control the target pest.

Acute effect – Illness or injury that may appearimmediately after exposure to a pesticide (usuallywithin 24 hours).

Acute exposure – Exposure to a single dose ofpesticide.

Acute toxicity – A measure of the capacity of apesticide to cause injury as a result of a single orbrief exposure.

Additive – A chemical added to a pesticide for-mulation to increase its effectiveness or safety;same as adjuvant.

Adherence – Sticking to a surface.

Adjuvant – A chemical added to a pesticide for-mulation or tank mix to increase its effectivenessor safety.

Adsorption – The process by which a pesticidebonds with a surface; e.g., a soil surface.

Adulterated – (1) A pesticide whose strength orpurity falls below that specified on the label. (2) Afood, feed or product that contains illegal pesti-cide residues.

Aerobe – An organism that requires oxygen forgrowth.

Aerosol – A suspension of very small particles ofa liquid or a solid in a gas.

Agitate – To stir or mix.

Agitation – The process of stirring or mixing.

Agitator – Device that stirs or mixes a pesticide ina tank or hopper.

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Agricultural animals – Those used for productionof food and fiber; livestock.

Algae – Photosynthetic plants that contain chloro-phyll, have simple reproductive structures, andhave tissues that are not differentiated into trueroots, stems or leaves.

Algaecide – A chemical compound that killsalgae.

Alkaline – Having a pH greater than 7: the oppo-site of acidic.

Allelopathy – The production of growthinhibitors by one plant that retard the develop-ment of another plant.

Allergic effects – Harmful effects, such as skinrash or asthma, that some people develop in reac-tion to pesticides that do not cause the same reac-tion in most other people.

Allergic effects statement – a statement appear-ing on a pesticide label that states if tests or otherdata indicate that a pesticide product has thepotential to cause allergic effects, such as skin irri-tation or asthma. Sometimes the labeling refers toallergic effects as “sensitization.”

Alopecia – Hair, feather or wool loss: may be dueto any of a variety of causes.

Amitraz – A formamidine chemical with insectici-dal and acaricidal properties.

Anaphylactic shock – An often severe and some-times fatal systemic reaction in a susceptible ani-mal upon exposure to a specific antigen (such aswasp or fly venom) after previous sensitization;characterized especially by respiratory symptoms,fainting, itching, and shock.

Ancylostoma caninum – Canine hookworm.

Anemia – Reduction or loss of red blood corpus-cles.

Anemic – Weakened; lack of vitality due to bloodloss or iron deficiency.

Anaerobe – An organism which does not requireoxygen for its growth.

Annual – A plant that completes its life cycle inone year.

Antagonism – An interaction of two or morechemicals such that the effect, when combined, isless than the predicted effect based on the activityof each chemical applied separately.

Anti-siphoning device – An attachment designedto prevent backward flow into the water source.

Antibiotic – Chemical compounds produced bymicroorganisms which are toxic to other microor-ganisms.

Antidote – (1) A chemical applied to prevent thephytotoxic effect of a specific pesticide on desir-able plants. (2) A substance used as a medicaltreatment to counteract poisoning.

Antibiotics – Chemical substances that destroy orinhibit the growth of bacteria and some otherorganisms. A veterinarian may prescribe antibi-otics for a viral disease to prevent secondary bac-terial infections, but antibiotics do not affect theviruses themselves.

Anti-siphoning device – An attachment to the fill-ing hose designed to prevent backward flow intothe water source.

Aquatic plants – Plants that grow on, in or underwater.

Aqueous – Indicating the presence of water in asolution or environment.

Arachnids – Organisms from the class Arachnida,such as spiders, mites and ticks.

Ascarids – Any of the genus of parasitic round-worms.

At emergence – Treatment applied during the vis-ible, emerging phase of the specified crop orweed.

Atropine – A mixture used to inhibit the actionsof acetylcholine in the parasympathetic nervoussystem (as by relieving spasms of smooth muscleor dilating the pupil of the eye).

Attractants – Substances that lure insects to trapsor to poison-bait stations; bait.

Avicide – A chemical used to control birds.

Back-siphoning – The movement of liquid pesti-cide mixture back through the filling hose andinto the water source.

Bacteria – Extremely small, single-celled microor-ganisms that usually lack chlorophyll and repro-duce by fission (splitting of the cell into two equalhalves).

Bactericide – A pesticide used to control bacteria.

Band application – Placement of a pesticide in anarrow area either over or along the crop row.

Band spraying – Application of a pesticide to astrip over or along a crop row.

Beneficial insects – Insects that are useful to peo-ple — e.g. predators and parasites of pest species,bees and other pollinators.

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Benthic – Of aquatic habitats; those organismsthat live on or in the sediments; bottom-dwelling.

Biennials – Plants that require two growing sea-sons to complete their life cycle.

Bioaccumulation – The buildup of pesticides orother chemicals in the bodies of animals (includ-ing humans), particularly in fat tissue.

Biocide – A chemical able to kill microbial organ-isms.

Biological control – Control by predators and par-asites, either naturally occurring or introduced.

Biological degradation – The breakdown of a pes-ticide due to the activities of living organisms,especially bacteria and fungi.

Biology – The science that deals with the struc-ture, function, development, evolution, and ecol-ogy of living organisms.

Biomass – Volume of living plant material.

Biotic – Relating to living organisms.

Biotype – A population within a species that hasdistinct genetic variation.

Bordetella – Infectious bacterium that can causetracheobronchitis.

Botanical pesticide – Organic pesticides derivedor extracted directly from plants. Examples arenicotine, pyrethrin, strychnine and rotenone.

Brand name – The specific, registered name givenby a manufacturer to a pesticide product; same astrade name or proprietary name.

Broad-spectrum pesticide – A pesticide that iseffective against a wide range of pests or species.

Broadcast application – The uniform applicationof a pesticide to an entire field or area.

Calibrate – To measure and adjust the amount ofpesticide the application equipment will releaseper unit of area.

Calibration – The process of measuring andadjusting the amount of pesticide that applicationequipment will apply to the target area.

Carbamate – A synthetic organic pesticide con-taining carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen and sulfur thatare used as insecticide, fungicide and nematicides.They have similar effects on nerve function asorgano-phosphates.

Carcinogen – A substance which has the ability tocause cancer.

Carcinogenic – Capable of causing cancer in ani-mals or humans.

Carrier – A liquid or solid material added to apesticide active ingredient or formulated productto facilitate its application. Also known as thematerial used to carry the pesticide to the target,e.g., water.

Caution – Signal word associated with pesticideproducts classified as either slightly toxic or rela-tively nontoxic.

Cell – The basic structural unit of all living organ-isms: An organism may be composed of a singlecell (e.g. bacteria) or many cells working together(all “higher” organisms, including man).

Certified applicator – A person qualified to applyor supervise applications of restricted use pesti-cides.

Certified commercial applicator – Any person(other than private applicators) who is certified orregistered to use or supervise the use of arestricted use pesticide and who is in the businessof applying pesticides for others.

Chelate – A combination of a metal ion and anorganic molecule. Combining the two makes themetal ion less reactive with other chemicals inwater or in a soil solution.

Chemical name – Name applied to a pesticideactive ingredient that describes its chemical struc-ture according to rules prescribed by the Ameri-can Chemical Society and published in theChemical Abstracts Indexes.

Chemical degradation – The breakdown of a pes-ticide by oxidation, reduction, hydrolysis or otherchemical means.

Chemical-resistant – Ability to prevent move-ment of pesticide through the material during theperiod of use.

Chemigation – The application of an agriculturalchemical by injecting it into irrigation water.

Cherry eye – Swollen gland of the third eyelid ofan animal that is visible as a large red mass on theinner corner of the eyelids.

Chigger – A six-legged mite larva that sucks theblood of vertebrates and causes intense irritation.

Chlorinated hydrocarbons – An insecticide/acari-cide class that includes lindane, methoxychlor andnaled.

Chlorophyll – The green photosynthetic sub-stance in plants that allows them to capture solarenergy and convert it to chemical energy.

Chlorosis – Loss of green color (chlorophyll) fromfoliage.

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Cholinesterase – An enzyme that helps to controlthe transmission of nerve impulses in animals andhumans.

Chorioptic mange – Veterinary term for infesta-tion of Chorioptes bovis, a species of non-burrowingmange mites.

Chronic effect – Illness or injury that appears along time, up to several years, after exposure to apesticide.

Chronic exposure – Exposure to repeated doses ofa pesticide over a period of time.

Chronic toxicity – A measure of the capacity of apesticide to cause injury as a result of repeatedexposures over a period of time.

Closed mixing systems – Systems in which liquidpesticide concentrates are transferred from theiroriginal containers to mix or spray tanks througha closed series of hoses, pipes, etc. Such systemsare designed to prevent or minimize human expo-sure to the concentrates.

Coccidia – Parasitic protozoan that infests thedigestive tract and can cause blood-tinged diar-rhea in young puppies.

Collection pad or tray – A safety system designedto contain and recover spills, leaks, rinsates andother pesticide-containing materials.

