LIVESTOCK-BASEDLANDUSEANDCHANGEINTHEBALEMOUNTAINSECO-REGION:ACOMPARATIVESTUDYBETWEEN2007AND2016

FionaFlintan1,WorkuChibssa2,TayeTadesse3,MahmudMuhammed4andSeifudinKassim5

ILRI(InternationalLivestockResearchInstitute),AddisAbaba

April2017

FortheSHAREConsortium

1Seniorscientist,ILRIEmail:f.flintan@cgiar.org2Consultant3Consultant4MedaWelabuUniversity,Robe,5Consultant

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TABLEOFCONTENTS

Acknowledgements........................................................................................................... iv

Acronyms .......................................................................................................................... v

EXECUTIVESUMMARY ...................................................................................................... vi

1.0INTRODUCTION..................................................................................................... 1

1.1HistoryoflivestocklanduseintheBaleEcoRegion....................................................1

1.2BaleMountainsNationalPark(BMNP) .......................................................................3

1.3LivestockandtheBMNP .............................................................................................9

1.4Introductiontothisresearchstudy............................................................................11

1.5Challengesoftheresearch.........................................................................................13

1.6Thisreport ..................................................................................................................14

2.0CLIMATEOFTHESTUDYAREA ............................................................................. 15

2.1ClimateoftheBaleMountains...................................................................................15

2.2Altitudinalandseasonalvariability ............................................................................15

2.3Localnamesforlivestocksicknessanddisease .........................................................16

3.0GOBAWOREDA................................................................................................... 18

3.1Introduction ...............................................................................................................18

3.2FasilAngessoPA.........................................................................................................18

3.3HilassaPA ...................................................................................................................29

3.4AshutaPA ...................................................................................................................36

3.5Synthesisandfuturescenarios..................................................................................42

4.0HARENABULUKWOREDA ................................................................................... 45

4.1Introduction ...............................................................................................................45

4.2SoduWelmalPA .........................................................................................................46

4.3MelkaArbaPA............................................................................................................54

4.4Synthesisandfuturescenarios...................................................................................63

5.0DELOMENAWOREDA ......................................................................................... 66

5.1Introduction ...............................................................................................................66

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5.2ErbaPA .......................................................................................................................66

5.3BerakPA .....................................................................................................................75

5.4Synthesisandfuturescenarios...................................................................................84

6.0NENSEBOWOREDA ....................................................................................................87

6.1Introduction ...............................................................................................................87

6.2SolanaPA....................................................................................................................89

6.3GerambamoPA ..........................................................................................................94

6.4Synthesisandfuturescenarios.................................................................................100

7.0ANALYSISANDCONCLUSIONS ............................................................................101

REFERENCES ...................................................................................................................111

APPENDICES ................................................................................................................... 114

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Theresearchteamwould liketothankthemanypeoplewhocontributedtothisstudy,and inparticular the additional researchers from Meda Welabu University, who withstood verychallenging fieldwork conditions in the first part of this study. Special thanks goes to YaredMesfin,GISTechnicianandlectureratMedaWelabuforhistimeandexpertisespentdigitizingthemaps,togetherwithMergaDiyessa(FARMAfrica)andYeneneshAbebe(thenofIWMI).WewouldalsoliketothankDrSamuelTefera,AddisAbabaUniversityforhisvaluablecontributiontothewriting-upofthereport.Finallyweverymuchappreciatethetimegivenbycommunitymembersforfocusgroupdiscussions,interviewsandgenerallysharinginformationabouttheirlivesandlivelihoods.

Gelatoma!

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ACRONYMS

BERSMP BaleEcoregionSustainableManagementProject

BMNP BaleMountainsNationalPark

FZS FrankfurtZoologicalSociety

GMP Generalmanagementplan

IWMI InternationalWaterManagementInstitute

Masl metersabovesealevel

NGO Non-governmentalorganisation

OFWE OromiaForestandWildlifeEnterprise

OWWSDE OromiaWaterWorksSupervisionDevelopmentEnterprise

PA Peasantassociation

PHEEC PopulationHealthEnvironmentEthiopiaConsortium

REDD Reducingemissionsfromdeforestationandforestdegradation

SHARE SupporttotheHornofAfricaResilience(project)

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EXECUTIVESUMMARY

Introductiontotheresearch

LivestockhasbeenanintegralpartoftheBalelandscapeforcenturies.Untilrecentlythesystemwasextensiveallowingfreemobilityofasmallhumanandlivestockpopulation(Hillman1986;SolomonetalND;Watson2007).Over time,peoplehave increasingly turned tocrop farmingdespitethefactthat ingeneraltheclimate isnotconduciveforcropgrowing: itcantakeninemonths for barley to grow and ripen. In the early 1970s the Bale Mountains National Par(BMNP)was established covering amajor part of the ecoregion including areas that livestockkeepers had traditionally used. A BMNP general management plan for 2007-2017 whichincludedissuesofresettlementandzonationhasnotbeenimplemented.Onlyformallygazettedin2014,accesstotheParkhasbeenanongoingissueofconflictbetweentheParkauthoritiesandlocalcommunities.

This research study was undertaken by ILRI for IWMI (International Water ManagementInstitute),whoisleadingtheresearchoftheEU-fundedSupporttotheHornofAfricaResilience(SHARE)projectuntilNovember2017.SHAREworksacrosstheBaleEcoRegionwiththeaimofconservingbiodiversityandecosystemfunctionsandservices intheregion,and improvingthewellbeingofcommunitiesthatdependonthesefunctionsandservices.Thisresearchstudyisacontributiontothisresearchpresentingthestatusofcurrent livestock landuseanddynamics,andacomparativeanalysisofthesituationtodaycomparedto2007,whenasimilarstudywasundertaken. The study in 2007 was completed for the BERSMP (Bale EcoRegion SustainableManagementProgramme) jointly implementedbytheEthiopiangovernment(namelytheBaleForest Enterprise) and NGOs – FARM Africa and SOS Sahel Ethiopia. It is documented in thereport:LivestockandLivestockSystemsintheBaleMountainsEcoRegion(2008)byF.Flintan,W.Chibsa,D.WakoandA.Ridgewell.

The research forSHAREwasundertaken in2016,with fieldwork in twophases–one inApril-May, and the second in November. The research took place in fourworeda and nine kebelebeing:FasilAngessoPA,AshutaPAandHilassaPAinGobaworeda;ErbaPAandBerakPAinDeloMenaworeda;SoduWelmalPAandMelkaArbaPAinHarenaBulukworeda;andGerambamoPAandSolanaPAinNenseboworeda.Thesamekebeleandworedawereusedinboththe2007and2016studytoprovideforthecomparativeanalysis.

Analysisandconclusionsoftheresearch

TheBaleMountainsEcoRegionhasarichhistoryof livestockproduction.Despiteanumberofchallenges livestock remains themainstayof the localeconomy inbothhighlandand lowlandareas. Following traditional practices, movements across the altitudes still exist particularlyamongstcommunitiesinthesouthernpartsoftheregionwhotakelivestockuptoforestareasinthedryseasonfromdrierlowerparts.However,themovementoflivestocktodaytendstobemore opportunistic and in response to available resources rather than the more predictablegodantu movements of the past. Figures show that there were around 726,020 heads oflivestockintheafroalpineParkin2015.

This study has shown that trends seen ten years ago including increasing cultivation of landparticularlygrazingareas, lossof local controlof land to investorsand theNationalPark (andmorerecentlytheOromiaForestandWildlifeEnterprise),aswellasintensificationoflivestock

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production and diversification of livelihoods have all intensified. Some communities alsocomplainedaboutchangingclimate,reducedrainfallandhighertemperatures.

Accordingtothewealthranking,mostPAcommunitieshaveseenanincrease(ifonlyslight)inoverallwealthstatus.ThiswasparticularlythecaseinFasilAngessoPAwherelivestocknumbershadseeminglyincreasedeventhoughcropfarmingwasalsomoreprevalent.AlikelyreasonforthisisthatthelivestockkeepershavebeenabletotaketheirlivestockuptotheSanettiPlateauwheretheirmostimportant(highquality)grazingisfound.HoweveriftheBMNPistocarryoutits threats of excluding livestock in this area, thiswill prevent suchuse and in the face of noalternativesitwilllikelyhavesignificantlynegativeimpactsonthelivelihoodsofcommunitiesinFasilAngessoaswellasofothercommunities.SomePAshoweverarefacingamorechallengingsituation includingHilassaPA inGobaworeda,wherepoverty levelsappear tohave increasedoverthedecade.Seeminglythisisaresultofreducedproductivityoflandforcropfarmingandalack of alternative grazing for livestock, contributing to the poor livestock productivity levelsseen.

At thesametimecommunitiesarestruggling tomaintaincontrolof their lives (including foodandlandsecurity),toaccessinputsandextensionservicestoimprovetheirlivestockproductionanddealwithdiseasesandnewthreatssuchasinvasivespecies,andtomaintainaccesstotheresources important for their livelihood systems. Conflicts between land users are increasing,including between communities that in the pastwillingly shared land and resources includinggrazing. To adegree this has seeminglybeenaggravatedbywell-intentioned interventionsbyNGOs.Inthosecommunitiesthatarebetter-offandareclosertotowns(suchasthoseinGobaworeda),schoolattendancehasincreasedinimportanceandoccurrence.

InBerakPA,acommunityrich ingrazingareasandtraditionallyahost formanyneighbouringlivestockinthewetseasons,hasseenlargesectionsofitslandtakenoutofcommunitycontrolanduse,andprovidedtoinvestorsforgrowingofcropsandsuchasbiofuels.Thiswasaprocessstarted in the early 2000s, and during the study in 2007, communitymembers were alreadycomplainingaboutthesituation.Asthetrendcontinuedandwiththeincreasinglossofgrazinglands,communitymembershavestartedgrowingmorecropsandarebeginningtoencloseandincrease regulations on the remaining grazing areas. Today Berak’s livestock keepers faceconflictswiththeinvestors(secretlyreleasingtheirlivestockontheinvestors’landinprotest).Inaddition Berak has started implementing PRM (participatory rangeland management) (withsupportfromNGOs)includingnewbylawsandsuchasrotationalgrazingpractices.Howeverthishasnotbeeneasilyacceptedbycommunitieswhohave traditionallyvisitedBerak forgrazing,andarenowfacedwiththenewrulesandregulations.Inordertoavoidconflictsbetweenthetwopartiesitisnecessarytofacilitatediscussionsbetweentheminordertocometoamutually-beneficialagreementaboutsharingofresources,andplanthisacrossthewiderBalelandscapeincludingbothcommunites,theirneighboursandotherstakeholders.

Thoughperhapsnotsointense,othercommunities/PAsarefacingsimilarchallenges.ExcludingNenseboworeda, all communities complained that they have lost important grazing areas tocropproduction.Notonlythis,butcropgrowingoftenblocksmigrationroutesmeaningthatittakes longer tomove to those grazing areas still available and/orwater sources. Communitymembersarenotadversetocropgrowing,andindeedmostrespondents(apartfromtheverypoorest)dogrowsomecropsifonlyforsubsistence.Localgovernmenthasencouragedthiswiththeprovisionofinputs,toolsandextensionservicesaswellasanincreaseinmarketsandpricesofagriculturalproducts.

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However, though communitymembers see the benefit of growing crops aswell as livestock,theywouldliketoseemoreextensionservicesandsupportfromgovernmentforlivestock(andnotonlyforcrops).Thiswasacomplaintraisedinthestudyin2007.However,thoughextension(includingveterinary)servicesdohaveappearedtoimprovedinsomeareassuchasinNenseboworeda (where livestock disease appears to have significantly reduced) in others, particularlythosethataremoreisolatedsuchasHarenaBulukandDeloMenaworedas,andeveninHilassaPA in Goba, livestock extension services are close to non-existent or demonstrably lacking.Whenasked,kebelegovernmentadministrationoffices inthemajorityofPAsstatedthattheydo have one land use administration expert, one livestock expert, and one agronomist –however as suggestedby the communities the capacity of these experts to address all needsacrosstheworedaisinadequate.Communitymembersblamedthelackofsupportfromhigherlevelsofgovernmentasthereasonwhyadisproportionateamoungofbudgetandresourcesareprovidedforlivestockproductionsystems.

Additionally in all PAs where there were state or investor crop-growing farms, communitymemberscomplainedthatthefarmshadintroducednewplants(invasivespecies)intotheareathat was degrading grazing areas, and even poisoning livestock. Community members alsomentionedaplant calledgonde that grows inmarshy areas and close to rivers,which causessickness anddeath to cattle if they eat it. These new invasive species are increasing in theirprevalenceandneedurgentattention.

Arossthezones,woredaandPAsthatparticipatedinthisstudylivestocknumbershavegrown,andquitesubstantiallyinsomecases,accordingtogovernmentfigures.InBalezone(asshownin Appendix 1) cattle numbers have increased from 2,290,163 in 2000 to 2,825,215 in 2015.Shoatshaveincreasedfrom653,676in2000to1,934,461in2015.Equineshaveincreasedfrom234,379in2000to519,887in2015.Andcamelshaveincreasedfrom67,956in2000to226,616in2015.InGobaworedafiguresstatethatby2015,totallivestocknumberswere190,726heads,madeupof95,715cattle,74,04shoats(mainlysheep),and20,957equines,around25%increasefrom2007. Thoughthenumberofcattlehasincreasedonlyslightly, it isthenumberofshoatsthathaveincreasedmostsignificantly-byafactorofsixbetween2000and2007,andagaindoublingbetween2007and2015. Ifacomparison ismadebetween2000and2015 thenshoatswouldhaveincreasedbyafactorof11.Prior to 2007 Harena Buluk and DeloMena were one woreda -Mena Angetu woreda. TotallivestockfiguresofHarenaBulukandDeloMenain2015were723,269headsoflivestockmadeup of: 479,601 cattle, 160,731 shoats, 37,515 equines, 45,422 camels. This is a nearly 3-foldincreasefrom2007,anda3.65-foldincreasefrom2000withincreasesacrossalllivestocktypesincludingcattle. InHarenaBulukalone livestocknumbers in2007totaled95,319heads,madeup of 59,669 cattle, 23,673 shoats, 7,863 equines, and 4,114 camels. In 2015 these hadincreased to 232,377 heads of livestock made up of: 156,975 cattle, 54,917 shoats, 19,735equines,and750camelsgivinga2.5-foldincreaseontotalnumbersandwithcattle increasingnearly3-fold,shoatsandequinesover2-fold,andcamelsreducingsignificantly(thereasonforwhichisnotclear).Mostsignificantistheincreaseincattle.

InDeloMenaalone,totalnumbersoflivestockheadsin2007was154,409:thiswasmadeupof102,324cattle,26,097shoats,6,412equinesand19,576camels.In2015thishadincreasedtoatotalnumberof490,892heads,madeupof322,626cattle,105,814shoats,17,780equinesand

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44,672camels.This isamorethan3-fold increase(i.e. ineightyears)with increasesacrossalllivestocktypes,includingamorethan4-foldincreaseinshoats(mainlygoats).Thisissurprisingconsidering the increased pressures on grazing, and the conversion of much land to cropfarming.

LivestockpopulationsofNenseboworeda in2000stoodat100,617cattle;17,252shoats;and6,210 equines, which equals 76,194 TLU or 124,079 heads of livestock. No 2007 data wasobtained. The total number in 2015howeverwas251,845heads,madeupof 156,353 cattle,70,777 shoats, and 24,715 equines. This shows a doubling of livestock numbers over the 15years,withalesserincreaseincattlenumbers(only50%),buta4-foldincreaseinthenumberofshoatsandequines.Thisisnotsurprisinggiventhemoresedentarisedlivingintheworedawitha large amount of cattle kept in more intensified zero grazing systems, whereas shoats inparticularareabletobrowseonremainingresourcesmoreeasily.Wherelandpressuresandlandusechangestotallypreventlivestockmovement,thishasledtothe replacement of extensive grazing with zero-grazing systems (Solana PA and Ashuta PA),supplementation of grazing with cut-and-carry of grasses (Gerambamo) and the increasedfeeding of fodder and forage including crop residues, plants, enset and other. In some PAsincluding those in Nensebo woreda (Gerambamo and Solana) the fattening of livestock inenclosuresnowmakesanimportantcontributiontolocallivelihoods.Theopportunitytodothishas been increased by improved infrastructure in the area. However generally, mostcommunities say that the fodder and forage are poor substitutes for grazing/grass and isreflected in lowerproductivityof livestock insomecases.The feedingof feedconcentrates tolivestock was hardly mentioned. In addition a limited introduction of ‘improved’ breeds hasbeenseenoverthelastdecade,thoughthesearemainlydairyanimals.Thoughthemarketingoflivestockhas increased innearlyall cases those interviewedsaid theyonlysell livestockwhenthere isa specificneede.g. topaymedical fees, school fees,or fora culturalevent suchasafuneralorwedding.