Colostrum – Mammary secretion containing anti-bodies of the bitch. Puppies receive this fluidupon the first suckling and receive maternal anti-bodies and passive immunity to those diseases towhich the bitch has immunity.

Comatose – Inactive, as in a coma.

Commercial applicator – Any persons other thanprivate applicators, certified to apply pesticides.

Common name – (1) When referring to a pesti-cide, an abbreviated name applied to a herbicideactive ingredient; usually agreed upon by theAmerican National Standards Institute and theInternational Organization for Standardization. (2)When referring to an organism, a name derivedfrom local common usage that is agreed upon bysome accepted authority but may not be unique.

Companion animals – Pets such as dogs and cats.

Compatibility – Mixable in the formulation or inthe spray tank for application in the same carrierwithout undesirable alterations in the characteris-tics or effects of the individual components.

Compatibility agents – Chemicals that enhancethe effective mixing of two or more pesticideproducts.

Congenital – Condition existing at time of birth.

Concentrate – Pesticide having a high percentageof active ingredient; occasionally applied full-strength, but usually diluted before application.

Concentration – The amount of active ingredientor equivalent in a quantity of diluent expressed aspercent, pounds per gallon (lb/gal), kilograms perliter (kg/l), etc.

Contact herbicide – A herbicide that causes local-ized injury to plant tissue where contact occurs.

Contact pesticide – A pesticide that kills pestssimply by contacting them.

Corrosion – Process of being worn away gradu-ally by chemical action.

Cross contamination – When one pesticide getsinto or mixes with another pesticide accidently;usually occurs in a pesticide container or in apoorly cleaned sprayer.

Cultural control – Control by changing manage-ment practices to reduce pest numbers withoutusing pesticides.

Cuticle – Thin, fatty or waxy outer surface on theleaves of some plants.

CZMA – Coastal Zone Management Act.

Danger – Signal word associated with pesticideproducts that may cause skin irritation, or eyeinjury more severe than suggested by the acutetoxicity (LD50) of the product.

Days to harvest – The minimum number of daysallowed by law between the final application of aparticular pesticide and the harvest date.

Decontamination – To rid of a polluting or harm-ful substance.

Deflocculating agent – A material added to a sus-pension to prevent settling.

Degradation – The breakdown of a pesticide intoa simpler compound that is usually, but notalways, non-toxic; may be either chemical, physi-cal or biological or any combination of the three.

Delayed effects – Illnesses or injuries that do notappear immediately (within 24 hours) after expo-sure to a pesticide or combination of pesticides.

Demodectic mange – A variety of skin conditionscaused by an infestation of follicle mites.

Dermatitis – The direct damage and inflamma-tory reaction of an animal’s skin to arthropod bitesor body secretions.

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Dermal toxicity – Ability of a chemical to causeinjury when absorbed through the skin.

Dermal – Of the skin; through or by the skin.

Detection – The first step in an IPM program;requires thorough and regular monitoring of ani-mals for pest infestations or other signs and symp-toms that indicate a pest is present on the animalor in the animal’s environment.

Dew claws – Claws high on the inner side ofdogs’ legs that serve no useful function for mostbreeds. Consult veterinarian regarding removal.

Diluent – Anything used to dilute a pesticide;often referred to as the carrier.

Dilute – To make less concentrated.

Dilute pesticide – A pesticide that is not concen-trated; one that does not have a high percentage ofactive ingredient.

Directed application – Precise application to aspecific area or plant organ, such as to a row orbed or to the lower leaves and stems of plants.

Direct supervision – When a certified applicatoris supervising the application of a pesticide and isphysically present at the time and the place thepesticide is being applied.

Directed spraying – Aiming a pesticide at a spe-cific portion of a plant or target site.

Disinfection – Disinfection is the act of maintain-ing animals and birds in an environment that iscleaned and sanitized daily, including kennels,doors, grids, eating bowls, water bottles, walls,ceiling, floors, food utensils, isolation areas,puppy rooms, runs, exercise areas and examina-tion areas. Maintenance personnel should wearclean clothes daily and wash hands and arms afterhandling any animals with a disease problem.

Dispersible granule – A dry, granular formula-tion that will separate or disperse to form a sus-pension when added to water.

Dispersing agent – A material that reduces theattraction between particles.

Distemper – Common worldwide disease of dogscaused by canine distemper virus.

Distributor products – Products that are producedand registered by a manufacturer or formulatorand sold under a different name by a distributor.

Dock – Shorten tail by cutting.

Dormant – State in which growth stops temporar-ily. May refer to plants, plant parts, microorgan-isms and certain animals.

Dose – (1) Amount, quantity or portion of a pesti-cide which is applied to a target. (2) A measure ofexposure used in animal testing to determineacute and chronic toxicities; usually expressed inmilligrams per kilogram body weight.

DOT – U.S. Department of Transportation.

Drift – Pesticide movement in air, away from thetarget site.

Dust – A finely-ground, dry pesticide formulationin which the active ingredient is combined withan inert carrier such as talc, clay, powdered nuthulls or volcanic ash; dusts are applied in the dryform.

Ear mites – Parasite that inhabits the ear canal andfeeds by piercing the skin. Mites are visible to thenaked eye. Ear mite infestation can be suspected ifthe ear passage contains a dark brown exudatewith a characteristic odor.

Early postemergence – Applied after emergenceduring the cotyledonous growth phase of crop orweed seedlings.

Eastern equine encephalitis – Disease of horses,pheasants and humans caused by a virus trans-mitted by swamp mosquitoes among wild birds.

Ecology – The science that studies the interrela-tionships of living organisms and their environ-ment.

Economic damage – The amount of injury thatwill justify the cost of applied control measures.

Economic injury level – The population densityat which a pest causes a reduction in the value ofthe crop that is greater than the cost of control.

Economic threshold or action threshold – Thepopulation density at which management mea-sures should be instituted to prevent an increasingpest population from reaching the economicinjury level.

Ecosystem – A system formed by the interactionof a community of organisms with their environ-ment.

Ecto – Prefix meaning “outside of the body.”

Ectoparasite – Organism that lives on the outsideof the host body, more or less in permanent associ-ation.

Emergence – The event in seedling or perennialgrowth when a shoot becomes visible by pushingthrough the soil or water surface.

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Emersed plant – A rooted or anchored aquaticplant adapted to grow with most of its leaf andstem tissue above the water surface and not low-ering or rising with the water level.

Emulsifiable concentrate (EC or E) – A pesticideformulation that usually contains a liquid activeingredient, one or more petroleum-based solvents,and an agent that allows the formulation to bemixed with water to form an emulsion (dropletsof one liquid dispersed in another liquid).

Emulsifier – Chemical that allows petroleum-based pesticides (EC’s) to mix with water.

Emulsion – A mixture of two or more liquids thatare not soluble in one another. One is suspendedas small droplets in the other.

Encapsulated pesticide – A pesticide formulationin which the active ingredient is encased inextremely small capsules made of inert syntheticpolymers. The pesticide is released gradually overa period of time.

Endangered species – A plant or animal that is indanger of becoming extinct.

Endo – Prefix meaning “inside the body.”

Endoparasite – Organism that invades internalbody parts of the host.

Entomology – The science that deals with thestudy of insects.

Environment – All of our physical, chemical, andbiological surroundings such as climate, soil,water and air and all species of plants, animalsand microorganisms.

Enzymes – Proteins that increase the rate of spe-cific chemical reactions.

EPA – U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.

EPA establishment number – A number assignedto each pesticide production plant by EPA whichmust appear on all labels.

EPA Registration number – A number assignedto a pesticide product by EPA when the product isregistered by the manufacturer which mustappear on all labels for that product.

Epidemic – A temporary widespread outbreak ofa disease.

Eradication – Destroying an entire pest popula-tion in an area.

Erosion – Movement of soil and associated mate-rials, principally by water and wind.

Euthanize – Kill in a humane manner.

Exotic – Native to other regions, countries or con-tinents.

Exposure – Coming into contact with a pesticide;getting a pesticide on a surface or in or on anorganism.

Eyewash dispenser – Commercially available sys-tem for flushing contaminants out of the eyes.

FAA – Federal Aviation Administration.

Facultative myiasis – Infestation by flies that areattracted to and lay eggs in wounds or injuries onanimals.

FDA – Food and Drug Administration.

FEPCA – The Federal Environmental PesticideControl Act of 1972. This law, including its manyamendments replaces and adds to FIFRA. FIFRAremains as the commonly used acronym.

FIFRA – Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, andRodenticide Act, as amended.

Flowable (F or L) – A pesticide formulation inwhich the active ingredient is impregnated on adiluent such as clay that is then finely ground andsuspended in a small amount of liquid; the result-ing paste or cream-like formulation is added towater in the spray tank and forms a suspension.

Foaming agent – A material designed to reducedrift, which causes a pesticide mixture to form athick foam.

Foliage – Primarily the leaves; may include stemsof a plant.

Foliar – Applied to the leaves of a plant.

Foliar application – Application of a pesticide tothe aerial portions of either a crop or weed.

Food chain – A group of plants, animals and/ormicroorganisms linked together as sources andconsumers of food.