In general water access for livestock and human consumption is not a problem, and thoughsomecommunitymembersmentionedittooklongertotakelivestocktowaterpoints inareaswhere there is increased farming, in generalmost communities have access towater all yearround(excludingunusuallydrymonths).Inadditiontheuseofhora(mineralsprings)andhaya(mineral licks) is still common providing important health-giving minerals for the livestock.Thoughsomehayahavebeenlosttoagriculturesince2007,itwouldseemthatthemajorityofbothhayaandhoraarestillinuse.Wherecommunitiesdonothaveaccesstothesenaturalsaltsources and/or where livestock do not move (i.e. in Nensebo), mineral supplements arepurchased. Said to be soda-based minerals from the Rift Valley Lakes called bajji, these aremixedwithsoilandfedtothelivestock.Whereveterinaryservicesareavailabletheyappeartobe well-used by community members, including vaccination. There appeared to be littleintroductionof improvedbreeds in themorehighlandareas, though theywerementioned inGobaandNensebo(i.e.wheremoreintensificationoflivestockproductionhastakenplace).

Thelackofsecuritytolandandresourcesisanunderlyingcauseofmanyoftheproblemsthatthecommunityface.Governmentpromotesindividuallandholdingovercommunal,reflectedinthe strongdrive in thearea toallocateand certifyplotsof farming land to individuals and/orhouseholds. However communal lands, including those remaining grazing areas that manylivestock keepers depend upon, remain unregistered and uncertified. Additionally, becauselivestockaremovedtodifferentareasforwetanddryseasongrazingthelandfromwhichthey

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havecomeisleft‘vacant’forpartoftheyear.Localgovernmentarguesthatthislandcouldbeputto ‘better’productiveuse,andwithnocertifiedownerthegovernmentcaneasilyallocatethatlandtootheruserssuchasinvestorsortolandlessyouth.InsomePAse.g.AshutainGoba,the government is encouraging the community to pay for grazing; and in Solana andGerambamotheleasingofgrazingtootherusesisacommonoccurrence.Further,therentingofdraughtpower(oxen)iscommoninthecropfarmingareas.

TheintroductionofPRM(participatoryrangelandmanagement)inBerakPAbyFARMAfricaandSOS Sahel, has to a degree legitimized local land use including grazing and contributed tosecuringthelandforthecommunity,followingamanagementplanandregulatingbylaws,witha resourceuser agreementestablishedbetween the local PAgovernment and thedesignatedcooperative(s).Howeverasdescribedabove,the increasedformalisationandcontrolofaccesstothesegrazingareas(traditionallyusedbymanyneighbouringcommunitiesinthewetseason)isnowleadingtoconflictsbetweentheBerakPAandthevisitingsecondaryusers.ThissituationdemandstheintroductionofamorewatershedorlandscapeplanningapproachthatconsiderslandandresourceuseacrossthewholeBaleregion,theimplicationsofoneinterventioninoneplaceonothers in the region, andhowbest negative impacts of such an intervention canbepreventedand/ormitigated.

Forest encroachment from farming was an issue of significant importance for manycommunitiesandparticularlythosethatusetheforestareasforgrazing.Thishadnotonlyleadtoproblemsinaccessingresourcesaswellasadegradationofthoseresourcesbecausehighernumbersof livestockareusing lessavailable,butalso ithas leadtoconflictsbetweenherdersand crop farmers. Though the Oromia Forest andWildlife Enterprise state that they supportcommunity-based/participatory forestmanagement, thecomplaintsof thecommunitysuggestotherwiseandtheOFWEwouldratherappeartobeseekingtorestrict/preventtheaccessofthecommunitiesratherthanworkingwiththemtomanagetheforestareas.Thisseemstobealostopportunityforawin-winsituationwheretheOFWEwouldbenefitfromthecommunityhelpingtomanagetheforest,andthecommunitybenefitingfromkeepingaccesstoit.

However, themost important issueformanyofthecommunities,particularlythoseborderingBMNP(includingErbaPA-DeloMena,andFasilAngesso-Goba),istherecentdesignationofthePark and plans to demarcate the boundaries and exclude herders and their livestock fromgrazing inside. This was the most heated issue discussed, with community members highlyaggravated, increasingly resentful, and seemingly willing to take all measures to maintainaccess.Theysaidthatthissituationshouldneverhavearisenasinthepasttheyhaveprotectedthe Park and such as the Ethiopian Wolf, and are still willing to do so. Yet they have beencompletely leftoutofdecision-makingprocessesaboutthePark,andnowtheserecentmovestoexcludethemandtheirlivestockreflectacompletelackofregardforthem,theirlivelihoodsandtheirwillingnesstoparticipateinthemanagementandprotectionofthePark.TheybelievethatiftheParkwastoworkwiththemthencompromisesandsolutionscouldbefoundthatwillbenefit all. It would seem helpful therefore if Park authorities and supporting NGOs such asFrankfurt Zoological Society (FZS) improve opportunities for the participation of willingcommunities in Park decision-making and management, and compromises/agreements areestablishedallowing limitedandregulateduseofpartsof thePark (e.g.prioritygrazingareas)anditsresources.

Animportantfuturedevelopmentfortheregionwouldbelanduseplanningatdifferentlevels.Currently the Oromia Water Works Supervision Development Enterprise (OWWSDE) is

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producingalanduseplanfortheBalezone.Thedocumentwasnotfinalizedintimeforreviewinthisstudy,butitwilllikelyhavestrongimplicationsforfuturelanduseinthearea,prioritizingdifferent land uses in different areas. Additionally there are opportunities for lower levels ofland use planning through the government structures e.g. at woreda level, as well as atcommunitylevel–andalreadybeingcarriedoutinBerakPAsupportedbythePRMprocess.Akeycomponentofsuchlanduseplanningshouldbeconsideringdifferentscenariose.g.withorwithout grazing in theNational Park. In addition amore indepth and quantitiative aswell asqualitiativestudyof livestocknumbers in theBaleMountainsEco-Region (includingadetailedlivesetockpopulationcensus)isrequired.

Amajor issue iswhat is the ‘carrying capacity’ of the land–however if this is tobeproperlycalculatedthenitneedstobedoneonascaleofthewholelandscapesothatthedifferentpartsofthelandscapeandtheirrelevanceforlivestockproductionatdifferenttimesoftheyearandotherfactorsaretakenintoaccount,togetherwithmovementbetweenthese.Suchmovementis important forensuringcattle inparticular remainhealthyandproductive in thechallengingenvironment across the different altitudes and climates, so preserving the more beneficialcomponents of the extensive livestock production that has a comparative advantage in theregion:bothintermsofproductionandintermsofconservation,grasslandsifwell-managedaremore beneficial to the environment than crops. If such land use planning processes areimplementedinaparticipatory,inclusivewayinvolvingalllandusers,withpossibilitiesforsomeconsensus about future land use, then these processes could contribute to the resolution ofmanyoftheproblemsthatwereencounteredinthisstudy.

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1.INTRODUCTION

1.1HistoryoflivestocklanduseintheBaleEcoRegion

Livestock has been an integral part of the Bale landscape for centuries and until recently thesystemwasextensiveallowingfreemobilityofasmallhumanandlivestockpopulation(Hillman1986;SolomonetalND;Watson2007). Inthe1800sarinderpestoutbreak(particularly intheRiraarea)killedofftensofthousandsofthecattle.Duringtheimperialeragrazinglandswereeffectively declared as belonging to the state (yemengistmerit). The livestock pastureswereseenasano-man’slandsalienatedforotherpurposes.

Inanattempttogeneratetaxableresourcessystematiclandmeasurement(qalad)beganinthe1950s, privatizingwhat had been commonly-held resources andmarginalizing thosewith lessmeanstoinfluencethelandregistrationprocess(Mindaye2005).Thiswasamajorcontributingfactor to the first BaleUprising of 1963 to 1970. TheUprising also contributed to a reducinglivestockpopulationintheregionasanimalswerestolenbycombatantsandevenbombedfromtheair(Ayele1975).Duringthistimelandlordstendedtocontrolaccesstograzing,particularlywheretheareawasalsosuitableforagriculture.Thesystematthetimeput‘good’agriculturallandunderaprivatelandlordandchargedtheusersforanyaccess.ThecomingoftheDerguefollowingthe1974Revolutionmarkedthestate’sgripoverproductiveresourcesfacilitatingsendentarization(Helland2006).Thelandlordsystemdescribedabovewasabolishedand landwasopenedup forall.However, theestablishmentof largestate farms inthe Goba area left little room for livestock keepers who were increasingly pushed to higheraltitudesincludingtotheareawhichwouldbecometheBaleMountainsNationalPark(BMNP)(seebelow).Thisdisturbedthetraditionallivestockmovements–locallycalledgodantu.

Box1.1Thetraditionalgodantulivestocksystem

A system of seasonal movements known as godantu was the predominant method of livestockmanagement.Livestockweresplitintoaforaherdofdrycows,bullsaswellascamels(wherekept)andawarraherdofmilkingcows,ascontinuestobethepractice intheBoranarangelands(Ayele1976).Thisoftenrelieduponreciprocalkinshiprelationsknownasgodanna(B&MConsultants2004).Theforaherdwastrekkedtodistantpasturesandwaterpointsbythehouseholdheadandtheboysofthehousehold,whilethewarraherdremainedbehindandwastendedbythewomenofthehousehold(Ayele1976).These livestockmovementsappear tohavebeendictatedby the lackofwaterandgrazing in low lyingareas (gammojji) and also the presence of livestock diseases that proliferate in the dry seasons (Ayele1976).Thereforewhiletheloweraltitudesprovidedgrazingduringthewetseason,duringthedryseasonlivestockweretrekkedtothehigheraltitudes(baddaandbaddadare)and inparticulartohighaltitudeforests. Forests provided a rich source of fodder, browse and also shade (Girma 2005). The shift togrowingof crops in someof themid-altitude areas has shifted themovements of livestock somewhat,with livestock being pushedout andup from these areas to such as the Sanetti Plateauduringwettermonths.AsconfirmedbytheBMNP(2006):“Underthegodantusystem,peaklivestocknumbefsoccurintheAfroalpineinthewettermonths,fromApriltoAugust,whenlivestockaremovedfromlowerpastureswhere agricultural crops are being grown. In the Harenna Forest, influxes of pastoralists from thesurroundinglowlandareasarereportedfor3-4months(December-March)inthedryseason.”

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Indeed,in2006itwasstatedthatpeaklivestocknumbersoccurintheAfroalpineinthewettermonths,fromApriltoAugust,whenlivestockaremovedfromlowerpastureswhereagriculturalcrops are being grown. In the Harenna forest, influxes of pastoralists from the surroundinglowland areas are reported for 3-4 months (December-March) in the dry season (BMNP,2006:58).As livestock numbers decreased, the local population increasingly turned to agriculture as analternative livelihoodssystem.Thisplaced furtherpressureonpastoral resources, increasinglylimitingmovement.This isthedespitethefactthat ingeneraltheclimateisnotconduciveforcrop growing: it can take ninemonths for barley to grow and ripen. As a result of increasingpressure on resources, disputes over communally held grazing lands (lafa dheeda) becamecommon occurrences (Mamo 2005). Disputes tend to be settled through either formal orinformalmeans: formally through theworedaadministration and informally by the council ofelders(jaarsabiyyaa)orritualexpertsknownaswayyuu(ibid).Ineithercase,farmersaregivengreater opportunity than livestock owners to demonstrate ownership to their land with thelatter finding it difficult to prove use, let alone ‘ownership’. Alongside the expansion ofsmallholder agriculture, mechanized large-scale agriculture has increased, though limited toplacesof3000maslorbelow(Guilio2003;Hillman1986).Thishasfurthercompelledlivestockproducerstoshifttheirmigrationroutesintothehigheraltituderegions(WAAS2005).Fromthelate-1970sattemptsweremadetosettlethelocalpopulationandlimitmovementofpeopleandlivestockacrossthearea.Mostrecently(circa2000),thisincludedtheresettlementofseveralhundredfamiliesfromHaraghe,mainlyinDeloMenaworeda.Mainlyagriculturalists,theyspeduptheconverstionofgrazinglandtocropagriculture.Conflictsbetweenthesettlersandlocallivestockherdersoccuredsporadically.Despitetheshifttomoresettledagriculturallifestyleslivestockcontinuedtobethemainstayoftheeconomy.Indeed,livestockparticularlycattlewereconsideredmorethananeconomicassetand treated with respect. For example on New Year the local people not only celebratedthemselvesbyeatingabigmeal,buttheyalsotookcattletothebestgrassavailablesotheytoocouldeattheirfill(personalcommunication,2000).More recentlyWatson (2007) found thatagriculturewas theprimaryworkactivity for84%ofhouseholds in Mena, Goba and Dinsho woreda. Livestock was regarded as the secondarylivelihoodactivity for64percentofhouseholds.However, shealso found that99percentofhouseholds kept some livestock “…for both non-consumable (transport, ploughing andreproduction), and consumable purposes (milk, skins, selling and eating). No respondentsreportedsocialstatus,savingsorinsurance,asareasontokeeplivestock”(ibid:38).In some woreda it has been reported that cattle are kept primarily for draught power andsecondly for milk production. Further, shoats are seen as being ‘highly significant’ to foodsecurity and self-sufficiency and are kept within the mixed crop-livestock farming system. Inthese areas animal husbandry and crop farming can be highly integrated. Draught power isrelied upon for cultivation while agricultural inputs are often financed from livestock sales(Solomonetal2005).Itissaidthatmoresedentarylifestylesbroughtaboutbytheexpansionofcropfarminghasledto the need for the supplementation of livestock feed with fodder and in particular crop

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residues.Residuesfromcereals(wheatandbarley),pulses(fieldpeaandfababean),linseedaswellasmaizeareavailableinsomelocations(Solomonetal2005). In2005someworedacropresidues represented themain sourceof animal feedduring thedry season (81.4per cent ofrespondents inDinsho and Sinana) (ibid). During the long dry season barley straw andmaizestock were the main sources of fodder with priority given to oxen as ploughing was alsoundertakenat this time (Agarfa,Dinsho,GaseraandSinana) (Solomonetal2005). Itwasalsoreported that improved forage crops including vetch and Rhodes grass were introduced intoGasseraworedaalthoughtheyhadrestricteduse(Bekeleetal1997).Althoughitsuseremainedlimitedinmanyareascropresiduesrepresentedthemajorexternalinputtothelivestocksector(81percentofinformants)(Watson2007).However,thiswasreportedtobehighlydependenton location,altitudeandherdcompositionwithsomeareasyet to introduce thepractice.Forexample it was said that fodder remained insignificant or not used at all in other woreda(Berebere,DeloMena,HarenaBulukandMedaWelabu)(Bekele2005).AreviewoflivestocknumbersacrosstheBalezone(seeAppendix1)showsareductionbetween2000 and 2007, but a doubling between 2007 and 2015 from 2,611,618 (number of cattle,shoats, equines and camels) to 5,506,179 in 2015. Though theremay be some issues in datacollection and reporting here, it is clear that there has been a substantial increase and thatthough trends of crop agriculture increase have continued across the zone livestock stilldominates.