Formulation – Pesticide product as sold, usually amixture of active and inert ingredients; can be dry,solid, liquid or gas.

Fowl pox – Viral disease of domestic fowl andwild birds.

Fragmentation – Plant pieces that break off theparent plant and can develop new roots andbecome re-established.

Fry – Recently hatched fish.

Fumigant – Pesticide that is a vapor or gas or thatforms a vapor or gas when applied and whosepesticidal action occurs in the gaseous state.

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Fungi – A group of lower parasitic plants lackingchlorophyll.

Fungicide – A chemical used to control fungi.

General use pesticide – A pesticide that is notclassified as a restricted use pesticide.

Germination – The process of initiating growth inseeds.

GPA – Gallons per acre.

GPM – Gallons per minute = GPA x MPH x W5940

Granules (G): A dry pesticide formulation madeby applying a liquid formulation of the activeingredient to particles of clay or another porousmaterial. Granules are applied in the dry form andhave a particle size substantially larger than dusts.

GRAS – Generally Recognized As Safe. Com-monly used for risk assessment and to describetested inert ingredients.

Groundwater – Water beneath the earth’s surfacein soil or rock.

Growth regulator – A substance used for control-ling or modifying plant growth processes withoutappreciable phytotoxic effect at the dosageapplied.

Habitat – The places where a plant or animallives, feeds and breeds.

Half life – The length of time required for thequantity of a chemical to be reduced by half undera specific set of conditions.

Hazard – The likelihood that an injury will occuras a result of a given level and duration of expo-sure.

Health certificate – Document signed by a veteri-narian that states an animal is free of clinical evi-dence of disease. Considered in most states to bean official document.

Heartworm – Thread-like worms (Dirofilariaimmitis) that reside mostly in the right ventricle ofthe heart; transmitted by mosquitoes. Preventionpossible.

Heat stress – Illness that occurs when the body issubjected to more heat than it can tolerate.

Herbaceous plant – A vascular plant that does notdevelop persistent woody tissue above ground.

Herbicide – A chemical used to control, suppressor kill plants or to severely interrupt their normalgrowth process.

Hereditary defect – Abnormal condition of thesire or dam, or of past generations of the sire ordam, that may be passed on to the current genera-tion of animals.

Hookworms – An endoparasite (e.g. Ancylostomacaninum) that attaches to the intestinal wall andingests blood. Infestation can lead to severe ane-mia and death.

Hormone mimics – A class of insecticides thatprevents development of immature insects to theadult stage. These chemicals simulate the activityof juvenile hormone, the hormone in insects thatmaintains immature characteristics. (See insectgrowth regulator.)

Host – A plant or animal on or in which a pestlives or feeds.

Hydraulic – Operated by the pressure created byforcing liquid through a narrow opening.

Hydraulic agitation – Stirring or mixing providedby the high-pressure flow of surplus spray mater-ial from the pump.

Hydrolysis – Decomposition of a chemical com-pound by reaction with water.

Hypersensitivity – An extreme allergic reaction toinsect bites, stings or secretions.

Hypostome – Feeding apparatus of a mite.

Immunized – Creation of antibody levels highenough to prevent a disease.

Impermeable – Cannot be penetrated.

Incompatibility – When two or more pesticidescannot be effectively mixed without a loss inactivity, an increase in toxicity or hazard to theapplicator or harm to the crop or the environment.

Incubation – Period of time between exposure todisease and development of clinical evidence ofthe disease.

Inert ingredients – Inactive components of a pes-ticide formulation that are used to dilute the pesti-cide or to make it safer, more effective, easier tomeasure, mix and apply and more convenient tohandle.

Ingestion – Eating or swallowing.

Ingredient name – The active ingredients and theamount of each ingredient (as a percentage of thetotal product) in a pesticide listed by the officialchemical name and/or common name for eachactive ingredient.

Inhalation toxicity – A measure of the capacity ofa pesticide to cause injury when absorbed throughthe lungs.

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Inoculation – Injection of a vaccine or bacterium.

Inorganic – Of mineral origin; does not containcarbon.

Inorganic pesticides – Pesticides of mineral ori-gin; they do not contain carbon.

Insect growth regulators – A class of insecticidesthat prevent development of immature insects tothe adult stage.

Insecticide – A chemical used to control insects.

Insoluble – Does not dissolve in liquid.

Integrated pest management (IPM) – An ecologi-cal approach to pest management in which allavailable techniques are consolidated into a uni-fied program so that pest populations can be man-aged to avoid economic damage and minimizeadverse effects.

IPM – Integrated pest management.

Invert emulsion – An emulsion in which water isdispersed in oil -rather than oil in water; invertemulsions are normally quite thick and thus lesssusceptible to drift.

Intermediate host – A host that is usually used bya parasite in the course of its life cycle and inwhich it may multiply.

Intranasal – Administration of antigen via nasalpassages.

Invertebrates – A class of animals that lack spinalcords.

Ivermectins – Group of insecticides labeled asdrugs, that often come into use for pest control onanimals.

Isolate – Set apart to prevent disease transmission.

Isolation area – An area or caging constructed toprevent spread of contagious conditions. The areaor cage should have a ventilation system that pre-vents commingling of air from the isolation areawith air in the healthy animal area.

Juvenile hormones – Natural insect chemicalsthat keep the earlier stages of an insect fromchanging into normal adult form.

Label – The information printed on or attached tothe pesticide container or wrapper.

Labeling – The pesticide product label and otheraccompanying materials that contain directionsthat pesticide users are legally required to follow.

Larvicide – A pesticide used to kill insect larvae.

Late postemergence – Applied after the specifiedcrop or weeds are well established.

LC50 – The concentration of an active ingredientin air which is expected to cause death in 50 per-cent of the test animals so treated. A means ofexpressing the toxicity of a compound present inair as dust, mist, gas or vapor. It is generallyexpressed as micrograms per liter as a dust ormist but in the case of a gas vapor as parts permillion (ppm).

LD50 – The dose (quantity) of chemical(s) calcu-lated to be lethal to 50 percent of the organisms ina specific test situation. It is expressed in weight ofthe chemical (mg) per unit of body weight (kg) ofthe test organism. The toxicant may be fed (oralLD50) or applied to the skin (dermal LD50).

Leaching – The movement of pesticide in water oranother liquid downward through soil or othermedium.

Lesions – Damage to an organ or tissue.

Lethal – Causing or capable of causing death.

Lethargy – Lack of energy, drowsy, dull, sluggishor inactive.

Liability – Legal responsibility.

Life cycles – The series of stages an organismpasses through during its lifetime.

Lime sulfur – Inorganic chemical (calcium poly-sulfide) used for lice control.

Local Effects – Effects which occur at the sitewhere the pesticide makes initial, direct contactwith body (i.e. skin, eye, nose, mouth, trachea,esophagus, stomach, GI tract, etc.). Local effectsmay occur immediately or may take longer toappear. These may include such effects as: local(contact site) skin irritation (rash, irritation, ulcer-ation) or local irritation of mucous membranes ofeyes, nose, mouth, throat, etc.

Macrophyte – A large or macroscopic plant that iseasily seen without the aid of a microscope.

Mange – Deterioration of the skin’s condition,leading to hair or feather loss, skin discoloration,often disfiguring and, in severe cases, lethargyand weakness.

Material Safety Data Sheets (MSDS) – Thesedata sheets contain specific information on toxic-ity, first aid, personal protection equipment, stor-age and handling precautions, spill and leakcleanup and disposal practices, transportation,physical data, and reactivity data. MSDS are avail-able from manufacturers.

Mechanical control – Pest control by physicallyaltering the environment.

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Mechanical agitation – Stirring or mixing done byrotating paddles or propellers in the sprayer tank.

Metabolite – A compound derived from meta-bolic transformation of a chemical by plants orother organisms.

Metamorphosis – The series of changes in shape,form or size through which insects and insect-likeorganisms pass in their growth from immaturestages to adult stage.

MDA – Michigan Department of Agriculture.

MDEQ - Michigan Department of EnvironmentalQuality

MDNR – Michigan Department of NaturalResources.

Microbial pesticide – Bacteria, viruses and fungiused to cause disease in some pests.

Microbicide – A chemical able to kill microorgan-isms. Includes bactericides, algaecides, and fungi-cides.

Microfilaria – Immature stages of canine heart-worm that circulate in the blood.

Microorganism – An organism that is so smallthat it cannot be seen without the aid of a micro-scope.

Mild steel – Steel that contains a very low per-centage of carbon; also called “soft steel.”

Mineral oil – Barrier against biting flies; also adiluent in some ear mite treatments that containcarbaryl.

MIOSHA – Michigan Occupational Safety andHealth Administration.

Miscible liquids – Two or more liquids that canbe mixed and will remain mixed under normalconditions.

Miticide – A chemical used to control mites.

Mitigate – To lessen, decrease or make less severe.

Mode of action – The way in which a pesticideexerts a toxic effect.

Mold – The vegetative phase in the growth of cer-tain fungi displaying long filamentous extensions.

Molluscicide – A chemical used to control snails,slugs and other mollusks.