1.2BaleMountainsNationalPark

The BaleMountains National Park (BMNP)was established in 1970 encompassing an area of2400 km sq. Those communities already living in the areawerenot involved in this decisiondespiterecognitionoftheirmainlynegativeimpactontheland.LeslieBrownanaturalist(whoplayedaroleintheestablishmentofthePark)visitedtheareaintheearly1960snotingthat:

TheGalla61arealargelypastoralpeople,unliketheAmhara,whoarecultivators.Nopastoralistisquiteasdestructiveasacultivator,sothisnobleplainretainedmuchofitspristinebeauty(Brown1965:100).

DescribingtheareaaroundAdabaandDadola:Thiswholecountry,ona fineday,wouldhavebeen liketheproverbialGardenofEden(ibid:120)…..Theywere analmost perfect example of a community of primitive peoplewhomitseemsbetternottodisturbortrytochange,becausetheyhaveenoughfortheirownneedsanda littlemoreandarenot, in thesatisfactionof theseneeds,doinganyrealharmtotheirhabitat.Herenoonehadyetlearnedthedestructiveuseoftheploughonsteepslopes.Theyhadenoughlandtoenablethemtopursuethemoreleisuredandgentlemanlypastoralwayoflifewithoutstarvingandtheforestswereopenenoughandprovidedwith rich enough herbage to let them livewithout having to hack down thecover….Although itwasnotmy responsibility, I couldnot help cogitatingonwaysandmeans of preventing the destruction of the forest cover which will, with increase inpopulation,beinevitablesomedayunlessthisfavourablesituationisstabilizedwhilethechanceexists(ibid:121).

6GallaisatermusedfortheOromopeopleinthepast,nowconsideredderogatory.

4

Hecontinued:Wesawveryfewhumanbeingsuponthesemountains.Horsemenweresometimesseencrossingtrails,buttherewerenoherdsofstock.Wegatheredthatherdsonlycameupherewhenthecountrywasnearlydry;itwasneverquitedry.Therewasonlyonemonthintheyearwhentheheathwouldburn,andthennoteveryyear.Heathfiresweregenerallystartedbypeoplealongtrailsand,giventherightconditions,theywouldgoonandontillstoppedbysomeobstacle,suchasanothertrack,arivervalley,oracontinuoussillofrock(ibid:134).

DuringtheDerguestateauthorityovertheParkwasatitsstrongestresultingintheforcedremovalofsettlementsandtheeffectivecolonisationofthemountainlandscape.AsfeelingstowardstheParkwerenotfavourable,“thelocalpeopledestroyedalltheoutpostsduringgovernmentchangeoverin1991…[a]fterdemolishingtheoutpost,Tamsa’aareawasconvertedintofarmlandbythelocalpeople”(B&MConsultants2004:28).ManypeoplereturnedtotheParkfollowingthefalloftheDerguein1991andthedisintegrationofcontrols,althoughtheevictionofsomecommunitieswasattemptedagainin1999(Flintan2000;Malcolm&Evangelista2005).OverthenextdecadeandahalfmanagementoftheParkhaslackedconsistencythoughtherehavebeenseveralfurtherattemptstoevictvillages,thoughnotnecessarilywell-enforcedresultinginareturnofmanyvillagersoncethecontrolshaveweakened.Inadditionanumberofdifferentdevelopmentprojectshavebeenundertaken,mainlyinthesurroundingareasinanticipationofbeingableto‘pull’communitymembersoutoftheParktoaccessbetterservicesandlivelihoodopportunities.In2007,whenthefirstresearchwasundertaken,althoughtheParkhadstillnotbeenformallygazettedattemptswerebeingmadetodelineatetheboundary.Thisreflectedthelaunchofthemostrecentgenralmanagementplan(GMP)forthePark,producedwiththesupportofFrankfurtZoologicalSociety(FZS).7ThisPlansupportedthesustainableuseofParkresourcesaslongasitdidnotaffecttheprimarymanagementobjectivesofconservation.Itwasanticipatedthatthiscouldbeachievedbya‘zoning’oftheParkintodifferentusezones,whichwouldallowgrazinginananaturalresourcemanagementzone.SettlementoflocalcommunitiesfrominsidethecoreprotectionzonetooutsidetheParkboundarieswasindicatedasanintervention.TheconservationofExceptionalResourceValuesoftheParkwasgivenprecedenceoveranyotherkindofuse(BMNP2006).LivestockentertheParkforgrazing,browse(inwoodedareas)andtoaccessthemineralspringsorhora(seeBox1.2).Inadditionthereisamajortransportroute(nowatarmacedroad)throughtheParkrunningovertheSanettiPlateaufromGobathroughRiravillagetoDeloMena.TheincreasingsettlementsandincreasingnumbersoflivestockintheParkareofconcerntothePark,governmentandconservationorganisationsforanumberofreasonsincluding:

i) Disturbanceofthehydrologicalcycleandwatersourcesinthehighlands,uponwhichhundredsofthousandsofpeoplerelyuponincludinginthelowerpartsofthewatershed.

ii) Erosiveimpactsoflivestockhooves,grazingandbrowseonvegetationcover.

7ThoughtherehavebeenanumberofmanagementplansproducedintheParkincludingthefirstin1974bythethenParkWardenChrisHillman,updatedin1986,asecondintheearly2000sdevelopedbytheWorldWidlifeFundthoughneverfinalizedandthecurrentGeneralManagementPlan2007-2017(compiledandeditedbyttheFrankfurtZoologicalSociety).

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iii) NegativeimpactontouristswhodonotwishtoseelivestockintheParkdisturbing‘natural’views.

iv) Disturbanceof,competitionforgrazingwith,andspreadofdiseasetotheMountainNyalaandEthiopianWolf(distemperandrabies).

Saidtobeofparticularvulnerabilityistheericaceousbeltofthemountainarea(YosephAssefaetalundated).8Box1.2Mineralspringshoraandminerallickhaya

MineralspringsarefoundmainlyinthenorthernpartoftheBMNP(usedmainlyduringthedriermonths)andaroundDinshoTown(usedallyearround).Hillman(1986)identifiesninehorabutseesthemlargelyasanexcuseusedbyherderstograzewithintheBMNPnotingalsothat,“[i]tis a small step for temporary-use housing and caves to become permanent use.” Figure 1.1shows the same author’s interpretation of livestock routes to hora. However in general theimportanceofthemineralspringsforlivestock(particularlycattle)nutrition/healthisgenerallyrecognised through provision of sodium, potassium, calcium, manganese, and zinc (KempMcCarthy1990;BMNP2006).Astudy in1990foundthatthehorawithintheBMNPwerenotregulated while those outside the boundary were administered by the local PA, with elderscontrollingaccesstothespringsandkeepingthemrelativelyclean.Upto2005theParkhadnotrestrictedaccesstothehora.

KempMcCarthy(1990)piecedtogetherinformationonroutestothemineralsprings:

The traditionalaccess routes to thehorasarealong river valleys.Noherdsmenwere recordedtravelling from the south and south-east of the Park to the high level horas atWasama andWorgona,althoughwellwornpathsexist fromthisarea,crossingtheSanettiPlateau (Hillman1986).Paths toHorasWorgona,SalittiandCaveHora follow theDankaRiver fromthe south-east.TheWebandSodotaRivervalleysprovidethemainroutetoHoraWasamafromthenorth,whilsttheKeyrensaRiverlinkstheHarichoregionoftheParkwiththeareaaroundWasama.TheGarembaandRiraRiversprovideapassage-waytoWasamafromthesouth.TheSodataRiverlinks Hora Koterawith the south-east and theWeb River provides a passage from the north.Horas Soba and Tayanta are both located just south of the main road, providing the mostobvious routeway to these springs from thenorth-eastand south-west” (ibid: 48). (See Figure1.2)

Wheremineral springsarenotavailable (i.e. in loweraltitudeareas) there tendtobeminerallicks instead.Notonlyare theanimals taken to feeddirectly fromthesoil,butalso thesoil ismixedwithwaterandgiventotheanimals.Livestockkeepersbelievethatthemineralsimprovethehealthofthelivestock,reflectedinstrongeranimalsthatforexampleproducemoremilk.

8Moreinformationcanbefoundinthereportoftheresearchundertakenin2007(Flintanetal2008).

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Figure1.1Livestockroutestomineralspringsandlicks,waterandgrazinginBaleMountainsNationalParkinthe1980s(Hillman1986)

7

Figure1.2NorthernextentofBaleMountainsNationalParkshowinglocationofHora(Kemp-McCarthy1990:3)

8

Someofthelandusechangestakingplaceareexemplifiedinastudycarriedoutin2012oflandusechangebetween1986and2006intheheartoftheBMNPintheHarennaForest.LandsatimagesETM+oftheyear1986,andSPOT2006wereusedtoidentifyforestcoverchanges,rateofdeforestationandthetypeofland-covertowhichtheforestwasconverted.Themajorland-use/land-covertypesinthestudyareawererainforest,ericaceousforest,afro-alpinevegetation,shrubland,grassland,bareland,andagricultureandsettlementareas.Thetotalareaofagricultureandsettlementsincreasedfrom63,950ha.(9.4%)to1,00,080ha.(12.3%),grasslandincreasedfrom33,185ha.(4.8%)to48,603ha.(7.1%)andafro-alpinevegetationincreasedfrom14,294ha.(2.1%)to22,827ha.(3.4%)duringtheperiod1986–2006.Duringthesameperiod,theforestcoverhasdeclinedfrom3,13,472ha.to2,92,274ha.Thisimpliesthattheforestcoveragehaddecreasedby21,198ha.atanaveragerateof1,059.9ha.peryear(Alemetal2012). Figure1.3LandusecoverinHarennain1986

Figure1.4LandusecoverinHarennain2006

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1.3LivestockandBMNPUnquestionably the number of people and livestock living in and/or using the BMNP hasincreased significantly since Brown’s visit in the early 1960s. Human populations within theBMNPwereestimatedat2,500in1984risingto7,000in1992and20,000in2004(althoughitisunclearhowthesefigureswerereached)(B&MConsultants2004).An ongoing study by the EthiopianWolf Conservation Project (EWCP) measured densities ofcattle in theWebValley9 asbetween25per kmsqand65per kmsq in thepeakusage time(mid-wetseason)in1999.AtthistimelivestockusageofWesternandEasternSanettiareaswaslow,thoughhadbeenabsentuntil1995.In2004theBMNPstaffalsosurveyedthelivestockpopulationwithintheParkandarrivedatafigureof168,000,whichisbrokendowninTable1.1andFigure1.1.Itisunclearhowthestudywascarriedoutandwhetheritisbasedonestimatesoraphysicalcensus.Table1.1–2004LivestockPopulationswithintheBMNP10

Thestudyalsonotedthattherewasnosignificantcorrelationbetweenlivestocktypesandwolfabundances,bothinWebandCentralSanetti(Marinoetal2006).Indeed,therearealsopositiveimpacts of livestock onwildlife, and a certain amount of livestock are necessary tomaintainparticular ecosystems: cattle keep the grass short on the plateau area which allows theEthiopian wolves to catch the field rats (Tesfaye Hundessa, EWCO, personal communication2002; Sillero-Zubiri and Gotelli, 1995). Further wolves use cattle as a ‘mobile hide’ whilstforaging and thereby increase their hunting success (Sillero-Zubiri and Gottelli, 1995). Inaddition it is generally agreed that livestock and grazing have a less negative impact on theenvironmentandwildlifethandoesploughingthelandforcropfarming.

9TheWebValleyissaidtobethemostheavilyusedareainthePark–fivetimeshigherthananywhereelseMarinoetal.2006).10EWCPhavecontinuedtocollectfiguresonlivestockpopulationsinthePark.Inordertoupdatethe2004figurestheresearchersofthisstudycontactedEWCPforupdatedfigures,butreceivednorespnse.

HarenaForestLivestockType

SanettiPlateau

WebValley

NorthEasternParkArea

WestofWebValley

Rira WesternEdge

HawoTotal

Cattle 2,053 7,750 10,684 2,514 2,205 83,340 10,837 119,383Sheep/Goat 3,393 11,954 7,100 2,727 1,577 9,806 2,847 39,404TransportAnimals

176 1,000 2,758 193 964 2,821 1,610 9,522

Total 5,622 20,704 20,542 5,434 4,764 95,967 15,294 168,327

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Figure1.3Numberoflivestockinafro-alpineareofBMNPasperstudycarriedoutin2006(BMNP2006)

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Despite attempts to control livestock numbers through such as impoundment and fining, thishad littleeffect.Forexample intheyear2000,aroundtheParkheadquarters inDinsho itwascommontoarrestlivestockownerswithlivestockwhoweretrespassinginthePark.Thecattleandownerwereimpoundedinthelocaljail/campandkeptthereuntilafineofETB10percowwaspaid(Flintanpersonalobservation2000).In2007therewaslittleeffectivecontrolatall.AtthattimetheBMNPconcurredwiththeviewthat local livestockownershavebeeneffectivelyforcedintotheParkduetolandusepoliciesoutsideofitsownborders(BMNP2006).Astudycarriedoutovera3-yearperiodshowedthatcommunitymembers losta totalof704livestocktowildcarnivores(mainlyhyenasbutalsoleopards,jackalsandservals),causingalossofpotentialrevenueof12USDperyearperhousehold.Dogsarekepttoprotectthelivestock.During250nightsofobservationintensettlements,householdswerealertedtothepresenceofhyenason80occasionsbythebarkingoftheirdogs(Atickemetal2010).A study published in 2012 used satellite imagery to study land use change across the Baleregion,comparingdatafrom1973,1987,2000and2008.Withinarepresentativesubsetofthestudyarea (7,957.5km−2), agricultural fields increased from1.71% to9.34%of the total studyarea since 1973. Natural habitats such as upper montane forest, afroalpine grasslands,afromontane dwarf shrubs and herbaceous formations, and water bodies also increased.Conversely,afromontanegrasslandsdecreased insizebymorethanhalf (going from19.3%to8.77%). ClosedErica forest also shrank from15.0% to12.37%, and isolatedErica shrubshavedecreased from 6.86% to 5.55%, and afroalpine dwarf shrubs and herbaceous formationsreducedfrom5.2%to1.56%.Despitefluctuationstheafromontanerainforest(Harennaforest),locatedsouthoftheBaleMountains,remainedrelativelystable(Kidaneetal2012).In 2015 ongoing research on livestock sitings and numbers suggests that there were about726,020headsoflivestocktheafroalpineareaoftheParkduringthewetseason.Thisisroughlythesameamountoflivestocksitedin2010(600,358)and2012(685,825)(BMNP2015).1.4Introductiontothisresearchstudy

This research study was undertaken by ILRI for IWMI (International Water ManagementInstitute),whoisleadingtheresearchoftheEU-fundedSupporttotheHornofAfricaResilience(SHARE)projectuntilNovember2017.SHAREworksacrosstheBaleEcoRegionwiththeaimofconserving biodiversity and ecosystem functions and services in the region, and to improvingthe wellbeing of communities that depend on these functions and services. A consortium oforganisations is working to this end including FARM Africa, SOS Sahel Ethiopia, FrankfurtZoologicalSociety(FZS),PopulationHealthEnvironmentEthiopiaConsortium(PHEEC)andIWMI.

TheresearchcomponentofSHAREsetoutanumberofinter-relatedresearchstudiesthataimtobuildbetterknowledgeandunderstandingofsustainableeco-regionalmanagementpractices–thisresearchstudyisacontributiontothis.Notonlywillthisstudypresentaclearpictureofcurrentlivestocklanduseanddynamics,butitalsoprovidestheopportunityforacomparativeanalysis of the situation today compared to 2007,when a similar studywas undertaken. Thestudy in 2007 was completed for the BERSMP (Bale EcoRegion Sustainable ManagementProgramme) jointly implemented by the Ethiopian government (namely the Bale ForestEnterprise) andNGOs – FARMAfrica and SOS Sahel Ethiopia. It is documented in the report:

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Livestock and Livestock Systems in the Bale Mountains EcoRegion (2008) by F. Flintan, W.Chibssa,D.WakoandA.Ridgewell.