Mollusks – Group of animals with soft, unseg-mented bodies that are usually, but not always,enclosed in shells.

Monitoring – The process of information gather-ing and collection through observation of a site ortarget organism.

Mph – Miles per hour. Speed (Mph) = distance (feet) x 60

time (seconds) x 88

MSHA – Mine Safety and Health Administration

Mucopurulent – White or yellowish dischargecontaining mucus and pus, typically seen from theeyes or nose in animals with bacterial infections.

Mutagenic – Capable of producing geneticchange.

Mutation – A change, usually harmful, in inher-ited genetic material.

Mycoplasmas – The smallest known living organ-isms that can reproduce and exist apart form otherliving organisms. They obtain their food fromplants.

Narrow-spectrum pesticide – A pesticide that iseffective against only one or a few species; theterm is usually applied to insecticides and fungi-cides.

Natural enemies – The predators and parasitesthat attack pest species.

Necrosis – Localized death of tissue usually char-acterized by browning and desiccation.

Necrotic – Showing varying degrees of dead areasor spots.

Nematicide – A chemical used to control nema-todes.

Nematodes – Small, slender, colorless round-worms that live saprophytically in soil or water oras parasites of plants, animals or fungi; plant-par-asitic nematodes are so small that they cannot beseen except through a microscope.

Neoprene – A synthetic rubber characterized bysuperior resistance to penetration by pesticides.

Neurotoxic – A pesticide which is harmful tonerve tissue.

NIOSH – National Institute for OccupationalSafety and Health.

Nits – The eggs of lice.

No observable effect level (NOEL) – The dose ofsubstance which causes no observable effects.

NOAA – National Oceanic and AtmosphericAdministration.

Non-persistent pesticide – A pesticide that breaksdown quickly after it is applied.

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Non-selective herbicide – A herbicide that is gen-erally toxic to all species of plants. This toxicitymay be a function of dosage, method of applica-tion, timing of application or other such factor.Some selective herbicides may become non-selec-tive if used at very high rates.

Non-selective pesticide – A pesticide that is toxicto most plants, insects or animals.

Non-target – Any site or organism other than thesite or pest toward which the control measures arebeing directed.

Non-target organisms – All plants, animals andmicroorganisms other than the intended target(s)of a pesticide application.

Noxious weed – A weed specified by law as beingespecially undesirable, troublesome and difficultto control. Definition will vary according to legalinterpretations.

Nymphs – Larvae that emerge from insect eggs ofmany insects and arthropods.

Obligatory myiasis – Infestation of bot flies inanimals occurring when the larval stages are liv-ing inside the skin or tissues of the animal.

Ocular – Pertaining to the eye.

Offsite – Outside the area where the pesticide isbeing released.

Oil solution – A liquid pesticide formulation inwhich the active ingredient is dissolved either inoil or some other organic solvent.

Oncogen – A substance having the ability to causetumors; the tumor may or may not be cancerous.

Oncogenic – Capable of producing or inducingtumors in animals, either benign (non-cancerous)or malignant (cancerous).

Oncogenicity – The ability to cause tumors.

Oral toxicity – A measure of the capacity of a pes-ticide to cause injury when taken by mouth.

Oral – Of the mouth; through or by the mouth.

Organic – Containing carbon.

Organic matter – Materials and debris that origi-nated as living plants or animals.

Organic pesticides – Pesticides that contain car-bon. Most are synthetic; some are derived orextracted from plants.

Organophosphate – A synthetic organic pesticidecontaining carbon, hydrogen and phosphorus;parathion and malathion are two examples used pri-marily as insecticides and act on nervous system.

OSHA – Occupational Safety and Health Admin-istration in the United States Department of Labor.

Ovicide – A chemical that destroys eggs.

Parainfluenza – Pneumonia-like infection causedby canine parainfluenza virus.

Parasite – An organism living on, in or withanother living organism for the purpose of obtain-ing food.

Parts per million, weight (PPMW) – One part of asubstance in one million parts of another sub-stance, by weight; for example, approximately2.72 lb of active ingredient applied to 1 acre-footof water will give 1 PPMW.

Parvovirus – Virus that attacks growing tissues(especially the intestinal tract) in puppies that arenot immunized.

Passive immunity – Immunity not of the younganimal’s own making, for example from maternalantibodies that offer only temporary protection.

Patella – Kneecap.

Pathogen – An organism that causes disease inother organisms.

Pelleted formulation – A dry formulation of her-bicide and other components in discrete particles,usually larger than 10 cubic millimeters, anddesigned to be applied without a liquid carrier.

Penetrant – Chemical that helps a pesticide getthrough a surface and into an object or organism.

Percolation – Downward seepage of waterthrough the soil.

Perennials – Plants that live for more than twoyears.

Persistence – A measure of how long a pesticideremains in an active form at the site of applicationor in the environment.

Persistent pesticide – A pesticide that remainsactive for a period of time after application andgives continued protection against a pest.

Personal protective equipment (PPE) – Devicesand clothing worn to protect the human bodyfrom contact with pesticides or pesticide residues.

Pest – An unwanted organism (plant, animal, bac-teria, etc.); any organism that competes with peo-ple for food, feed or fiber, impacts aestheticqualities, or impedes industrial or recreationalactivities.

Pesticide – A substance or mixtures of substancesintended to prevent, destroy, repel or controlundesirable organisms.

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Pesticide concentrate – A pesticide formulation asit is sold before dilution.

Pesticide handler – Person who directly handlespesticides, such as during mixing, loading, trans-porting, storing, disposing and applying or work-ing on pesticide equipment.

Pesticide handling – Directly working with pesti-cides, such as during mixing, loading, transport-ing, storing, disposing, and applying or workingon pesticide equipment.

Pesticide interaction – The action or influence ofone pesticide upon another and the combinedeffect of the pesticide on the pest(s) or crop sys-tem.

Pesticide registration – The status given to aproduct to allow for its sale and use as a pesticideby the Environmental Protection Agency or by thestate to meet a special local need.

Petiole – Stalk of a leaf.

Petroleum-based – Made from petroleum prod-ucts. Examples are: xylene, refined oil andkerosene.

pH – A measure of the acidity or alkalinity of asolution.

Pheromones – Chemicals emitted by an organismto influence the behavior of other organisms of thesame species.

Phloem – The living tissue in plants that functionsprimarily to transport metabolic compounds fromthe site of synthesis or storage to the site of utiliza-tion.

Photic zone – Portion of a body of water in whichenough light can penetrate to support aquaticplant growth.

Photodecomposition – Degradation of a pesticideby light.

Photosynthesis – The process in green plants ofsynthesizing carbohydrates from carbon dioxideand water, utilizing light energy captured bychlorophyll.

Physiology – The branch of biology that dealswith the functions and activities of living organ-isms.

Phytotoxicity – Injury to plants due to chemicalexposure.

Piscicide – A chemical used to kill or control fish.

Plant disease – Any harmful condition that makesa plant different from a normal plant in its appear-ance or function.

Plant growth regulator – A substance used forcontrolling or modifying plant growth processes.

Plant pathology – The science that deals with thenature and causes of plant disease.

Poison – A chemical that is very highly toxicacutely. Legally, a chemical with an oral LD50 of50 mg/kg or less.

Porous surfaces – Surfaces that have tiny open-ings which allow liquid to be absorbed or to passthrough.

Postemergence – Applied after emergence of thetarget weed or crop.

Pour-ons – High-concentrate, low-volume pesti-cide formulations applied directly to animals fromthe containers they are purchased in.

PPB – Parts per billion. One ppb equals 1 poundin 500,000 tons.

PPM – Parts per million. One ppm equals 1 poundin 500 tons.

PPT – Parts per trillion. One ppt equals 1 poundin 500,000,000 tons.

Pre-emergence – Applied to the soil prior to emer-gence of the target weed or crop. Control of weedsbefore or soon after they emerge.

Precautionary statements – Pesticide labeling state-ments that alert you to possible hazards from use ofthe pesticide product and that sometimes indicatespecific actions to take to avoid the hazards.

Precipitate – A solid substance that no longer willremain dissolved in water because of some physi-cal or chemical process.

Predator – An organism that attacks, kills andfeeds on other organisms.

Premise spray – An insecticide that will persist onthe surfaces in an animal’s living area for a periodof time.

Prevention – Keeping a pest from becoming aproblem.

Private applicators – Persons using or supervisingthe use of restricted use pesticides to produce anagricultural commodity on their own or theiremployer’s land, or on lands rented by them.

Propagation – Reproduction by either sexual orasexual means.

Propriety name – Same as brand name.

Protectant – A chemical applied to a plant or ani-mal in anticipation of a pest problem to preventinfection or injury.

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Protectant pesticide – Pesticide applied to a targetsite to prevent pest establishment.

Protectant fungicide – Pesticide applied to pre-vent the development of some plant diseasescaused by fungi.

psi – Pounds per square inch.

Psittacines – Birds related to parrots.

Psoroptic mange – Veterinary term for infestationof Psoroptes ovis, species of non-burrowingmange mites.

Pustules – Eruptions containing pus, such as boilsor pimples.