Thisresearchstudy,undertaken in2015-2016wascarriedout inthesamePAsandworedaasthe study undertaken in 2007. Four woreda are included – Delo Mena, Goba, Nensebo andHarena Buluk and nine PA/kebele (See Table 1.2). Theworedawere selected in 2007 by theBERSMP,asgoodrepresentationofthedifferentlivehoodsystemsandsocio-ecologicalsystemsacross which BERSMP was working. The sample kebele were selected for the study by thegovernmentpartnersandtheBERSMPinordertohaveaselectionof:

•PAsneartheforest•PAsfarfromtheforest•PAsinthemiddle(onlyinGobaworeda).

For this research study in 2015-2016 the sameworeda and kebelewere selected in order toprovidetheopportunityforthecomparativeanalysisacrossthealmostdecade(2007-2016).Table1.1CriteriaforSelectionofPAs

PasDistricts Adjacenttoforest Awayfromforest InthemiddleGoba FasiAngesso Ashuta HilasaDeloMena Erba Berak HarenaBuluk SoduWelmal MelkaArba Nensebo Gerambamo Solana Ithadbeenanticipatedthat3-4dayswouldbespentineachPAwiththeresearchteamcampingovernightwhennecessary.However,theteamweremetwithunexpectedheavyrainfall,whichcreateddifficulties inmovingaround,and for staying invillageareas (seebelow).As such thetimespentinvillageswaslessthananticipated.Wherepossiblearepresentativefromthezonalandworedadevelopmentofficejoinedtheteamtointroducethemtotheworeda/kebeleheadsand present the research, its objectives and plans. Further the research proved a capacitybuildingprocessforthesegovernmentpersonnelanduniversitypersonnelfromMedaWelabuUniversitythatjoinedtheresearchteam.

Arangeofparticipatorytoolswasusedtoinitiatediscussionandimproveunderstandings.Theseincluded:

-Wealthranking;-Trendanalysis;-Seasonalcalender;-Mappingofrangelandresourcesandgrazingroutes;-Proportionalpilingofpreferredfodder;typesoflivestock;grazingareasetc;and-Observation.

A system of coding was used to reference all interviews and group discussions. This haspreserved the anonymity of the respondents. The systemof coding used reflects theworedaand PA from where the information is collected, with FGDs and KIM/F (for key informantinterviewmale or female) so the reader can identify thiswith ease. For example a referencefromaFGDinDeloMena,BerakPAwouldbeDMBE_FGD_01.

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The team attempted to include a representative group of respondents including men andwomen; old and young; rich and poor. However thoughwomenwere able to join the groupwork, it proveddifficult to talk towomenon their own, and thereforemostof the individualinterviewswerecarriedoutwithmen.

Plate 1.1-1.3Undertakingmappingof livestock routeswith local communities in theBaleMountainsEco-Region

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1.5Challengesoftheresearch

Theresearchaimedtobeasparticipatoryaspossible,aswellasanopportunityforbuildingthecapacity of local researchers. Students fromMedaWelabu University, Robe, who joined theresearchteamasresearchassistants,hadlimitedexperienceinPRAmethodsofdatacollectionandundertaking semi-structured interviewsor facilitating focus groupdiscussions.As a resulttime was required for training, follow-up and mentoring. It was also challenging to identifycommittedfemaleresearcherswhohadtheappropriateskillsaswellasbeingwillingtoworkinoften-adverseconditions.Thismeantthattheinformationcollectedinthefirstoneortwositeswasmore limited than that collected in later siteswhere researchersweremoreexperiencedandconfident.

Respondentsparticularlyfemalerespondentswereoftendistractedingroupmeetingsandkeentoleavetocompletechoresandotheractivities.Assuchtheyoftenfinishedresearchactivitiesquicklyandwerenotwillingtohangaroundforthemore indepthdiscussionorexplorationofresults.

TheweatherduringthefirstphaseoftheresearchundertakeninMayandJunewasunusuallywet(therainswerelaterthanusual),whichcausedsignificantproblemsforvehicleaccess,thecomfort andmoraleof the researchers, andmeeting communities resulting indelays and theincompletionof all researchplanned. InBerak kebele inparticular rainspreventeduseof thevehicleandtheteamhadtotravelmorethan30kmonfootandpackanimals.Theabsenceofthevehicle inthekebelemeantthattheteamwere limitedtotalkingtocommunitymembersrelativelyclosetothemainsettlementarea.

The research was undertaken at a time of significant political sensitivity. This was due tochallenges against government forces being made by the Oromo people in general (due togeneralunrest in theOromia region)aswell asmore localisedunrestbecause theBMNPhadbeen recentlygazettedandmeetingswerebeingundertakenby localgovernmentandFZSon

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demarcationofboundaries in theareaswheretheresearchwas takingplace. Assuchpeopleweremorewarythantheywouldnormallybeaboutsharinginformationonlivestocknumbers,andlanduseandparticularlyintheNP.InadditiontravelbanstotheregionbyILRImeantthattheresearchhastobepostponedseveraltimes.

1.6Thisreport

Thisreportprovidesacomparativeanalyticalstudyoflivestocklanduse,livelihoodsandchangeover a nine-year period from 2007 to 2016. The report begins with a brief overview of thegeography and climate of the study area. Then the report is divided up into four sectionsfocusing on the four woreda where the research was conducted. Each of these sectionscommenceswithashortintroductiontotheworeda,thedominantlivelihoodssystems,climate,andworeda-levellivestocknumbers.Inmostcaseslivestockpopulationdataatthislevelallowsa comparison between years 2000, 2007 and 2015. Each section then considers in detail thedataand informationcollected in2016,andmakesacomparativeanalysis to thatcollected in2007inordertohighlighttrendsanddifferences. Inadditionthesocio-economicandlandusestatusin2016isconsideredindetail, incudingwealthranking,themappingof livestockroutesand livestock-related land and resource use, and seasonal calendars. In addition a wealth ofinformationwascollectedanddocumentedonlivestockdiseaseandforageandbrowsespeciesandtheiroccurrence.Eachsectionconcludeswithasynthesisoftheinformationcollectedandtrendsidentified,andbasedonthese,aconsiderationoffuturescenariosforeachworeda.

Thereportconcludeswithanoverallanalysisofthecurrentsituationandtrendsseen,andtheirimplications for further land use, development interventions, potential conflicts, and likelyfuture challenges and opportunities for the still predominantly livestock-based livelihoods oflocalcommunitiesintheregion.

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2.0PARTICULARSOFTHESTUDYAREA11

2.1ClimateoftheBaleMountainsSouthernEthiopiaiswithintheEastAfricanclimaticdomain,influencedduringthelargerpartofthe year by south-easterlies originating over the Indian Ocean. Further the inter-tropicalconvergencezone,plusaltitudinalandtopographicinfluencesalsoaffectthedistributionoftheprecipitation in the Bale Mountains. Annual rainfall ranges between 600-1500 (2000) mmdependingonrelief(YosephAssefaetal,undated)(discussedinmoredetailinMieheandMiehe2004).The diurnal variability in temperature is higher than its seasonal variation. A minimumtemperatureof -15°chasbeen recordedon thePlateau (3850m)whileanight-timeminimumtemperatureof-3°cwasfoundinthesparselyvegetatedareasoftheericaceousbelt(ibid).2.2AltitudinalandseasonalvariabilityThoseintervieweddividedtheyearupintotwoorfourseasons(seeTable2.1).Inthelowlandsthe year was divided up into two main seasons, though with some communities describingadditionalseasonsinbetweenthemainones:

-Bona–thedryseason(roughlyOctobertoMarch)-Gana–therainyseason(roughlyApril–October)

InthemorehighlandPAsofSolanaandGerambamo,theyearwasdividedupdifferentlyinto:

-Birra(September–November)-Bona(December–February)-Afrasa(March–May)-Gana(June–August).

WhatisclearisthatallPAsexperiencelittleornorainfallfallbetweenDecemberandFebruary,whenhighesttemperaturesareexperiencedandoftenstrongwinds.Table2.1WeatherpatternsinstudyPAsPA

Hagayya

Bona

Gana

Adolessa

LowlandareasErba Sep-Nov Dec-Feb Mar-May Jun-AugMelkaArba Nov-Dec Jan-Apr May-Jly Aug-OctSoduWelmal Sep-Nov Dec-Feb Mar-May Jun-AugBerak Sep-Nov Dec-Feb Mar-May Jun-AugHighlandareasPA Birra Bona Fumata Afrasa GanaFasilAngesso Nov-Jan Mar-June Jly-OctHilassa Oct-Feb Mar-Sept

11SourcedfromFlintanetal2008

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Ashuta Months notstated

Months notstated

Solana Sep-Nov Dec-Feb Mar-May June-AugGerambamo Sep-Nov Dec-Feb Mar-May June-Aug

In2007respondentsofthestudysuggestedthatrainfallandwaterresourceshavereducedovertime due to climate change. and temperatures increased. Further, several respondentscommented that they are now experiencing drought on a regular basis particularly in thelowlandareas.2.3Localnamesforanimalsicknessanddisease

Duringtheresearchstudycommunitymembersmentionedanumberoflivestocksicknessesanddiseasesasdescribedinthefollowingchapters.Thescientificnameofthesediseasesislistedbelowforreference.

Table2.2Localandscientificnamesoflivestocksicknessanddiseasefoundinthelocalarea

DiseaseLocalNameandScientificName

Disease Disease

LocalName Scientific/EnglishName

LocalName Scientific/EnglishName

Abbaagorbaa Blackleg Martoore’ee Listeriosis

Sombeere’ee OvinePasturelosis Botote Lumpyskindisease

Biiraa Babesiosis Borte/Botote

Galboo Unknown Dhibeesombaa Lungworm

Goondee Isakindoftoxicleaf

whichisfoundinthe

waterbody

maalullaa Fasciolosis

DhibeeTufaa Blackleg bishaantuu Unknown

Darabbaa Sheepandgoatpoxfor

sheepbutlumpyskin

diseaseforcattle

Dirmammeessahoolaafire’ee

Sheepandgoatpox

Dhibeesaree Rabies Kormamu Tumor

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Maasaa FootandMouth

Disease(FMD)

Citto Mangemites(Ectoparasite)

Maasa/maasaa Dhibeebiiraa Babesiosis

Abbaasangaa Anthrax Dhibeeaannankukkutu Mastitis

Gagabsaa HeartWater Titisa Fly

Furtuu Blackleg Killis Africanhorsesickness

Dhibeeqorraa/qabbanaa Jogsaa Trypanosomiasis

Qufaalooni Lungworm Tummaa Trypanosomiasis

Qabannaa(jinnilafaa) Pasturelosis

Dubarraa(abbaasangaa) Anthrax Dhibeeqaamakukkutu Dermatophilosis

Chittoo Mangemites Kansangaaijaqabu) Trypanosomiasis

Zallaqa/zallaqaa Pasturelosis Fingil Newcastledisease

Darrisa AfricanHorse

Sickness

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3.0GOBAWOREDA

3.1Introduction

Gobaworeda is apredominantly temperatearea (78%) followedbyalpine (10%), sub-tropical(10%)and tropical (2%)agro-ecological zones.Vegetation cover consistsofmountain savannaandconiferousforestthatpredominatewithPodocarpusandJuniperustrees.BMNPalongwithadjacent forests and bushland covers a large part of the woreda (54.6%). In 2000 pasture(27.6%)andarableland(13%)werethemostsignificantlandusetypes(OSG2000).Ayele (1975) provides figures of livestock numbers in the woreda based on the estimates ofbalabbats dating from 1971. These were: cattle 80,000; shoats 100,000; and equines 10,000althoughthesefiguresneedtobetreatedwithcaution.In2000,accordingtolocalgovernmentoffices,thepopulationsweresaidtostandattotalheadsof98,732,madeupofcattle74,397;shoats6,624;andequines17,711.By2007itwassaidthatlivestock population had risen to a total of 153,973 headsmade up of cattle 88,038; shoats39,129;andequines26,806,showinganoverall29percentincrease. By2015,total livestocknumbers were said to be total of 190, 726 heads, made up of 95,715 cattle, 74,054 shoats(mainly sheep), and 20,957 equines, around 25% increase. Though the number of cattle hasincreasedonly slightly, it is thenumberof shoats thathave increasedmost significantly. Thefiguressuggestthatthenumberofshoatshaverisenbyafactorofsixbetween2000and2007,andagaindoublingbetween2007and2015. Ifacomparison ismadebetween2000and2015then shoats would have increased by a factor of 11. Equines have only increased slightlybetween2000and2015,andinfacttherewasadropfrom2007to2015.These figures reflect the changing landuse in theworedaandhumanpopulation increase, somore households own livestock. In the case of cattle, less are held per household as grazingareashavebeenreduced.Sheepandgoats(particularlythelatter)thatarebetterabletoforageforbrowseintheremaininglandsavailablearereplacingcattle.Shoatscanalsobemoreeasilysold, however receive significantly less income than cattle – suggesting overall that fromlivestock production, incomes are not likely to have changed significantly despite greaternumbers.Thereducednumberofequinesduringtheperiodcouldreflectthereducedrelianceonequinesfortransportationasmechanicaltransportationandbettertransport infrastructurehasbecomemoreavailable.In1975itwasreportedthatlivestockweredrivenfromGobatoHarenaduringthedryseasonwheretheywouldnormallystaybetweenNovemberandApril.MostreturnedtoGobawhenthebedessa rains came (Ayele1975).More recently itwas reported thatmany stockowners fromGobaregularlyoccupytheWebValleyandSanettiPlateauwithintheboundaryoftheBMNP(B&MConsultants2004).

3.2FASILANGESSOPA

FasilAngesso is foundnearGobaTownjustbelowthefoothillsoftheSanettiMountains.FasilandAngessowere originally two separate PAs reflecting their quite different topography andclimatewithFasillyingsouth-eastofGobaTownandbeingrelativelyflat,andAngessobordered

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bythechillySanettihighplateau.12Theareaischaracterisedbywoodland,valleysandrocks.In2007therewaslittleagriculturebeingundertaken,andwherethiswasoccurringitwasfoundassmall patches of crops on hillsides.Here itwas said thatwheat grown took sevenmonths toripen.Inadditionthewoodlandgrazingfoundonthesteepslopeswasconsideredpoor.

Socio-economicsandlivelihoods

Livestockisthemainstayofthelocaleconomy.Ofmostimportancearecattle,thoughgoatsandsheep,aswellashorsesandmulesarealsokept.In2016numbersoflivestockinFasilAngessowere said tobe:5,849cattle;1,953equines;2,583 sheep;213goats; and2,166poultry (FasilAngesso Administration Office 2016). Today nearly all households also grow some crops onhouseholdlandholdingofanaverage1.5hainsize.Draughtpower(oxen)iscriticalforthis.TenyearsagocropfarmingwasrareinFasilAngesso,buttodaymosthouseholdsgrowsomething,for example barley, potatoes, garlic or onion (barley and potatoes being mainly for homeconsumption).Averagelandholdingforfarmingperhouseholdis1.5ha.

In2007thewealthrankingshowedthat2%ofthepopulationwereconsideredtobe‘rich’,11%medium,61%poorand26%destitute(withonlyaccesstolandoflessthan1ha,andsometimesowningadonkey). In2016thewealthrankingshowedthatthemajorityofthepopulationcannow be considered ‘medium’, with livestock numbers seemingly increasing per householdsignificantlyandthegrowingofgrainbeingmuchmore importantthanpreviously.Thereasonwhyan increase in livestocknumberswas indicated (with rich said toholdapproximately100cattle and 120 shoats i.e. goats or sheep in 2016 compared to rich having 30+ cattle andbetween15-20shoatsin2007)arenotclearanddoesnotreflecttheoveralltrendseenintheregion.13

Thelocaladministrationofficehasonelanduseadministrationexpert,onelivestockexpertandoneagronomist, though itwas suggestedby a governmentofficial that extension services forbothcropandlivestockwerenotadequate.