Rabies – Virus that affects the central nervous sys-tem.

Rate – The amount of active ingredient or acidequivalent applied per unit area or other treat-ment unit.

RCRA – The Resource Conservation and Recov-ery Act — the federal law regulating the trans-port, storage, treatment and disposal of hazardouswastes.

Ready-to-use pesticide – A pesticide that isapplied directly from its original container consis-tent with label directions, such as an aerosol insec-ticide or rodent bait box, which does not requiremixing or loading prior to application.

Reciprocity – An agreement between states toallow certified applicators in one state to obtaincertification credentials in the other state.

Registered pesticide – A pesticide approved bythe Environmental Protection Agency for use asstated on the label or by the state to meet a speciallocal need.

Registered technician – A classification of appli-cators in Michigan who are authorized to applygeneral use pesticides for a commercial or privatepurpose as a scheduled and required work assign-ment.

Registration – The regulatory process designatedby FIFRA and conducted by the EPA throughwhich a pesticide is legally approved for use.

Release – When a pesticide leaves its container orthe equipment or system that is containing it andenters the environment. Release can be inten-tional, as in an application, or by accident, as in aspill or leak.

Reregistration – Requirement by recent legislationthat older pesticides be reevaluated against cur-rent standards. A Special Review Process is usedto evaluate specific questions or concerns about a

pesticide and decide whether the registrationshould be adjusted in any way.

Residual pesticide – A pesticide that continues tobe effective for an extended period of time afterapplication.

Residue – The part of a pesticide that remains inthe environment for a period of time followingapplication or a spill.

Residue tolerance – The maximum amount of apesticide that may legally remain in or on a rawfarm product intended for consumption by peopleor livestock.

Resistance (pesticide) – The genetically acquiredability of an organism to tolerate the toxic effectsof a pesticide.

Respiration – (1) The process by which living cellsutilize oxygen to transform the energy in foodmolecules into biologically useful forms. (2) Theact of breathing.

Restricted entry interval – The length of time thatmust elapse after a pesticide application beforepeople who are not using personal protectiveequipment can enter the treated site.

Restricted-use pesticide – Pesticides designatedby the EPA for restricted use because withoutadditional regulatory restrictions, unreasonableadverse effects on the environment, includinginjury to the applicator, could occur. A “restricted-use” pesticide may be used only by or under thedirect supervision of a certified applicator.

Resurgence – A dramatic increase in the popula-tion level of a target pest some time after a pesti-cide application due to the destruction of itsnatural enemies by the pesticide; pest numbersmay soon surpass pretreatment levels.

Ringworm – Ring-shaped patch on skin causedby a fungus.

Risk – A combination of toxicity and exposureand is the possibility of loss or injury from expo-sure.

Risk/Benefit – A scientific approach in which therisk posed by a certain substance is weighedagainst the benefit of its use.

Rhizomes – Lateral roots.

Rinsate – Wash water that contains a smallamount of pesticide.

Roundworm – Internal parasitic worm (ascarid).

Runoff – Pesticide movement across a surfaceaway from the application site in water or anotherliquid.

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Sanitizer – Chemical compounds that reducemicrobial contamination.

Sarcoptic mange mite – Parasite that burrowsunder the skin, causing intense itching; can betransmitted to people.

Saprophyte – An organism that obtains its foodfrom dead or decaying organic matter.

SARA – Superfund Amendments and Reautho-rization Act — amendments to the Comprehen-sive Environmental Response, Compensation, andLiability Act (CERCLA).

Scabies – Any skin condition of man or animalassociated with a mite; a particularly serious,debilitating, mange condition.

Scientific name – The Latin name for the genusand species of an organism, designated by taxono-mists and universally accepted. Scientific namesare often used to avoid confusion which can resultfrom the use of common names which may varyfrom one area to another.

Scouting – Regular monitoring of a crop or site ina prescribed manner to determine the pest popu-lation levels and the extent of pest damage.

Sebaceous glands – Oil glands.

Secondary infection – Infection that occurs follow-ing the primary infection, as a result of loweredimmunity; e.g., infection following the scratchingof flea bites.

Selective pesticide – A pesticide that is more toxicto some kinds of plants and animals than to others.

Selectivity – the ability of a chemical to be moretoxic to some species than to others; may be afunction of dosage or mode of application.

Self-limiting – Refers to a disease or conditionthat will clear up by itself after a period of time.

Semipermeable – Some substances can passthrough and others cannot.

Senesce – To decline or fade; to age.

Sensitive areas – Sites or organisms that are par-ticularly vulnerable to harmful effects from pesti-cides.

Shampoo – Formulation of insecticide and otheringredients that is applied to an animal’s wet furand worked into a lather.

Signal words and symbols- Standardized designa-tions of relative levels of toxicity which must, bylaw, appear on pesticide labels. The signal wordsused are DANGER, or DANGER-POISON withskull and crossbones, or WARNING, or CAUTION.

Site – The crop, animal or area infested by a pestand to which a pesticide is applied.

Slurry – A thick suspension of a finely-dividedpesticide in a liquid.

Soft and hard water – A water quality parameterwhere soft waters exhibit total hardness less than50 mg calcium carbonate per liter (parts per mil-lion); hard waters have total hardness greater than100 mg calcium carbonate per liter; moderatelyhard waters are those between 50 and 100 mg cal-cium carbonate per liter.

Solubility – The ability to dissolve; such as thecapacity of a pesticide to dissolve in a specific sol-vent.

Soluble – Able to be dissolved in another sub-stance, usually a liquid.

Soluble powder (SP) – Dry pesticide formulationthat forms a true solution when mixed with water.

Solution – A homogeneous mixture of one ormore substances (solutes) in another substance(solvent), which is usually a liquid. The solutes arecompletely dissolved and will not settle out orseparate under normal conditions.

Solvent – A liquid, such as water, kerosene,xylene or alcohol, that will dissolve a pesticide (orother substance) to form a solution.

Space spray – Method of application of an insecti-cide that kills the insects that are in the area at thetime of application.

Special local need (SLN) – An existing or immi-nent pest problem within the state which cannotbe adequately controlled by the use of any avail-able federally registered pesticide product. TheEPA can approve temporary use of a pesticide toalleviate the need.

Species – The basic unit of taxonomic classifica-tion, designating a group of closely related indi-viduals that are capable of interbreeding.

Spot-ons – High-concentrate, low volume pesti-cide formulation applied directly to the animalfrom the container the product is sold in.

Spot treatment – Application of pesticidesapplied to restricted area(s) of a whole unit; e.g.,treatment of spots or patches of weeds within alarger field or water body.

Spray drift – Movement of airborne spray fromthe intended area of application.

Spreader – A chemical that increases the area thata given volume of liquid will cover on a solid oron another liquid.

108

Staphylococcus – Type of bacterium frequentlyassociated with skin infections.

State Management Plan – A written plan thatestablishes guidelines for activities that will pro-tect groundwater from pesticide contamination.Required by the EPA so that states may registerpesticides that pose a threat to groundwaterquality.

Statement of practical treatment (first aid) –Instructions on how to respond to an emergencyexposure involving a pesticide product.

Sterilant – A pesticide that renders a pest inca-pable of reproduction.

Sterility – The inability of a living organism toreproduce.

Sticker – An adjuvant that increases the ability ofa pesticide to stick to treated plant surfaces.

Stomach poison – A pesticide that kills when it iseaten and swallowed by a pest.

Stomata – Minute openings on the surfaces ofleaves and stems through which gases (oxygen,carbon dioxide, water vapor) and some dissolvedmaterials pass into and out of plants.

Subclinical – Not readily apparent disease.

Sublethal – Pertaining to a dos level that is lessthan an amount necessary to cause death.

Substrate – The surface on which an organismlives.

Supervise – The act or process of a certified appli-cator in directing the application of a pesticide bycompetent person under his or her instruction andcontrol and for whose actions the certified appli-cator is responsible, even though the certifiedapplicator is not physically present at the time andthe place the pesticide applied.

Suppression – Reducing pest numbers or damageto an acceptable level.

Surface water – Water on top of the earth’s sur-face, such as lakes, streams, rivers, irrigationditches, or storm water drains.

Surfactant – A material that improves the emulsi-fying, dispersing, spreading, wetting or other sur-face modifying properties of liquids.

Susceptibility – The sensitivity to or degree towhich an organism is injured by a pesticide treat-ment. (See tolerance.)

Susceptible – Capable of being diseased or poi-soned; not immune.

Suspended registration – An emergency suspen-sion of a pesticide registration stops all manufac-ture, distribution, sale and use of the pesticideuntil all court proceedings are concluded.

Suspension – A substance that consists of undis-solved particles mixed throughout a liquid.

Swath width – Side-to-side measurement of theband or strip of pesticide released by the applica-tion equipment.

Symptom – (1) Any detectable change in anorganism resulting from the activities of apathogen or other pest. (2) An indication of pesti-cide poisoning.

Synergism – The combined activity of two ormore pesticides that is greater than the sum oftheir activity when used alone.

Synergist – Something that enhances the effective-ness of the active ingredient(s) in a formulation.

Synthetic – Man-made; manufactured.