Table3.1WealthRankingin2007

Totalno.ofhouseholds:253

Rich‘sorresa’ Medium‘giduresa’ Poor‘harkgadesse’ Desitute‘hiyyeese’30+cattle 10-15cattle Upto4cattle 030-40shoats 15-20shoats 5shoats 07-10equines 4-5equines 2equines 1donkey4-8ha.Land 2-3ha.Land 2ha.Land 1ha.Land4 28 154 672% 11% 61% 26%

12ItwouldappearthatthetwoPAswerecombinedduetotherequirementforkebelestobecombinedinordertobechairedbyliterate,salariedchairman;andbecauseoflackoffundsforsalaries,somePAswerecombined.13Thereasonforthesedifferencesarenotclear–itwouldappearthatthefiguresprovidedin2007weresignificantlylessthanreality(seeforexamplethe2016trendanalysisreportstheaveragenumbertenyearsagowas150cattleperhousehold):thiscouldhavebeenaproblemintranslationorinterview,oritcouldbebecausethecommunitypurposefullyunder-reportedtheirlivestocknumbersincasetheywouldbepenalizedasaresult.Alternativelyitcouldreflectagenuinegrowthinwealthstatusoranotherreason.

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Table3.2:WealthRankingin201614Criteria Duressa(Betteroff/rich) jidugalessa(Medium) Hiyeessa(poor)Cropyield(quintals) 50quintal 25quintal 3Cattle 100 50 3Shoats 120 25 4Equines 9 6 2Corrugatedtinroof Yes No No 5% 60% 35%.

TherewasgeneralagreementamongstcommunitymembersthatthelandavailableforgrazinginthePAhasreducedduetoanincreaseinagriculture.TocompensateforthisthecommunityreliesheavilyonusinggrazingontheSanettiPlateauandinRiraPA.Howeverboththeseareasarebecoming increasinglydifficult toaccess,withmuchof theSanettiPlateauandthe forestsaroundRira PAbeing foundwithin theBMNP. In addition, since 2009 theOromia Forest andWildlifeEnterprise(OFWE)(seeBox3.1)hasincreaseditsinterestsinthearea(discussedfurtherbelow).

Box3.1OromiaForestandWildlifeEnterprise

TheOromiaForestandWildlifeEnterprise (OFWE) isanautonomous fullygovernment-ownedorganisationestablishedwith regulationnumber122/2009, issued in July2009by theOromiaState Council under the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia. OFWE works to ensureconservation, sustainable development and the use of forest and wildlife resources in itsconcessionsthroughcommunityparticipation;toensuresupplyofforestproductstodomesticand international markets by enhancing the forest industry; and subsequently contribute toregionalandnational socio-economicdevelopmentendeavours.Todate,OFWEbyconcessionownsandmanagesanestimatedareaof1.75millionhectaresofforestland,including1.2millionhaofnaturalforest,74,000haofforestplantationsand470,000haofotherlandtypeswithinthe Oromia region. Re-demarcation of OFWE’s concession has been underway since 2009.Accordingly,about2millionhaofforestlandhasalreadybeenre-demarcatedanditisexpectedthatthis figurecouldrisesignificantlyoncetheassessment iscompletedandothervegetationtypes such as woodlands are included. For the ease of administration, OFWE has itsheadquartersinAddisAbaba,eightofitsbranchforestenterprises(Finfinne,Arsi,Wollega,Illu-Ababora,Jimma,Borana,Bale,Hararge)arefoundatthevicinitywheretheforestresourcesarefound,andoneforestindustry(Shager)basedinAddisAbaba.Unlikethepreviousprotectionistinstitutions thatwere implementedbyarmedguards to keeppeopleoutof the forest,OFWEworkstopromotetheparticipationoflocalcommunitieslivinginandarounditsconcessionsinforest and wildlife conservation activities, and in sharing the benefits derived from forestproducts and services. This strategy has greatly helped to improve the forest condition andlivelihoodsof thecommunity living in thesurroundingareas.OFWE,with involvementof localcommunityandpartnerNGOs,hasinitiatedREDD+projectswithinitsconcessionswiththeaimof generating climate finance, including with FARM Africa and SOS Sahel Ethiopia in Bale.Source:http://theredddesk.org/countries/actors/oromia-forest-and-wildlife-enterprise

14Itwasdiscoveredaftertheresearchthatakebele’slistofhouseholdsmaynotincludethedestituteastheyarelandless/homeless.Thisshouldbecheckedinfuture.

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Withmore landbeingallocatedtocropcultivationandreduction in thesizeofavailableopengrassland over the years as well as woodland browse, the time taken to accesswet and dryseasongrazing landshas increasedsignificantly. In2016respondentssaidthat itnowtakes12hours toaccessgrazing in thewet season,whereas tenyearsago itonly took2hoursand/orlivestockweregrazedaroundthehomestead;andthetimeforaccessingthedryseasongrazingareashasincreasedfrom1-2hourstenyearsagotosixhourstoday.Thoughin2016communitymembers said that the time to access the all-important mineral springs (see Box 1.2) hasincreasedbyfrom30minutestofourhours,in2007communitymemberswerealreadysayingthatittookfourhours,soinrealityitwouldseemthatthishasnotchanged.Asaresultofthesechangesitissaidthatthemoneyraisedfromlivestockhasdecreasedbyhalf.

Table3.2TrendAnalysisMatrixundertakenin2016FasilAngesso

Characteristics 10yearsago Present Significant events (if any).Reasonsforchange

Quantity of open grasslandavailableforgrazing

!!!!!!!!!!

!! Much of the grasslands wereovertaken by BMNP andOromiaForestEnterprise

Quantity of land under cropproduction

!! !!!!!!!!

Population pressure andincreaseddesireofthepeopletoengageincropcultivation

Timetakentoaccessgrazinginwetseason

2hours 12hours

Timetakentoaccessgrazingindryseason

1hours 6hours

Quantity of browse availableforgrazing

!!!!!!!

!!!

Changes in access rights tograzing

!!!!!!!!!!

!! Therighttograzelivestockintheareaisverysmallatpresent

Typeoflivestockkept Same Same But their number has decreaseddramatically

Quantity of cattle owned byindividual

150 (onaverage)

50(onaverage)

Number of conflicts with wildanimalsforgrazing

!!!!! !! Lessanimalsaroundtoday

Number of conflicts with wildanimalsthatkill/takelivestock

0 0 Lessanimalsaroundtoday

Time needed for accessingwaterforlivestock

15 to 30minutes

Notmuchchange

Time needed for accessingmineralsprings

30minutes 4hours Access routes are blocked byBMNP

Changes in income fromlivestock

!!!!!!!!!

!!!!!

Changesinfoodfromlivestock !!!!!!!!!!

!!!!! Decreasedbyhalf

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Climateandclimatechange

Thecommunity identifiedtwoseasons–BonaordryseasonandGannaorwetseason–eachwithsixmonths–asdescribedinTable3.3

Table3.3SeasonswithrespectivemonthsWaqtiilee(Season) Localnameofmonth Equivalentname

Mowlida DecemberAwala JanuaryAkira FebruaryZara MarchRajaba April

Bona(relativelydry)

Hexo(Heto) MaySooma JuneFishee JulyKirfishee AugustHajji SeptemberAshuura October

Ganna(wet)

Safara November

Table3.4Seasonalcalendar

SeasonsCharacteristics

Ganna(June-Nov) Bona(Dec-May)

Rainfall !!!!!!!!*

!!!!!

Temperature !!!! !!!!!!!!

Wind !!!!! !!!!Grazing availability (grass –marga)

!!!!!!!!

!!!!!!!

Browseavailability !!!!!!!

!!

Wateravailability !!!!!!!!!!

!!!

Incomefromlivestocksale !!!!!!!!!

!!!!!

Livestockproduct !!!!! !!!Milkyield !!!!!

!!!!!!!!!!

M

!!!!

!!!!Labour demand for livestockrelatedactivities

F

!!!!!!

!!!!

M

!!!!!!!!

!!!!!!

Labourdemand fornon-livestockrelatedactivities

F

!!!!! !!!!!!!!

Incidenceofdisease !!!!!!

!

Notes:*JulyandAugusthavelowrainfall.

Source:Maleandfemalefocusgroupdiscussions(GOFA_FGD_01)

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The above seasonal calendar illustrates the significant loss of grazing and browse resourcesduringthedryseason.Thisresultsinlessproductivelivestock,lessmilkandareducedincomefromlivestocksales.

Withtheincreaseincropfarmingrequiringlabourinputintherainyseason, labourdemandisfairly evenly spread over the year. The increase in demand for women’s labour in the dryseason suggests that they are more involved in processing harvested products and income-generation activities during this time. In 2007 therewas a significant increase in demand forlabourfor livestock-relatedactivitiesduringthedryseason,howeverassuggested inthe2016trendanalysis,labourforlivestockisnowathighdemandallyearroundduetotheneedtotakelivestocklongdistancesforgrazingevenduringtherainyseason.

Grazingandbrowseresources

InFasilAngessoitcanrainallyearround,thoughindrieryearstherewillnotberaininbetweenDecember and February, so the concept ofwet anddry season grazing areas is less relevant.Wet (anddry) seasongrazingareas in FasilAngessoPAare listed inTable3.4andmapped inFigure3.1and3.2.

Table3.4:Wet(anddry)seasongrazingareasandotherresourcesfoundinFasilAngessoPA

Wetseasongrazingareas Characteristics

Gogoyena

TullaKorma

Adoolaa

Siree

Chorchora

HoraBaatu

GodaBooraa

Aballa

All are situated on the Sanetti Plateau, and most are foundwithintheboundariesoftheBMNP.TullaKormaisconsideredtobe the most important being of good quality and close by.Gogoyenaisofhighestqualityandquantity,butisatadistance.Adoolaisclosebybutoflowqualityandquantity.

Intheverywettestmonthslivestockcanstillbegrazedaroundthesettlementsasitistoowettogrow crops. Once crops are planted livestock are taken up to grazing areas on the SanettiPlateau,mostofwhicharelocatedwithintheboundariesoftheBMNP.Thisisnotonlybecausetherearefewgrazingareasleft,butalsoinordertoavoidthecropsthatarenowgrownthere.Asin2007theymayusethisareaupuntilJune(aroundsixmonths). ThemostimportantandpreferredgrazingareaisTulluKormaduetoitsabundantgrassesofhigh-palatability,goodforfatteninganimals,alsograzingontheErica(‘sato’)aroundAsta.Itisconsideredtobeaspecial

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pasturesaidtogivestrengthtolivestock.In2007respondentssaidittook2hourstogettothewetseasonpastures,buttoday,in2016respondentssaidittakes12hours.15

Figure3.1:Hand-drawnmappingofresourcesandgrazingroutes(digitisedinFigure3.2)

ThoselivingonthePlateauarelikelytolettheirlivestockloosetograzeatwill–thoughthesearewithoutsupervisionthelivestockknowtheroutestofollowandwilltakethemselvestheoneandahalfhoursorsoto/fromgrazingareas(GOFA_KIM_01);otherswillgowiththeirlivestockand supervise them. Livestock herders stay in temporary shelters or in the houses of one ofseveralwives.Others‘commute’betweentheirvillagesandthegrazingareasonadailybasis.

Box3.2PolygamyintheBaleArea

InMelkaArbain2007onerespondenthadthreewives,oneofwhommanagedabusiness/shopin townand theother twomovedwith the livestock,whilstheprovided themwithnecessarysupplies. Theydidnothaveapermanent residenceas such, though stayeda longerperiodoftimeinthewetseasongrazingareasofteninBerakPA(Flintanetal2008).In2016polygamyisstillpractisedwithwivessharingfarmingplotsandlivestockproductionresponsibilities.

15Wetseasongrazingareasmentionedin2007wereAbuleAbowesha.

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Figure3.2DigitisedmapofmajorlivestockrouteusedinFasilAngesso

Grass,knownlocallyasmargaisthemajorfeedsourceduringthewetseason.GrassesincludeSiddisa (fed before it flowers for treatment of bloating), Xooshinee, Garambaa, Xuuqqaa andSaatoo(thoughthisseemstobeaplant,thecommunityuseitasagrassandishighlypalatable).BrowseismainlyavailableinthewetseasonandincludesSaatoo,Garambaa,Heexoo,Xoorsoo,Goraa,Anshaa, KombolchaandAaraa.Someplants are also valued for theirmedicinal value,particularlyXooshinee(seebelow).

In2007communitymemberscomplainedofaplantcalledBalee,whichmadelivestocksick–itwasnotpossible to identify theplantbut it couldbe the fennelFerrula communis. Though in2016respondentsdidnotmentionthisplantinFasilAngesso,itwasmentionedinotherPAs.

Duringthedryseasonandoncethecropshavebeenharvestedthelivestockisbroughtbacktothe kebele, and allowed to graze on the crop residues left in the fields. Livestock may bereturned to the grazing areas on the Sanetti Plateau for periods of time. In the dry seasonChaffaaisthegrassfoundmainlyclosetoriverbanks,andisthemainsourceoffeed.Saatooisthemain speciesofbrowseavailable. ThegrazingareasofChaffaaBal’aandChaffaaZabiareknownfortheirreasonablegrazing,butareopenaccessandheavilyused.

In2007communitymemberssaidthatittook1-2hourstogettodryseasongrazingareas,buttoday(2016)ittakes6hours.16

16Dryseasongrazingareasmentionedin2007weretheSanettiPlateauincludingTulluDimtuandAsta;AduleAbowesha;Oboro(forestarea);andShedominadjacentPAthoughonlyusedoccasionally.

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Table3.5Proportionalpilingofmajorgrazing/fodderspeciesandindicators2016(GOFA_KIM_03)

Adequategrazingclosetohome

Plentifulsupplyallyearround

Notexpensive*

Palatable Hasmedicinalvalue

Marga 0000000(7) 0000(4) - 00000000(8) 0(1)

Saato 0000(7) 00000000(8) - 000000(6) 0000000(7)

Gaarambaa 00000(5) 00(2) - 0(1) 0(1)

Xooshinee 000(3) 000(3) - 0000(4) 00000000(8)

Ansha 0(1) 00(2) - 0(1) 0(1)

Xoorsoo 00(2) 0(1) - 0(1) 00(2)

*Fodderisnotpurchased.

Table3.6Proportionalpilingofgrazingresources2016(GOFA_KIM_03)

Characteristics Sanetti Hadwe Munjaa

GoodQuality 000000000000(12) 000(3) 00000(5)

GoodQuantity 0000000000(10) 0000(4) 000000(6)

Closetohome 0000(4) 000000000000(12) 0000(4)

Nocontroloveraccess 000(3) 00000000(8) 00000(5)

Criticaldryseasongrazing 00000000(8) 0000(4) 00000000(8)

Protectedbuthavepermissiontograze

0000000000(10) 0000(4) 000000(6)

Wooded areas used for grazing and browse are found at Angesso and Hadawe and on theSanetti Plateau. However, the Angesso woodland is being heavily encroached by cropcultivation,whiletheHadwewoodlandisnowunderthemanagementoftheOFEauthorityandaccessforgrazingislimited.Iflivestockiscaughtinthisarea,theownerofthelivestockisfined15Birr.CommunitymemberssaidthattheOFEtoldthemthatlivestockdisturbstheforestandsomuchbeexcludedfromit.Theysaid“wetriedtoconvincethemthatourlivestockdoesnotdamage the forest, but the Forest Enterprise refused to cooperate; now our livestock aresufferingfromshortageoffeed.Thegrazinglandthatweusedtoaccessinthisforestwashighlysuitable,goodpalatablefeedforourlivestock.”

Sometimeswildanimalsincludinghyenaandleopardattackdomesticanimals.However,thisisnot new, and the incidence of such cases has reduced because the numbers ofwild animalshavereduced.

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Recentforcedchangesinlivestocklanduseandmovements

In2007theamountofgrazinginthePAhadalreadysignificantlyreducedduetoincreasdcropcultivation.Inrecentyearstherehasbeenasignificantincreaseincropcultivationinthearea.Thisisresultinginashortageofgrazingareasandisdestroyingthewoodlands.