Synthetic pyrethroids – A class of insecticides/acaricides—including permethrin, resmethrin andallethrin—that shows properties of low mam-malian toxicity but good activity against insects,ticks and mites.

Systemic effects – Effects which occur at sitesother than the point of entry into the body follow-ing absorption and distribution through the circu-latory system, possible chemical reaction withinthe body or contact with critical targets sites, ororgans.

Systemic pesticide – A pesticide that is taken intothe blood of an animal or sap of a plant.

Tank mix – A mixture in the spray tank of two ormore pesticide products for simultaneous applica-tion.

Tank-mix combination – Mixing two or more pes-ticides or agricultural chemicals in the spray tankat the time of application.

Tapeworm – Intestinal parasitic worm (Cestode).

Target – The site or pest toward which controlmeasures are being directed.

Target pest – The pest toward which managementmeasures are being directed.

Taxonomy – The classification of living organismsinto groups based on similarities and relation-ships.

Teratogen – Any substance which can cause thedevelopment of malformations such as in birthdefects.

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Terrestrial – Living or growing on land; notaquatic.

Thickeners – Drift control agents such as cellu-lose, gels, and swellable polymers which cause theformation of a greater proportion of large spraydroplets.

Tip-and-pour – Built-in measuring device thatfills with a given amount of pesticide when thecontainer is tilted.

Tolerance – (1) Capacity to withstand pesticidetreatment without marked deviation from normalgrowth or function. (See susceptibility.) (2) Theconcentration of pesticide residue that will belegally allowed in or on agricultural products.

Topical – External, upon the skin.

Toxemia – An abnormal condition associated withthe presence of toxic substances in the blood.

Toxicity – Measure of a pesticide’s ability to causeacute, delayed, or allergic effects.

Toxicology – The study of the principles or mech-anism of toxicity.

Toxin – A poisonous substance produced by a liv-ing organism.

Tracheobronchitis – Upper respiratory infection.Common name is “kennel cough.”

Trade name – A trademark applied to a pesticideformulation by its manufacturer.

Translocated herbicide – A pesticide that killsplants by being absorbed by leaves, stems or rootsand moved throughout the plant. Translocatedherbicides may be either phloem mobile or xylemmobile, but the term is frequently used in a morerestrictive sense to refer to herbicides that areapplied to the foliage and move downwardthrough the phloem to underground plant parts.

Translocation – The internal movement of food,water, minerals or other materials (e.g. pesticides)from one part of a plant to another.

Trichuris vulpis – Endoparasite (whipworm) ofdogs that attaches to the intestinal wall andingests blood.

Ulceration – Open sore.

Use site – The immediate environment where apesticide is being mixed, loaded, applied, trans-ported, stored, or disposed of, or where pesticide-contaminated equipment is being cleaned.

USDA – United States Department of Agriculture.

Vaccine – Antigens introduced into the body thatstimulates the formation of protective immunity.

Vapor drift – The movement of chemical vaporsfrom the area of application. Note: Vapor injuryand injury from spray drift are often difficult todistinguish.

Vapor pressure – The property which causes achemical to evaporate. The lower the vapor pres-sure, the more easily it will evaporate.

Vascular plant – A plant (macrophyte) with spe-cialized conductive tissue.

Vascular system – The conducting tissue of plants,composed principally of xylem and phloem.

Vector – Means through which a disease causingorganism is transmitted from one place to another.

Vegetative reproduction – Production of newplants from vegetative plant parts such as root-stocks, rhizomes, stolons, tubers, cuttings, etc.,rather than from seed.

Vertebrate – An animal with a jointed backbone.

Virulent – Highly infectious; capable of causingdisease.

Virus – An obligate parasite often consisting onlyof a piece of genetic material surrounded by a pro-tein coat.

Volatile – Evaporating rapidly; turning easily intoa gas or vapor.

Volatility – The degree to which a liquid or solidchanges into a gas (vapor) at ordinary tempera-tures when exposed to air.

Warning – Signal word associated with pesticideproducts considered moderately toxic.

Water-based pesticides – Pesticides that use wateras the only diluent or carrier.

Water-dispersible granules – A pesticide formu-lation in which finely-divided powders are formu-lated into concentrated, dustless granules whichform a suspension in water.

Water-soluble concentrate (WS) – A liquid pesti-cide formulation in which the active ingredient issoluble in water and is formulated either withwater or another solvent such as alcohol whichmixes readily with water.

Watershed – The area of land draining into a bodyof water.

Weed – A plant growing where it is not desired;any plant that is objectionable or interferes withthe activities or welfare of humans.

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Wettable powder (WP or W): A finely-divided,relatively insoluble pesticide formulation in whichthe active ingredient is combined with an inertcarrier such as clay or talc and with a wetting ordispersing agent; a wettable powder forms a sus-pension rather than a true solution in water.

Wetting agent – (1) Substance that serves toreduce interfacial tensions and causes spray solu-tions or suspensions to make better contact withtreated surfaces (See surfactant). (2) A substancein a wettable powder formulation that causes it towet readily when added to water.

Whipworm – Internal parasite (Trichuris vulpis)that infests lower intestinal tract .

Wipes – Pesticide formulation applied directly tothe animal; cloths or sponges saturated with theproduct.

Woods lamp – Ultraviolet light with an eye-pro-tecting filter; helpful in identifying some kinds ofringworm.

WPS – Worker Protection Standard for agricul-tural pesticides.

Xylem – The tissue in higher plants which trans-ports water, dissolved salts, and other materials(e.g. pesticides) from the roots to aerial portions ofthe plant.

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APPENDIX AConvenient Conversion Factors

Multiply By To Get Multiply By To Get

112

Multiply By To Get Multiply By To Get

113

Multiply By To Get Multiply By To Get

114

Multiply By To Get Multiply By To Get

115

COUNTY EXTENSIONOFFICES

Alcona County ExtensionPO Box 800Harrisville, MI 48740-0800Phone: 517-724-6478Fax: 517-724-5684

Alger County Extension101 Court StreetMunising, MI 49862-1196Phone: 906-387-2530Fax: 906-387-2710

Allegan County ExtensionCounty Building Annex108 Chestnut StreetAllegan, MI 49010-1314Phone: 616-673-0370Fax: 616-673-7005

Alpena County Extension603 South 11th AvenueAlpena, MI 49707-2645Phone: 517-354-3636Fax: 517-354-5411

Antrim County ExtensionCounty BuildingPO Box 427Bellaire, MI 49615-0427Phone: 616-533-8818Fax: 616-533-8392

Arenac County ExtensionCounty BuildingPO Box 745Standish, MI 48658-0745Phone: 517-846-4111

Baraga County ExtensionCourthouse Annex12 North 3rd StreetL’Anse, MI 49946-1085Phone: 906-524-6300Fax: 906-524-61301

Barry County Extension220 West Court StreetHastings, MI 49058-Phone: 616-948-4862Fax: 616-948-4884

Bay County Extension1220 Washington AvenueBay City, MI 48708-5893Phone: 517-895-4026Fax: 517-895-4217

Benzie County ExtensionGovernmental CenterPO Box 307Beulah, MI 49617-0307Phone: 616-882-0025Fax: 616-882-9605

Berrien County Extension5060 St. Joseph AvenueStevensville, MI 49127-1046Phone: 616-429-2425Fax: 616-429-1309

Branch County ExtensionCourthouseColdwater, MI 49036-1990Phone: 517-279-8511-256Fax: 517-278-4130

Calhoun County ExtensionCounty Building315 West Green StreetMarshall, MI 49068-1585Phone: 616-781-0784Fax: 616-781-0647

Cass County Extension201 East State StreetCassopolis, MI 49031-1352Phone: 616-445-8661Fax: 616-445-3690

Charlevoix County Extension319B North Lake StreetBoyne City, MI 49712-1101Phone: 616-582-6232Fax: 616-582-2831

Cheboygan County ExtensionCounty BuildingPO Box 70Cheboygan, MI 49721-0070Phone: 616-627-8815Fax: 616-627-8881

Chippewa County Extension300 Court StreetSault Ste. Marie, MI 49783-Phone: 906-635-6368

Clare County ExtensionCounty BuildingPO Box 439Harrison, MI 48625-0439Phone: 517-539-7805Fax: 517-539-2791

Clinton County ExtensionCounty Services Building306 ElmSt. Johns, MI 48879-2398Phone: 517-224-5240Fax: 517-224-5244

Crawford County ExtensionCounty Building200 Michigan AvenueGrayling, MI 49738-1743Phone: 517-348-2841Fax: 517-348-7582

Delta County Extension2840 College AvenueEscanaba, MI 49829-9595Phone: 906-786-3032Fax: 906-786-2643

Dickinson County ExtensionCommunity Services Center800 Crystal Lake BoulevardIron Mountain, MI 49801-2765Phone: 906-774-0363Fax: 906-774-4672

Eaton County ExtensionSuite One551 Courthouse DriveCharlotte, MI 48813-1047Phone: 517-543-2310Fax: 517-543-8119