However, the most critical issue for the community at this current time is that the BMNPadministrationisnowstoppingthemfromgrazingontheSanettiPlateau,despiteushavingusedit for generations.Weare veryupset and frustratedabout this (yaaddooguddaaummataattita’ee jira – it is anxious for our society); our livelihood is dependent upon livestock, andwecannot survive ifweareprevented fromusing theSanetti Plateau for grazing. TheBMNPhastold thecommunity that livestockdisturbs thewildlife in thePark (Bineensibosonaaakkahintuqamneefi–toprotectwildanimals).

Communitymemberssaid:“theBMNPadministration,recentlyrequiredustosignadocumentsayingthatwewouldnotenterthePark’sboundaries.Communitymembersarenowpunishedif they enter the Park with their livestock. In 2015 some of our kebelemembers had set uptemporary homes on the Plateauwhilst they looked after their cattle grazing there, but theywere forced to leave the grazing area and their traditional houses were demolished.”Community members described how before 2015 they had an agreement with the Park’sadministrationallowingthemtograzetheirlivestockintheParkforaboutsixmonthsandthentomoveout.Thistheysaidwascompatiblewiththeirusualpracticeofgrazingandtheywerehappy to keep to this agreement. “But nowadays they are preventing us from entering thePark’sboundaryaltogether;theyhaveconstructedafenceinwhichtheycantrapourlivestockandpunishus (dallaanhoriinyooseenekeessattiqabameehidhamuqophaahee jira).Thishasledtoascarcityof livestockfeedandthus,our livestockarenotasproductiveas inthepast.”Theyadded:“wearenotgettinganybenefitsfromthePark,butwearelosingourgrazingareasbecauseof thePark.Ummataafbu’aa tokkakennaahin jiru,paarkiinnurratti ijaaramemaleebu’aa tokko hin araganne – it has no advantage for the society, the Park has not given usanything.Nooneislisteningtous–wearevoicelessandvulnerable(GOFA_FDM_01).

The community argues that they are the ones that have taken care of the wildlife forgenerations and this is why wildlife has survived up until now. Wildlife can graze with ourlivestockwithout conflict and disturbance. “It is wewho safeguard the environment and theecology,but thebeneficiaries areothers.Kaneegunuhi kan irraa fayyadamukabiraati –weprotectitbutitisothersthatgetusefromit.”

Livestockwaterresources

ThereisstillabundantwateravailableforlivestockinFasilAngesso.Evenduringthedryseasonthere arepermanentwater sources in theGuracho, Togana,Adola andMicha rivers/streams,andothersmalleronesforlivestockuse.In2007itwassaidthattheRiverMagidawasthemainsourceofwater,witha journeyof30minutes, thoughaccesswas increasinglybeingcurtailedduetofarmingalongthebanks.

Mineralspringsandlicks

Mineral sources for livestock in the kebele include Hora Muxurqisoo (Muturqiso) situated inItittuSuraakebele,HoraQixxiixa(Qitita),andHoraBaatu.Theseservelivestockduringbothdry

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and wet seasons. In 2007 respondents said it took four hours to get to the hora17, and thisappearstobethesame.Theyalsosaidthattheyonlyneededtousethehoraduringthebona(November– January) and furmata (March– June)when the livestockget thindue to lackofgrassandnutrients.

Fodderandfeed

Crop residues (cut and dried) are fed to livestock as a feed supplement in both dry andwetseasons(GOFA_FGM_01;GOFA_KII_01).Inaddition,thechaff/husksleftoverafterthegrindingofthecerealarefedtolivestock(faguloandfurushkulo)(GOFA_KII_01),hansaraa,horigabasufi dhaleef binna (fattening) (GOFA_FGM_01. In general people do not purchase forage, andtherewasnoevidenceofcattlecakeorotherconcentratesbeingfedtocattle.

Livestockproduction,healthandmarketing

Livestockextensionservice isnotstrong inthePA.Most livestockkeptare localbreeds.Somerespondentshoweverkeepasmallnumberofcross-breeds.Thefarm-gatepriceofaheiferlocalbreedisbetween2500-4000Birr,andforacross-breedisatleast1000Birrmore.Thepriceofanadult localbreedcow is5-6000Birr, and7000-10,000Birr fora fattenedbullorox.Cross-breed cows sell for 20,000 Birr (andmale adults are not kept). Horses costs ETB5000 and adonkey 2000. Young sheep average 6-800 Birr, adult female 7-1200 Birr, and rams 1300 Birr.Younggoatsaverage600Birr,adultfemale800,andmalegoats1000.Sheephide/skinaverages25-40 Birr per piece. Milk can be sold for 20 Birr per litre, but most is used for householdconsumption. Draught power can be rented for 33 Birr per day – the problem is ensuringavailabilitywhenrequired.

The average number of livestock held by a household is 50 cattle including two oxen, andbetween50-70sheepandgoats. Mostmediumtorichhouseholdskeepat leasttwooxenfordraughtpower.Draughtanimalsareused foraround66daysof theyear.Femalesaresoldataroundfouryearsoldandmaleatfive.Milkobtainedfromlactatingcowsaverages2litresperday;andcross-breedscanproduce6litresiffedwell.18Agovernmentofficialsaidthattheurineof the livestock pollutes the area and can lead to disease – it causes some plants to dry up.Further because the area is quite hilly, the livestock contribute to land degradation anddeforestationbydestroyingseedlingswiththeirhoofs.

Livestockdiseasesaremorecommoninthewetseasonduetocoldweather,andfeedrelatedproblems. There are someplants such as sidssa that increase the vulnerability of livestock todisease.

Themajorlivestockdiseasesaffectingcowsandoxenare:dubarraa(abbaasangaa),qabannaa(jinnilafaa),qufaalooni(leadstoseverecoughing)[lungworm].Themajordiseasesthatusuallyaffect sheep and goats are: dhibee sombaa (affects their lungs), maalullaa (kokkee kan

17Inthe2016trendanalysisrespondentssaidthataccesstothehoratook30minutestenyearsago,howeverthiscontradictsthereportfrom2008,whichsaidittookfourhours.18Itwassuggestedbyakeyinformantthatthoughsomelocalpeopleareencouragedbygovernmenttokeepcross-breedcows,theyarenotgiventrainingontherequiredhusbandryofthesecross-breeds:forexample,cross-breedsneedtobefedbetterthanlocalcows(withadequateamountsofvitaminsandminerals)inordertomaintaintheirhealthandproductivity–ifnotwell-fedtheywilldeterioratequicklyifnotdie.

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dhiitessu-leads to swelling their throat), bishaantuu (garaa ishee keessatti akkabishaaniikuufamu),dhibeekufaa.Andhorses/mulesareaffectedby:zallaqa(niqufaasisa(causesseverecoughing),darrisa(affectstheirbackbone).

Weatherrelated livestockdiseasesalsoprevail inthegrazingarea,andtheseare locallycalleddhibeeqorraa/qabbanaass.[Saidtobetrypanosomiasisbutrenownnedlydifficulttodiagnose].The community say that their livestock has adapted to the climate and environment of thehighland areas including the Sanetti Plateau – and if they are forced to spendmore time indifferentenvironmentstheywillnotsurvivesuccumbingtodiseasessuchasthese.

Animal health services are inadequate in the kebele (GOFA_FGM_01). Local communitymembers do not useAI and synchronization services, though they know that this is available(GOFA_KIM_01).

Principle livestockmarketsare found inGobaandRobe,ashasbeenthecaseformanyyears.Livestockkeeperstendtoholdontogoodqualityanimalsandrather,sell lowqualityandagedanimals(GOFA_KIM_01).Livestockproductssuchasmilkandbutteraremainlyusedforfamilyconsumption,andnotsold(GOFA_KIM_01).In2007,respondentsmentionedsellingmilk,butterandchickensatGobamarketaswellaslargerlivestock.

3.3HILASSAPA,GOBAWOREDA

Socio-economicsandlivelihoodsTodayinHilassaPAthemajorityoflandisundercropcultivation–eitherfarmedbylocalpeopleorlarger-scaleoutsideinvestors.Mosthouseholdsstillmaintainanumberoflivestockaspartofa more integrated livestock-crop system, with reduced numbers of livestock however. Thisreflects the land use and livelihoods changes already taking place in 2007,where communitymembers complained of significantly reduced access to grazing, crops being grown and withsomecommunitymembershavingahouseinGobatownaswellasinthevillage.Table3.7:WealthRanking2007

Rich Medium Poor Destitute8ha.Land 5-6ha.land 4ha.Land 0-0.5ha.

Houseintown Nohouseintown Nohouseintown Nohouseintown10-15cattle 5-10cattle 2-4cattle Upto1cattle10shoats 5-6shoats 2-5shoats Upto3shoats5-8equines 2-5equines 2equines Upto1equine5-10chickens 10-15chickens 5-7chickens 1-2chickens

50-100quintalsofgrain 25-50quintalsofgrain 10-15quintalsofgrain 4-6quintalsofgrain13 60 177 474% 20% 60% 16%

Totalnumberofhouseholds:297

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Table3.8:WealthRanking2016Criteria Duressa(Betteroff/rich) jidugalessa(Medium) Hiyeessa(poor)Crop yield(quintals)

60quintal 12quintal Noproperty,onlylabour

Cattle 11 3 -Shoats 15sheep 4shoats -Equines 6 2 -Corrugatedtinroof Yes Some Notin–thatchedNo.ofchildrensenttoschool

All About60%sendchildrentoschool

Not able to sendchildrentoschool

Savingsinbank 20-30,000Birr None None 10% 70% 20%

Comparisonofthetwowealthrankingexercisesfrom2007and2016revealsasignificantreductionintheamountofcropyieldwithrichsaidtogrowupto100quintalsin2007andonly60quintalsin2016;medium-poorwealthin200710-50quintals,whereasin2016thishadreducedto12atthemost;andthedestitute/poorproducing4-6quintalswhereasin2016theyweresaidtogrownothing.Inadditionthecriteriafor‘poor’or‘destitute’hadbeenreduced–in2007theseincluded0-0.5haorland,uptoonecattle,threeshoatsandoneequine,whereasin2016thishadbeenreducedtonoproperty(onlyabletoearnmoneyfromprovidinglabour)andwerenotabletosendtheirchildrentoschool.

Thissuggeststhatwhilstlivestockhasreduced,communitymembershavealsoseencropyieldsreducedleadingtoincreasedpovertyinthelocalpopulationandparticularlyinthepoorergroups.

Thereisashiftfrompredominantlybarleyproduction10yearsbacktotheplantingofpotatoes,garlicandonion.Barleyandpotatoesareconsumedathomeandsoldinmarkets.

Table3.8TrendAnalysisMatrix

Characteristics Before10years Present Significantevents(ifany)orreasonsforchange

Quantity of open grasslandavailableforgrazing

!!!!!!

" Grasslandsovertakenbycropcultivationandlargescaleprivatefarms

Quantity of land under cropproduction

!!!! !!!!!!!!!

Populationpressureandincreaseddesireof the people to be engaged in cropcultivation

Time taken to access grazing inwetseason

30minutes >10minutes Nograzingareanowand livestockgrazearoundhomesteadandnearrivers

Time taken to access grazing indryseason

30minutes >10minutes Nograzingareanowand livestockgrazearoundhomesteadsandnearrivers

Quantityofbrowseavailableforgrazing

!!!!!!!!

!!

Changes in access rights tograzing

!!!! !!!!!!!!!

Typeoflivestockkept Only local Improved Recentlyintroduced

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breed livestockbreedsAverage quantity of livestockownedbyindividual

25 12

Number of conflicts with wildanimalsthatkill/takelivestock

!!!!!!!

!!!! In 2007 hyenas were a great problem,butthisappearstobelesssonow

Time needed for accessingwaterforlivestock

30minutes 30minutes

Time needed for accessingmineralsprings

2hours 2hours

Changes in income fromlivestock

!!!!!!

!!

Changesinfoodfromlivestock !!!!!!!!

! Dramatically decreased mainly due tolivestockfeedshortages

Changes in time to collectfodder

>30minutes 2hours

Changes in amount paid forfodder

- -

Geneticimprovementactivities !! Healthimprovement Vaccination !! !!!!!

!

Spray(dipping) - " Useof treatment for internalparasites

- !!!!!!!!

Feeding of locally availableconcentrates

!! !!!!!!!!

Thetrendanalysisconfirmsthat therehasbeenanalmostcomplete lossofgrazing in thePA,andthetimetocollectfodderhasgrownfour-fold.Themovetocropgrazingwassaidtobedueto a desire (need) to grow crops and population pressure. The few livestock (said to be onaverage 12 per household) that are left are grazed around the settlements. As a result ofreducedlivestocknumberstherehasbeenareductionofincomeandfoodfromlivestock.

People indicated that there is an improvement in the provision of livestock health services,(genetic improvementactivities,vaccination,treatmentforendo-andecto-parasites), feedingconcentratesandpossessionofimprovedlivestockbreeds.

Climateandclimatechange

Seasons in Hilassa follow the same pattern as in Fasil Angesso above. There is high frostprevalence in October-November. During the wet season people are mainly engaged inpreparing land for sowing and weeding. This is undertaken through five consecutive landpreparationstages:gadila,gilgala,surro,arfaso,andfachassa(sowing).

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Table3.9Seasonalcalendar

SeasonsCharacteristics

Ganna(June-Nov) Bona(Dec-May)

Rainfall !!!!!!!!

!!!!!

Temperature !!!! !!!!!!!!

Wind !!!!! !!!!Frost !!!!!(Oct-Nov) Grazingavailability(grass–marga)** !!! !Browseavailability !!!!! !Wateravailability !!!!!

!!!!!!!!!!

Incomefromlivestocksale !! !!!Livestockproduct !! !Milkyield !! !

M

!!!!!!

!!!!!!

Labour demand for livestock relatedactivities

F

!!!! !!!!

M

!!!! !!!!Labour demand for non-livestockrelatedactivities

F

!!!!!!

!!!!!!

Incidenceofdisease !!!!!!

!

Notes:*JulyandAugusthavelowrainfall.**Thereisnotenoughgrazinginthekebeleduetoexpansionofcropfarming.Cropresiduesandotherisgiven,butthereisfeedshortageindrymonths(seebelow).***DuetolackofgrazingthishasmeantthattherearesignificantlylessanimalproductsandlessincomefromthemSource:Maleandfemalefocusgroupdiscussions(GOHI_FGM/F_01)

Waterforlivestock

WaterisaccessedfromnearbyriversincludingMagida(asin2007),Bashara,ChiqileandWatala.SpringsincludeDugdaGudda,Kuree,Alanatu,OdoEela,Tinayo(Xinnayoo),TaruuraandEbera.Thereisnotaproblemofwateravailabilitygenerallyforthelivestockinthekebele,particularlyaslivestocknumbershavedropped.

Grazingareas

There has been significant increase of land use change in the kebele from grazing to cropagriculture with the majority of grazing areas now used for crops either by local people orinvestors.Thesituationthatnowexistsmeansthatlivestockarerestrictedintermsoffeedandmovement,andformanythishasmeantinvestmentinamoreintensivezero-grazingapproachthatproveslabourandinput-demanding.

ReasonablewetseasonpasturethatremainsincludeareassuchaschafaMagida(grasslandneartheMagidaRiver)thoughagriculturealongtheRiverismakingthisincreasinglydifficult,Awash-localityandBushare.Livestockcanbemovedtothelatterareasforaboutsixmonthsduringthe

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wet season19. Though grazing is good along the Magida River there is a problem of cattlecontracting a disease called ‘fascioliasis’ (dhuukkuba baalee), which the community said iscausedbylivestockeatingaplantcalledgonde.

Good dry season pasture that remains includes Ambaqa, Boyida, Dhibu, and Shanqala areas.OtherareascanincludeWadeHillGaraWade(GaraWade),Watalla(Waxxalla),Dayu,FasilaandAwashareas.20LivestockcanbetakentotheseareasforaboutfourmonthsSomewoodedareasare used for grazing in Awash locality including Heeto (Hagenia abyssinica) and Garamba(Hypericumspecies).However,thisisnotenoughtosustainthelivestockinthekebeleacrossthedry season. Otherwise, livestock is grazed around homesteads and in fields after crops havebeenharvested(GOHI_FGDM_01). In2007respondentssaidthatsometimesgrazinghastobenegotiated with landowners through ‘in kind’ payment such as providing the service ofploughingfor4-5days,orascash.Atthistimethecommunitycomplainedabouttheincreaseintimetoaccessgrazing,howeverin2016therewaslittlechangefromthattimeasallaccessiblegrazingareashaddisappearedandtherewasonlygrazingavailablearoundthesettlement.