APPENDIX BMichigan State University Extension Directory

Emmet County ExtensionCounty Building200 Division StreetPetoskey, MI 49770-2493Phone: 616-348-1770Fax: 616-348-0633

Genesee County ExtensionCounty Building #2G-4215 West Pasadena AvenueFlint, MI 48504-2376Phone: 810-732-1470Fax: 810-732-1400

Gladwin County ExtensionCounty Library Building555 West Cedar StreetGladwin, MI 48624-2095Phone: 517-426-7741Fax: 517-426-4281

Gogebic County Extension104 South LowellIronwood, MI 49938-2092Phone: 906-932-1420Fax: 906-932-9762

Grand Traverse Co Extension1102 Cass Street, Suite ATraverse City, MI 49684-2092Phone: 616-922-4620Fax: 616-922-4633

Gratiot County Extension204 South MainIthaca, MI 48847-1465Phone: 517-875-5322Fax: 517-875-2990

Hillsdale County Extension20 Care DriveHillsdale, MI 49242-Phone: 517-439-9301Fax: 517-439-4290

Houghton/KeweenawCounty Extension1500 Birch StreetHancock, MI 49930-1095 Phone: 906-482-9301Fax: 906-482-4978

Huron County ExtensionRoom 104, County Building250 East Huron AvenueBad Axe, MI 48413-1397Phone: 517-269-9949Fax: 517-269-7221

Ingham County Extension121 East Maple StreetPO Box 319Mason, MI 48854-1655 Phone: 517-676-7207Fax: 517-676-7230

221 East Maple StreetPO Box 319Mason, MI 48854-1655Phone: 517-484-9461

Ionia County Extension100 Library StreetIonia, MI 48846-1691Phone: 616-527-5357Fax: 616-527-5380

Iosco County ExtensionPO Box 599Tawas City, MI 48764-0599Phone: 517-362-3449Fax: 517-362-3871

Iron County Extension2 South 6th StreetCrystal Falls, MI 49920-1413Phone: 906-875-6642

Isabella County ExtensionCounty Annex Building201 North Main StreetMt. Pleasant, MI 48858-2321Phone: 517-772-0991-302Fax: 517-773-7431

Jackson County Extension1699 Lansing Ave.Jackson, MI 49202-2296Phone: 517-788-4292Fax: 517-788-4640

Kalamazoo County ExtensionRoom 302201 West Kalamazoo AvenueKalamazoo, MI 49007-3777Phone: 616-383-8832Fax: 616-384-8035

Kalkaska County ExtensionCounty Government Center605 North BirchKalkaska, MI 49646-9436Phone: 616-258-3320Fax: 616-258-4678

Kent County Extension836 Fuller Avenue, NEGrand Rapids, MI 49503-1992Phone: 616-336-3265Fax: 616-336-3836

Keweenaw(See Houghton-Keweenaw)

Lake County ExtensionRoute 3Box 2235Baldwin, MI 49304-2235Phone: 616-745-2732Fax: 616-745-6213

Lapeer County Extension1575 Suncrest DriveLapeer, MI 48446-1195Phone: 810-667-0341Fax: 810-667-0355

Leelanau County Extension116 East Philip StreetLake Leelanau, MI 49653-9701Phone: 616-256-9888Fax: 616-256-9431

Lenawee County ExtensionSuite 20201040 South Winter StreetAdrian, MI 49221-3867Phone: 517-264-5300Fax: 517-264-5317

Continued on next page

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Montmorency County ExtensionCourthouse AnnexPO Box 415Atlanta, MI 49709-0415Phone: 517-785-4177

Muskegon County Extension635 Ottawa StreetMuskegon, MI 49442-1016Phone: 616-724-6361Fax: 616-724-6675

NW Mich. Hort. Res. Station6686 Center HighwayTraverse City, MI 49684-Phone: 616-946-1510Fax: 616-946-1404

Newaygo County Extension817 South Stewart AvenueFremont, MI 49412-9201Phone: 616-924-0500Fax: 616-924-6480

Oakland County ExtensionDept 4161200 North Telegraph RoadPontiac, MI 48341-0416Phone: 810-858-0880Fax: 810-858-1477

Oceana County Extension210 Johnson StreetPO Box 151Hart, MI 49420-0151Phone: 616-873-2129Fax: 616-873-3710

Ogemaw County ExtensionCounty Building806 West Houghton AvenueWest Branch, MI 48661-1215Phone: 517-345-0692Fax: 517-345-4939

Ontonagon County ExtensionCourthouse725 Greenland RoadOntonagon, MI 49953-1492Phone: 906-884-2767Fax: 906-884-2582

Osceola County ExtensionCourthousePO Box 208Reed City, MI 49677-1149Phone: 616-832-6139

Oscoda County ExtensionCourthouse AnnexBox 69Mio, MI 48647-0069Phone: 517-826-3241

Otsego County Extension200 Livingston BoulevardGaylord, MI 49735-9397Phone: 517-731-0272Fax: 517-731-0744

Ottawa County Extension333 Clinton StreetGrand Haven, MI 49417-1492Phone: 616-846-8250Fax: 616-846-0655

Presque Isle County Extension151 East Huron AvenuePO Box 110Rogers City, MI 49779-1709Phone: 517-734-2168Fax: 517-734-4116

Roscommon County ExtensionCourthousePO Box 507Roscommon, MI 48653-0507Phone: 517-275-5043Fax: 517-275-5675

SW Mich. Research & ExtCenter1791 Hillandale RoadBenton Harbor, MI 49022-Phone: 616-944-1477Fax: 616-944-3106

Saginaw County Extension705 Adams StreetSaginaw, MI 48602-2192Phone: 517-799-2233Fax: 517-799-2238

Sanilac County Extension37 Austin StreetSandusky, MI 48471-1298Phone: 810-648-2515Fax: 810-648-3087

Schoolcraft County ExtensionRoom 218County CourthouseManistique, MI 49854-1485Phone: 906-341-5050Fax: 906-341-5680

Shiawassee County Extension701 South NortonCorunna, MI 48817-1298Phone: 517-743-2251Fax: 517-743-4891

St. Clair County Extension108 McMorran BoulevardPort Huron, MI 48606-4061Phone: 810-985-7169Fax: 810-985-5931

St. Joseph County ExtensionCourthouseBox 280Centreville, MI 49032-0280Phone: 616-467-5522Fax: 616-467-5641

Tuscola County Extension362 Green StreetCaro, MI 48723-1998Phone: 517-672-3870Fax: 517-673-5953

UP Michigan Hort Exper Sta-tion102 University DriveChatham, MI 49816-0168Phone: 906-439-5114Fax: 906-439-5698

VanBuren County ExtensionSuite A801 Hazen StreetPaw Paw, MI 49079-1075Phone: 616-657-7745Fax: 616-657-6678

WC Michigan Hort Res Station9302 Portland RoadClarksville, MI 48815-Phone: 616-693-2193Fax: 616-693-2317

Livingston County Extension820 East Grand River AvenueHowell, MI 48843-2497Phone: 517-546-3950Fax: 517-546-5154

Luce County ExtensionCounty Building, Room 26407 West Harrie StreetNewberry, MI 49868-1208Phone: 906-293-3203Fax: 906-923-3581

Mackinac County ExtensionCourthouse100 Marley StreetSt. Ignace, MI 49781-1495Phone: 906-643-7307Fax: 906-643-7302

Macomb County ExtensionVerkuilen Building21885 Dunham RoadClinton Township, MI 48036-1030Phone: 313-469-5180Fax: 313-469-6948

Manistee County Extension6433 - Eight Mile RoadBear Lake, MI 49614-9712Phone: 616-889-4277Fax: 616-889-5930

Marquette County Extension200 West Spring StreetMarquette, MI 49855-Phone: 906-228-1556Fax: 906-228-1549

Mason County ExtensionSuite 4102 South Main StreetScottville, MI 49454-1221Phone: 616-757-4789Fax: 616-757-2977

Mecosta County Extension14485 Northland Dr.Big Rapids, MI 49307Phone: 616-592-0792Fax: 616-592-9492

Menominee County ExtensionPO Box 157Stephenson, MI 49887-0157Phone: 906-753-2209Fax: 906-753-2200

Midland County Extension220 West Ellsworth StreetMidland, MI 48640-5194Phone: 517-832-6640Fax: 517-832-6758

Missaukee County Extension6180 West Sanborn RoadPO Box 800Lake City, MI 49651-0904Phone: 616-839-4667Fax: 616-839-5282

Monroe County Extension963 South Raisinville RoadMonroe, MI 48161-9740Phone: 313-243-7113Fax: 313-243-7000

Montcalm County Extension617 North State RoadPO Box 308Stanton, MI 48888-0308Phone: 517-831-5226Fax: 517-831-8863

Washtenaw County ExtensionCounty Services Center4133 Washtenaw Ave., Box 8645Ann Arbor, MI 48107-8645Phone: 313-971-0079Fax: 313-971-1307

Wayne County Extension6th Floor640 Temple StreetDetroit, MI 48201-2558Phone: 313-494-3005Fax: 313-494-3031

Wexford County Extension437 East Division StreetCadillac, MI 49601-1905Phone: 616-467-5511Fax: 616-779-0292