Figure3.3MappingofresourcesusedbyHilassaPA

19Wetseasongrazingareasmentionedin2007wereGareWade(woodlandthougherosion)andGareEjerso(erosion).20Dryseasongrazingmentionedin2007werealongMagidaRiverthoughaccessbeinglostduetofarming,andHanshaweeareas.

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Livestockeatdifferenttypesofgrasses(locallycalledmarga,tulla,mujaa,mata(maaxaa)andwoodleavessuchasheeto(heexoo).

Access to the above areas is ‘open’ with no restrictions, though generally limited to kebelecommunity.Sometimes livestockherdersencounterverbalconflictswithpeoplewhoreside intheAwasharea,butnormallytheseareresolvedeasily.

Table3.10Proportionalpilingofgrazing/fodderspeciesandindicators(GOHI_KIM_01)

Adequategrazingclosetohome

Plentifulsupplyallyearround

Notexpensive*

Palatable Hasmedicinalvalue

Marga(grass) 0000(4) 000(3) 000(3) 00000(5)Sinaara(oats) 00000(5) 00000(5) 000000(6) 000000(6)Boqqoolloo(maizestalk) 00000(5) 0000(4) 000000(6) 00000(5)Hafteemidhaanii(cropresidue)

000000(6) 00000000(8) 00000(5) 0000(4)

*Fodderisnotpurchased

Figure3.11Proportionalpilingofgrazingresources(GOHI_KIM_01)

ChaffaaMagida(grassaroundbankofMagidariver)

Naannooqaarmaa(cropstubbles)

Awaash(grazingarea)

Busharee(grazingarea)

GoodQuality 0000(4) 00000000(8) 000000(6) 00(2)GoodQuantity 0000(4) 00000000(8) 000000(6) 00(2)Closetohome 00000000(8) 000000(6) 0000(4) 00(2)Nocontroloveracces - - - -Protectedbuthavepermissiontograze

0000(4) 00000000(8) 000000(6) 00(2)

Figure3.12Proportionalpillingofgrazingresource(outoftwentystone)(GOHI_KIM_02)GrazingareaCharacteristicsEjerso Arda Hambaqa Safara

Goodquality 000(3) 00000000(8) 00000(5) 0000(4)Goodquantity 00(2) 000000000000(12) 000(3) 000(3)Closetohome 000(3) 000(3) 00(2) 000000000000(12)Nocontroloveraccess 0000(4) 000000000000(12) 000(3) 0(1)Protectedbuthavepermission

-- -- -- --

Criticaldryseasongrazing 0000(4) 0(1) 000(3) 000000000000(12)

Livestockmineral/saltspringsandlicks

Livestock are taken to themineral lick –HayaKoso found inHilassa kebele itself, and to twomineral springs found in neighbouring kebele – HoraMuturqiso in Ittu Sura kebele andHoraAmbareinDawekebele.LivestockkeepersareabletousetheHora/Hayaastheyplease.In2007

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communitymembersalsomentionedaddingsalttocropresidueswhenthesewerefedtotheanimals.

Fodderandfeed

In2007somerespondentsmentionedfeedingcropresiduesand ‘green’oats to livestock,andmaking hay. In 2016 community members mentioned a greater variety of feed and fodderresourcessuggestingthatthevarietyhadgrowninresponsetotheneedforintensificationandalternativesources.

Table3.13:Feedtype,grazingareasandfodderuseandfeedshortagebyseason(2016)

TypeandplaceoffeedSeason

Ganna(wetseason)

Typeoffeed PlaceoffeedPurchasedfeedconcentrates

Shortageoffeedoccursinthemonthsof

Cropresidue Aroundhomestead Fagulo Nofeedshortageduringwetseason

Cerealcrop(preparedbygrinding–flour)

Athome Furushka

Ensetleavesandstem Aroundhomestead Oats(sinaar)seeds Aroundhomestead Driedgrass Aroundhomestead Maizeleavesandstem Aroundhomestead

Woodleaves(hetto/heexoo)andgaramba)

AroundAwashlocalityinthekebele

Bona(dryseason)

Feedshortageduringdryseason

Cropresidue Fagulo December Driedgrass Furushka January Oats(sinaar)seeds February Grass Aroundandnearthe

bankofMagidariver

Wood/leaves BushareareaneartheborderofBerebereWoreda

Livestockhealthandmarketing

Inatrendanalysisundertakenin2007itwassaidthatthenumbersoflivestockinthePAhavedramaticallyreduced–from2-3millionduringthetimeofHaileSelassieto250,000in2007.In2016theaveragecattlenumberperhouseholdwassaidtobeeightlocal,andtwocross-breed(asperfocusgroupdiscussions),witharound10sheep,afewgoatsand3-4equines.Havingsaidthat, the abovewealth rankingwhere the issueswerediscussed inmoredepth suggests thatvastmajorityofthecommunityhavemuchlessthanthis.Themajority of cattle in thekebele are local breeds,withmost households having twooxen,whichareworkedploughingforaround90daysperyear.Overthelastdecadetherehasbeen

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theintroductionofcross-breedinginthekebele,andtodaymanyhouseholdshaveatleasttwoofthese.Itwasindicatedthatthesearesometimesusedalsofordraughtpower(upto60daysper year). Local breeds produce around 2 litres of milk per day [litre of milk produced bycrossbreedwasnotspecified].Mostlivestockissoldwhenitgetsoldandproductionhasgonedown – for local breeds this is around four years, and for cross-breeds this is around two tothreeyears.Sheeparesoldaroundsixmonthsold.Types and incidence of animal disease include the following among others: anthrax (abbaasangaa), balckleg (abbaa gorbaa), mange mites (chittoo), ecto-parasites, Newcastle disease(fingil), sheep and goat pox (dirmammeessa hoolaa fi re’ee), trypanosomiasis (kan sangaa ijaqabu) (particularly in Bushare area) anemia, /dermatophilosis (dhibee qaama kukkutu),pasturellosis (zallaqaa) and abortion in donkey. Also mentioned was a disease called‘fascioliasis’ or liverfluke, which community members believe is caused by livestock eating aplant called ‘gonde’ alongMagadi River21 [or rather would be picked up from grazing in themarshyareas].Someofthesediseasesarenew–andarenowcommon.

Communitymembersexpressedtheirneedtohavebetterhealthservicesforlivestockincludinghowtoimprovefeedforlivestock(improvedforageandforagepreparation),health(preventionofdiseaseandclinic),andgenetics(AI/bullservices)(GOHI_FGD_01).

LivestockistakentomarketsfoundinRobe,SalqaandAlemganatowns.

3.4ASHUTAPAAshuta isahighlandPA inGobaWoredawhich is located in thenorth-easterndirectionawayfromtheforestsandtheNationalPark.In2007itwassaidthatthePAhadbeenknownforitsrichpasturesbutbythetimeoftheresearchgrazinghadbecomedifficultandextremelyscarceduring the dry season.Many people were dependent on the state farms and access to cropresidues in order to feed their livestock.Movement in andout of the PAhadbeen curtailed,includingforaccessingrivers.Socio-economicsandlivelihoodsTable3.14WealthRankingAshuta2007No.ofhouseholds:482

Rich Medium Poor Destitute5+haland 3-5haland 0.5-3haland >0.5haland20+cattle 5-20cattle 2-3cattle 05-6equines 2equines 1donkey 030-40shoats 5-10shoats 3-5shoats 0

60quintalsgrainproducedeachyear

30-50quintals 15-30quintals 5-10quintals

3+beehives 1beehive 0 010-20chickens 5-10chickens 3-6chickens 2-3chickens

55 276 132 1911% 57% 27% 4%

21In2007communitymembersalsocomplainedofadiseasecalledCimiso,incropproducingareas.

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Table3.15WealthRankingAshuta2016Criteria Duressa(Betteroff/rich) Jidugalessa(Medium) Harkaqaleesa(poor)Farmholding(ha) 6 3 0.25Cropyield(quintals) 150quintal 80quintal 20quintalLivestock 40 15 4Corrugatedtinroof Some Veryfew ThatchedroofEducatechildren* All All AllSavings** 40,000Birr 15,000Birr Nosaving 30% 60% 10%*Regardlessof thewealth group, itwas said that every childhasbeenenrolled in school. **There is asavingculturewiththewealthyhavingasmuchas40,000ETBinsavings.

Thedifferencesbetweenthetwowealthrankingtablesreflectthesignificantchangesthathavetakenplaceover the last ten years or so inAshuta PA. This includes the steadydeclines of alivestock-dominated livelihood system to one dominated by crop agriculture, integratedwithlivestock.Therehasbeena steadydecline in thenumberof cattleandother livestockpeoplekeep as grazing areas have been converted to crops, livestock numbers shrinking to theresourcesavailable,andinputsmadeavailabletoincreasecropyields–cattledungforexampleis used as a fertiliser. Few people now harvest honey as local bee populations have declined(blamedonuseofpesticidesandherbicidesonstatefarms).Accordingtothewealthrankings,thepercentageofbetteroff/richpeoplehasalmosttripledsince2007.Today it issaidthatallchildrengotoschool,andmostpeoplehavesomesavings.Inthelasttenyearscropfarminghasincreased–beforetenyearstheyusedtogrowbarley,buttodaytheygrowamuchgreatervarietyincludingwheat,beans,peas,oats,barleyandpotatoes,withaboutone-thirdusedforhouseholdconsumptionandtherestsold.Beansandpeasobtainthebestprice.Somegrowrye(?)tofeedtolivestock.Theaveragelandholdingforcroplandis2ha.Table3.16TrendanalysisAshutaPA

Before10yearsCurrent

Notes

Quantity of opengrasslandforgrazing

!!!!!!!

" Grasslands taken overby crop cultivation andlargeprivatefarms

Quantity of land undercropproduction

!!!!!!

!!!!!!!!!

Time taken to accesswetseasongrazing

30minutes Lessthan10minutes Because no grazingavailable so stay nearsettlement

Time to access dryseasongrazing

30minutes Lessthan15minutes Asabove

Quantity of browse !!!!! -

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available Changesinaccessrightstograzing

!!!!!!!!

!

Typeoflivestockkept Onlylocalbreeds Improved breeds nowintroduced

Average livestockholdings

Cattle–59*Sheep–100Horse–10

Cattle–9Sheep–20Horse–1

Beehive 4 0 Conflicts with wildanimals

- -

Time needed foraccessing water forlivestock

0.30minutes 0.30minutes

Accessmineralsprings - - Accesssaltlicks 30minutes Notavailable ChangedtocroplandIncomefromlivestock !!!!!

!

!!

Foodfromlivestock !!!!!!!!

!!

Dramatically decreasedduetofeedshortages

Timetocollectfodder Lessthan30minutes 3hours Amountpaidforfodder Nothingexceptsalt !!!!!

Hay !!!!!!!!!!

!

Genetic improvementactivities

- !

Animal healthimprovement –vaccination

!!!!

!!!!!!

-spraydipping 0 !!

-internalparasites 0 !!!!!!

Feeding of locallyavailableconcentrates

0 !!!!!!!!

*Theaveragenumberof livestock tenyearsagoappears tobe inflatedwhencompared to the figuresprovided by respondents in the study in 2007; nevertheless the general trend of significantly reducedlivestocknumbersisrecognised.LandforcultivationofagriculturalcropshasgraduallyincreasedsincetheImperialperiodwhere10yearsagopeopleindicatedthatthegovernmentstartedrationinglandtodistributeittotheyouth.Theaveragelandholdingsizeforcultivationofcropsis2ha.Currently,cropproductionincludes wheat, barley, maize, rye, beans, peas and potatoes. Crop production takes placeduring the wet season. Land is re-ploughed five times with a gap of one to two weeks(dependingontheconditionofthe land).SowingofcropusuallytakesplacedbetweenMarchandApril.

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Based on the trend analysis conducted 10 years ago, the reduction in the amount of incomeearnedfromthelivestockandlivestockproductssalecanbeattributedtoasignificantreductionof livestocknumbers inthePA.Richorbetteroffhousehold’scattleholdingsize, for instance,reduced by four folds, between the imperial and the current regime and that of equines hasshownareductionbyalmosthalf.Thewetseasonisamorelabour-demandingtimeforcommunitymembersaslandispreparedforcultivation.ThePAhasonelanduseadminexpert,onelivestockexpertandoneagronomist.GrazingareasInpasttimesAshutaPAwasknownforitsrichpastures.Forexampleinmarriageceremoniesablessingisgiven“Gangamagidata’ee”(“horseeatstheChaffagrassandbreeds”)tothecouple,particularlythewife.Itmeans‘beingoodconditionandhavemanychildrenasthehorsesthatgrazethemarshesofMagida.’Thisillustratestheabundanceofqualitygrasslandthatwasfoundduring Haile Selassie’s, particularly the Chaffa (or marshland) grass found along the MagidaRiver(Flintanetal2008).In2007theseresourceswerealreadyundersignificantpressure,withgrazingareasbeingconvertedtocrops,includingfordistributiontolandlessyouth.NearlyalllandinthePAisnowbeingcultivated.Thereisalackofalternativelivelihoodsinthevillage despite its relatively closeness to Roba and Goba towns. In addition agriculturaltechnology including improved tools has meant greater ease in cultivating the land. Thecommunitywouldliketoseetheremaininggrazingareasprotectedforlivestock,andthelargeareacoveredbythegovernmentfarmshared.Today,somewetseasongrazingcanstillbefoundinKambo,Oyora,onTulluTonsare,alongtheRiver Togona andMagida Rivers, Darara; and on the government farms even though severalcommunitymemberssaidthatthattheirlivestockgetsickthereduetothepresenceofaninsectfoundonleavesofplants.ThestatefarmsarefoundintheadjoiningPAsoafardistancefromsomesettlements(cantakeonedaytogothereandback).Sheeptendtobemosteasilygrazed–aroundthesettlement/PA.InthedryseasonthesameareasareusedplusanareacalledSheydabaandTulluBaya.Thetimetaken to travel to the grazing areas has reduced as grazing is now only available around thehomestead. As such themovement of livestock in Ashuta has significantly reduced from thepast,andtodaymovementoutofthePAisalmostnon-existent.Anewphenomenaisthedevelopmentofaprotectedareacalled“MelesPark”onthebankofthe River Togona, where grazing is not allowed (GOAS_KIM_01). In addition one respondentdescribedhow the government is giving areas along theMagadi River to small enterprises. Iflivestock keepers want to graze their cattle there theymust get permission and pay for theprivilege(GOAS_KIM_03).