UNIVERSITY OUTREACHREGIONAL OFFICES

MSUE - East Central Region2203 Eastman AvenueMidland, MI 48640-2608Phone: 517-839-8540Fax: 517-839-8504

MSUE - North RegionSuite 1022200 DendrinosDr.Traverse City, MI 49684Phone: 616-929-3902Fax: 616-929-0454

MSUE - Southeast Region28115 MeadowbrookNovi, MI 48377-3128Phone: 810-380-9100Fax: 810-380-9194

MSUE - Southwest Region310 Administration Building201 West Kalamazoo AvenueKalamazoo, MI 49007-3777Phone: 616-383-6465Fax: 616-383-6466

MSUE - UP Region1030 Wright StreetMarquette, MI 49855-1891Phone: 906-228-4830Fax: 906-228-4572

MSUE - West Central Region110 Commerce Building5 Lyon StreetGrand Rapids, MI 49503-3117Phone: 616-458-6805Fax: 616-458-6665

MSU BULLETIN OFFICE10-B Agriculture HallMichigan State UniversityEast Lansing, MI 48824-1039Phones:Single Copies: 517-355-0240Bulk Copies: 517-353-6740Fax: 517-353-7168

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REGION 1State Office BuildingRoom 117Escanaba, MI 49829(906) 786-5462

REGION 2701 S. Elmwood Ave., Suite 9Traverse City, MI 49684-3185(616) 922-5210

REGION 3State Office Building350 Ottawa, N.W.Grand Rapids, MI 49503(616) 456-6988

REGION 4Saginaw State Office Building411-F East GeneseeSaginaw, MI 48607(517) 758-1778

REGION 54032 M-139, Building 116St. Joseph, MI 49085-9647(616) 428-2575

REGION 6611 W. OttawaNorth Ottawa BuildingLansing, MI 49833(517) 373-1087

REGION 7Lahser Center Building26400 Lahser RoadSouthfield, MI 48034(810) 356-1701

P.O. BOX 30017LANSING, MICHIGAN 48909

( 517) 373 -1087

1

2

3 4

5 6

7

APPENDIX CMICHIGAN DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

PESTICIDE & PLANT PEST MANAGEMENT DIVISION

118

DIVISION OFFICEKnapps Office Center300 S. Washington SquareP.O. Box 30028Lansing, MI 48909Fax: (517) 373-2637Phone: (517) 373-9837

Fire Marshall DivisionHazardous Materials SectionP.O. Box 30157Lansing, MI 48909Phone: (517) 322-1935

DISTRICT OFFICES

Cadillac District OfficeRt. #18015 South Mackinaw TrailCadillac, MI 49601Fax: (517) 775-9671Phone: (616) 775-9727

Grayling District Office1955 N. I-75, BL, R#3Grayling, MI 49738(517) 348-6371

Grand Rapids District Office350 Ottawa Street, NWGrand Rapids, MI 49503Fax: (616) 456-1239Phone: (616) 456-5071

Jackson District Office301 Louis Glick HighwayJackson, MI 49201Fax: (517) 780-5055Phone: (517) 780-5000

Lansing District OfficeP.O. Box 30028State Secondary ComplexLansing, MI 48909Fax: (517) 322-6311Phone: (517) 322-1300

Marquette District Office1990 U.S. 41 SouthMarquette, MI 49855Fax: (906) 228-5245Phone: (906) 228-6561

Plainwell District Office1342-B, M-89Plainwell, MI 49080Fax: (616) 692-3050Phone: (616) 692-2120

Roscommon District OfficeP.O. Box 1288717 North Roscommon RoadRoscommon, MI 48653Fax: (517) 275-5167Phone: (517) 275-5151

Saginaw Bay District Office503 N. Euclid AvenueBay City, MI 48706Fax: (517) 684-4482Phone: (517) 684-9141

Southeast District Office38980 Seven Mile RoadLivonia, MI 48152Fax: (313) 953-0243Phone: (313) 953-0241

District Boundaries

District Office

APPENDIX C continuedDEPARTMENT OF ENVIRONMENTAL QUALITY

(formerly Department of Natural Resources)ENVIRONMENTAL RESPONSE DIVISION

DIVISION AND DISTRICT OFFICES

When calling theseoffices, be sure to askfor the EnvironmentalResponse Division Staff

119

Michigan Groundwater and Fresh Water Protection ActSources of information and assistance:

Michigan Department of Agriculture Region 6 - Groundwater Program611 W. OttawaNorth Ottawa BuildingLansing, MI 49833(517) 373-1087

Grand Traverse MSU Extension - Groundwater Program1102 Cass St. Suite A Traverse City, MI 49684(616) 922-4620

Kalamazoo MSU Extension Office - Groundwater ProgramRoom 302201 W. Kalamazoo Ave.Kalamazoo, MI 49007-3777(616) 383-8830

Michigan Department of AgricultureRegion 3 - District Extension Agent - Groundwater ProgramState Office Bldg. Room 2C350 Ottawa N.W.Grand Rapids, MI 49503-2321(616) 456-6988

Natural Resource Conservation Service Contact person located at MDA Region 6 office.See above. (517) 373-1087

Inquiries can be sent to internet address:rouget@msue.msu.edu

Michigan Counties with Endangered Species InterimBulletins Available for the Kirtland’s Warbler:Alcona, Clare, Crawford, Iosco, Kalkaska, Missaukee, Montmorency, Ogemaw,Oscoda, Presque Isle and Roscommon.

APPENDIX C continued

120

NOTES

121

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1-8

00

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8-7

37

8

Pe

stic

ide

dis

po

sal

info

rma

tio

n...

......

......

......

......

......

......

......

......

......

Mic

higa

n D

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tmen

t of E

nviro

nmen

tal Q

ualit

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aste

Man

agem

ent D

ivis

ion.

Mo

nd

ay–

Fri

day

: 8

a.m

.–5

p.m

.

(51

7)

37

3-2

73

0

An

ima

lP

ois

on

ing

......

......

......

......

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..Yo

ur v

eter

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ian:

____

____

____

____

____

_P

hone

No.

or

Ani

mal

Hea

lth D

iagn

ostic

Labo

rato

ry (

Toxi

colo

gy)

Mic

higa

n S

tate

Uni

vers

ity:

(51

7)

35

5-0

28

1

Pe

stic

ide

Fir

e...

......

......

......

......

...Lo

cal f

ire d

epar

tmen

t:

____

____

____

____

____

Pho

ne N

o.

an

d

Fire

Mar

shal

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isio

n,M

ichi

gan

Sta

te P

olic

e:M

–F

: 8

–12

, 1–

5

(51

7)

32

2-5

84

7

Tra

ffic

Ac

cid

en

t...

......

......

......

......

....

Loca

l pol

ice

depa

rtm

ent o

rsh

eriff

’s d

epar

tmen

t:

____

____

____

____

____

_P

hone

No.

an

d

Ope

ratio

ns D

ivis

ion,

M

ichi

gan

Sta

te P

olic

e:

*(5

17

) 3

36

-66

05

En

viro

nm

en

tal

Po

llu

tio

n...

......

......

......

......

....

Pol

lutio

n E

mer

genc

y A

lert

-in

g S

yste

m (

PE

AS

), M

ichi

-ga

n D

epar

tmen

t of

Env

ironm

enta

l Qua

lity:

____

____

____

____

____

_P

hone

No.

an

d

For

env

ironm

enta

l em

erge

ncie

s:

*1-8

00

-29

2-4

70

6al

so

*1-8

00

-40

5-0

10

1M

ichi

gan

Dep

artm

ent o

fA

gric

ultu

re S

pill

Res

pons

e

MI

CH

IG

AN

PO

IS

ON

CO

NT

RO

LS

YS

TE

M

From

any

whe

re in

Mic

hig

an, c

all

1-

80

0-

PO

IS

ON

-

11

-8

00

-7

64

-76

6-

1

*Te

lep

ho

ne

Nu

mb

er

Op

era

ted

24

Ho

urs

Rev

ised

by

Pes

ticid

e E

duc

atio

n P

rog

ram

, Mic

hig

an S

tate

Uni

vers

ity E

xten

sion

(PL

EA

SE

PO

ST

IN A

N A

PP

RO

PR

IAT

E P

LA

CE

)

122

123

▲ FOLD TOP FLAP IN, FOLD AGAIN AND SEAL WITH TAPE ▲

Michigan State University ExtensionPesticide Education ProgramAgriculture HallEast Lansing, MI 48824-1039

PLACESTAMPHERE

▼ C

UT

AL

ON

G D

OT

TE

D L

INE

▼

124

We would like to hear from you!

Your input is valuable for making the pesticide certification training manuals appropriate for your industry.

Please take a moment to fill out this evaluation form and return it to the Pesticide Education Program office, Michigan State University Extension.

1. Were the learning objectives at the beginning of each chapter useful to your study of this manual? Yes or No

2. Did you work through the review questions at the end of each chapter? Yes or No

If yes, did you find them helpful for preparing to take the Michigan Department of Agriculture (re)certification exam? Yes or No

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