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WatersourcesThere is no problem of watering the livestock, with access to Magida and Togona Rivers –thoughcrop farminghas increasedcurtailingaccess thenumberof livestockhas reduced. It ismainlythetaskofchildrentotakethelivestocktotherivers(aroundonehour).FeedandforageDuring thewet season cattle feedonnatural grass including chaffaa (grass near river banks),‘green’ oats sinar, maize and straw; and straw/stalk of crops after harvest. There are feedshortages between August and October when the land is covered with crops. In additioncommunity members are increasingly using locally available concentrates. A key informant(GOAS_KIM_01) said that he faces feed shortages all year round. He collects fodder for thelivestockbutoftenhastopurchaseconcentratesfurushkaandfagulo(alsobeingusedin2007),which he feeds to his livestock fromMay up to August, and from September to December.RespondentM (GOAS_KIM_03) followed a similar pattern,with he andhis children collectingthefodder/grass,whichisstoreduntilneeded.Another respondent commented that he cuts grass for the livestock, grazes them on cropresiduesafterharvest,collectshayandstraw(mainlyinJanuaryandFebruary),andalsocutanddries fodder. He mixes the fodder with fagulo. He will also feed fagulo and furushka asconcentrates. He estimates that the cost of supplementary feeding is 1800 ETB per animal(GOAS_KIM_02). A second respondent purchases one quintal of frushka per month for hislivestock.ThepriceofonequintaloffrushkawasBirr450(GOAS_KIM_03).22Thoughcropresiduestendtobereadilyavailable,particularlyafterharvest,theyareconsideredto be less palatable for livestock, with little medicinal value unlike grass (GOAS_KIM_01).Boqqoolloo (maize) and sinaara (oats) are also considered less palatable but are believed tohavesomemedicinalvalue.MineralspringsandlicksLivestockarenotabletomovetothemineralsprings,andoverthe last tenyearstheminerallick(hayaMagida)hasbeenploughedupandnowusedforcropcultivation.Asaresultlivestockkeepersgiveextrasalttothecattleintheirfeed.SomemembersmentionedthatmineralsaltsstillcouldbeaccessedfromaroundtheMagidaRiver.Livestockandlivestockdisease

TodayAshutaPAhas3,058cattle;1,339equines;1,349sheep;285goats;and2,930poultry.In2007livestocknumbersperhouseholdhadalreadydeclined.Thelocalcattlebreedisconsideredtobeofhighquality,butithasdeclinedinnumber.Thoughitisstillvaluedcommunitymembers22In2007peoplewerealreadyfeedinglivestockcropresidues.Amazgeisacartloaddrawnbyoxen–equivalentto15quintals.Onerespondentsaidheused3mazge(or45quintals)peryear(A5/2007).Inthoseareaswherecropresiduesaregiventolivestockitseemsthatthehusbandandchildrenareresponsibleforfeedingthelivestockinthemorningandafternoon,whilsttheyareallowedtograzeatwillduringtheday.

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value the improved breeds that are now also available. Ten years ago it was said that theaverage livestock holdings were 15-40 cattle; 10-40 sheep; and around 2-8 horses, whereastodaythisnumberhaddroppeddrasticallyto6-9cattle(includingoftenat leastoneimprovedbreed);20sheep,1goat,and1horse(seealsoabovewealthranking).Aspartofthisusuallytwodraughtoxenarekept–vitalforploughingtheland(usedforapproximately120daysperyear).The prolificacy rate of cattle is 1, with lactation occurring between 6-8 months of the year.Around2litresofmilkareobtainedfromlocalbreedcows,and6litresfromimprovedbreeds.Sheeparesoldformeatatabout6months.Therearefewfemalehorsesinthearea,andthesetendtobebroughtinfromArsizone.Horsesoftenrequireextrafodderbuttendtorequirelesscarethancattle,andsometimescanbeusedto pull a plough (GOAS_KIM_01). Today there are more chickens kept than ten years ago.Thoughinthepastcommunitymemberskepthivesforhoneyproduction,thenumberofbeeshavenowdeclinedduetotheuseofherbicideandpesticidespraysongovernmentandprivatefarms,andageneralshortageofforageforbees.Livestockandlivestockproductsaresoldinthekebele, inRobetown,ChafeDonsa,Alemgena,and Salqa towns, though it would appear that most milk and eggs are used for ownconsumption. Several respondents complained that the route to Robe town is becomingnarrowerandnarrowerduetocropexpansion(GOAS_KIM_01;GOAS_KIM_02).SomemarketsusedbythecommunityareinneighbouringSinanaworeda.TherearemarketsclosertothePAincluding inGobatown,but theroute formanymeanscrossing theHirnaRiver,whichhasnobridgeandcanbedangerous.TheRiverisknownlocallyaslagorakko,whichmeans‘difficulttocross.’Agovernmentofficialsaidthatproductivityoflivestockhasincreasedduetodestockingandimprovementinfeedandfodder.Cowdungisusedasafertislieronthefields,andasafuel.

Diseasesinthewetseasoninclude:Dhibeebokoksaa,abbaagorbaa(blackleg),maasa,horiiijaqabeekanboochisu,abbaasangaa(anthrax),mangemites,bichee(forhorse),rammoomataa,dhibee congaara, fingilii (new castle disease for chicken). Diseases in the dry season includeBaallee (tiruukukkuta),abbaagorbaa (blackleg),dhibeebokoksaa (a typeof livestockdiseasethatbloatstheirstomach)(GOAS_FGM_01).Inadditionpastoralistscomplainthattheirlivestockgetssickwhengrazingonthestatefarms,andonthebanksoftheRiverTagona–thisusuallyoccurs in themonthofMay (GOAS_KIM_01).One respondent (GOAS_KIM_03) lost anox lastyearwhenitgotsick–hewasnotabletoaffordanyveterinarytreatment.

In2007communitymembersagainmentionedtheplantgonde,whichsproutsalongriverbanksand swampy areas and can kill livestock immediately. Though respondents in Ashuta did notmention this in 2016, it has been mentioned in other PAs so is obviously still a significantprobleminthearea.

Livestock veterinary and health extension services have increased with vaccination,dipping/sprayandtreatmentofinternalparasiteshasincreased.Thoughthislivestockextensionhas indeed improved, communitymemberswould like to seeadditional investment in thisbythe local government. There are clinics in Robe and Shallo locality, and inHilassa PAusedbycommunitymembers interviewed. Respondents use veterinary serviceswhen they can affordthem,manyrespondentscannot.PoorercommunitymembersarewillingtouseAIservices,butcannotaffordto.

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AlocalbreedfemalecowcostsETB7000-10,000,andamaleETB6500-8000dependingonsize,throughafattenedbull/oxcanfetch15-20,000.AcrossbreedfemalecowcostsETB12,000andamaleETB13,000(GOAS_KIM_01),goat1500-2000,,sheep1,000-1,500andadonkey2,000

3.5SynthesisandfuturescenariosinGobaWoreda

The three kebele participating in this study are at different stages of intensification of theproduction systems includingmoving towardsmore crop farming. In thepastAshutaPAwasknownforitsrichlivestockpasture,howevertodaythereislittlegrazingleftwiththemajorityoflandundercrop farmingandsettlements.There isvery littlemovementof livestockandnoneoutside the PA unless to access markets. Livestock are mainly reared through zero-grazingpractices.Thelocalgovernmentislookingtointroduceapaymentschemeforgrazing.Accordingto thewealth status thewealthof the communityoverall has increased, yetmany challengesprevail. State farms in the area offer some grazing alternatives but community memberscomplained that invasive plants introduced by the farms poison livestock, andpesticides/herbicidesusedhave killedoff local beepopulations. Some landalong the rivers isbeinggiventolocalinvestors/enterprises.

InFasilAngesso livestock is still themainstayof theeconomy,butcrop farminghas increasedover the last decade reducing land for grazing. To compensate for this the community reliesheavilyongrazingon theSanettiPlateauand inRiraPA.Thisputs them intoconflictwith theParkauthoritiesandtheOromiaForestandWildlifeEnterprise.HilassaPAissomewherebetweenAshutaandFasilAngessointermsoflivelihoodsystems,withsome crop farming and some livestock keeping. However crop productivity appears to havedeclined, and there are few alternatives for grazing close by. As such the community reliesheavilyontheuseofcropresiduesandgrassofpoorqualityforlivestockfeedingattimesoftheyear.AssuchofallthreePAsitisHilassathatseemstobestrugglingmostreflectedinawealthrankingthatsuggeststhatpovertylevelsmayhaveincreased.In all PAs communitymembers said livestocknumbershavedecreased,howeveraccording tothe figures from the woreda administration numbers of livestock across the woreda haveincreasedby25%between2007and2016.Andthenumberofshoatsincreasedbyafactorof11between2000and2015.Further,accordingtothewealthrankingsitwouldseemthatinsomePAstheamountoflivestockperhouseholdhasincreased,togetherwithcropproduction.InFasilAngessoforexample,thereappearstohavebeenasubstantialincreaseinthe‘medium’wealth category (from11% to60%) in theperiod2007-2016.And further, the criteria for therankingareahighernumberoflivestockandcropproductionin2016thanin2007–thatisthe‘medium’categorywasdefinedashaving10-15cattle,15-20shoats,4-5equinesand2-3haoflandin2007,yetin2016itwasdefinedashaving50cattle,25shoats,6equinesand25quintalofcropyield.Thoughtheremaybesomediscrepanciesinthesefigures,itsuggestsoverallthatthoughcropfarminghas increasedtogetherwithotherpressureson landresulting inreducedgrazingareas,thishashadlittleeffectonreducinglivestocknumbersandinfactthereversehasbeenseen,witha significantproportionof thepopulation in thekebelebecoming richer. It issuggested that this is because the residentsof in this case FasilAngesso still havealternativegrazingoptionsi.e. inparticulartheSanettiPlateau,howeveriftheBMNPdoesindeedrestrict(evenban) grazinghere, then this is likely tohavea significantlynegative impacton the FasilAngessolivestockkeepers.

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In Hilassa PA, there is a different situation. Here, it is indicated that there has been littleimprovement in livelihood and poverty status, and it may to a degree have worsened. Thewealth ranking suggests that the better-off/rich have been able to expand their holdings andproduction,yetthemediumandpoorgroupshaveincreasedinsizeandyethavelessassets.In2007 the ranking showed that the communitywas4% rich, 20%medium,60%poor and16%destitute. In 2016 it showed10% rich, 70%mediumand20%poor,with themediumholdingsignificantlylessassetsthantheydidin2007.Inallcasesitwasshownthattheaveragequintalsofgrainproducedperhouseholdperyearhadreduced–fortherichthishadreducedfrom50-100 quintals to 60, for the medium from 25-50 quintals to 12, and the poor from 10-15 tonothing.Thissuggeststhatcropproductivityintheareaisreducing.A major problem for community members in Hilassa kebele is the low productivity andproduction of livestock due to feed shortages and the gaps in extension services (though thelatterhasimproved).Somecross-breedsarebeingintroduced,butaretooexpensiveformanyin the community. The increasing population will put further pressures on land available forlivestock production. Because of the reduced lack of grazing, livestock keepers are forced tosupplement livestock diets with crop residues and grass, often of poor quality. Livestockdiseasesthatwerenotpresentbeforearenowprevalent.Communitymemberssaidthattheyneedextensionservicesandtechnologicalinputstoimprovetheirlivelihoods,including:

- improvedforage,andforagepreparation(machine)- livestockhealthservicesforpreventingdisease,andaveterinaryclinicintheirkebele- genetics–AIand/orbetterbullservices(GOHI_FGD_01).

AninterestinginclusioninthewealthrankingsinGobaworedain2016wasthe‘no.ofchildrensenttoschool.’InHilassaPAitwassaidthatalltherichsendtheirchildrentoschool,about60%of themedium, and none of the poor. In Ashuta too, the sending of children to school wasincluded, but here it was said that ALL wealth categories send their children to school. TheholdingofsavingswasalsoanewcriteriaincludedinthewealthrankingofHilassaandAshuta–withtherichinAshutasavingupto40,000Birrperyearandthemediumsaving15,000,andinHilassatherichonlysaving–20-30,000Birrperyear.Neitherthegoingtoschoolortheamountof savingswere included in Fasil Angesso suggesting that thesewere of less importance andoccurrencethanintheotherPAs.The use ofmineral springs and licks is still an important component ofmaintaining livestockhealth,thoughinsomecasessuchasAshutaandHilassalivestockarenotabletomoveoutofthe PAs to access them. Further some local mineral licks have been ploughed up for cropfarming.Asanalternative livestockkeeperspurchasesalt (saidtobesodafromtheRiftValleyLakes),whichismixedwithlocalsoilandgiventothelivestocktofeedon.Community members in Fasil Angesso say that the solution to the situation is that the ParkAdministrationshouldagainallowthemtograze their cattle in thePark for sixmonthsof theyear,as theyhavebeendoing forgenerations.Thisallowsthemtogrowcropsundisturbed intheirhomeareaswhilstthelivestockareaway.OneFGDsaid:“WeconsidertheParktoalsobeourpropertyandourresponsibility,andwecanalsotakecareoftheenvironment intheParkandprevent disturbance to andprotect thewildlife. If the Park’sAdministration continues toforceusfromusingthegrazingareathenthereisnosolution,andsomecommunitymemberswillcontinuetotrytousethegrazingareas.Thiswillhaveunfavorableconsequencesinfuture.”

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TheyalsoarguedthattheOFEshouldallowthemtograzeintheforestareas–“wecanalsotakecareofthetreesformutualbenefitaswell.”(GOFA_FGM_01).

Communitymembersalsomentionedfamilyplanninginordertocurbthepopulationgrowth.Inaddition,locallanduseplanningisseenasamustinordertobetterplanlanduseprioritiesandtomakebestuseoftheland,itspotential,andavailablenaturalresources.

Figure3.4MapofgrazingareasinHarenaBulukworedaasdescribedbyrespondents

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4.0HARENABULUKWOREDA

4.1Introduction

Harena Buluk was originally part of Mena Angetu woreda, together with Delo Mena. It wasdividedsometimebetween2005-2007.Thedivisionsawaround90,000hectaresofforestbeingincludedineachnewword.Theforestisanimportantgrazingresourcealthoughthereisconflictbetweenlivestockgrazersandthosethatgrowcoffeeandincreasinglycrops.In2016thehumanpopulationsizewassaidtobe115,637,being13,313householdswithanaveragefamilysizeof8.7. Theworedalandsize is193,400hawithmanykebelesadjacenttotheBMNP.Populationdensityis53/kmsq.70%oftheworedaismid-highland,29%lowlandand1%highland.35%ofthe woreda is said to be pastoralist, 54% agropastoralist, 6% crop farmers and 4% other.Cultivatedlandissaidtobe7%,cultivableland5%,grazingland6%,forest66%,bushland12%andsettlement2%.23

In 2007 livestock was an important component of livelihoods systems, utilising the 90,000hectaresofforestareasfoundintheworeda.InHarenaBulukitwasreportedthat75percentof the population undertook both crop production and cattle rearing, 12 per cent grew onlycropsand8percentkeeponlylivestock.Pasturewasreportedtobe11.5percentoflandcoveratthattime(DeloMenaandHarenaBulukAgriculturalDevelopmentOfficesundated).

Accordingtothetwoavailabledatasets(2000and2007)therehasbeenamarkedincreaseinthelivestockholding.Asthedatafrom2000relatestoMenaAngetu,the2007figuresforDeloMena and Harena Buluk have been aggregated to offer a comparison. In 2000 the livestockpopulation was reported to be: cattle 145,850; shoats 33,939; equines 5,906; and camels11,953,whichequatesto121,281TLUor197,648(seeAppendix1).By2007thishadrisento:cattle 161,993; shoats 49,770; equines 14,275; and camels 23,690,which is equal to 151,341TLUor249,728heads.Thisrepresenteda25percentincreaseintheoveralllivestockholdingoftheareabetween2000and2007.

Tocomparethesefigureswith2015,againthefiguresforHarenaBulukandDeloMenacanbeaggregated.ThismeansthatinwhatwasMenaAngetuworeda(i.e.nowsplitintoHarenaBulukand DeloMena) total livestock figures in 2015were 723,269 heads of livestockmade up of:479,601cattle,160,731shoats,37,515equines,45,422camels.This isanearly3-fold increasefrom2007,anda3.65-foldincreasefrom2000withincreasesacrossalllivestocktypesincludingcattle.

In Harena Buluk alone livestock numbers in 2007 totalled 95,319 heads,made up of: 59,669cattle,23,673shoats,7,863equines,and4,114camels.In2015thesehadincreasedto232,377headsof livestockmadeupof:156,975cattle,54,917shoats,19,735equines,and750camelsgivinga2.5-foldincreaseontotalnumbersandwithcattleincreasingnearly3-fold,shoatsandequinesover2-fold,andcamelsreducingsignificantly.Thereasonforthefallincamelnumberswasnotclear.Mostsurprisingisthesignificantincreaseincattle.

Theonlydetaileddescriptionof livestockmovementsdate to themid-1970s (Ayele1976:23),whichareworthquotinginfull:

23FigurescollectedbyNevilleSlade,FZSin2016fromtheworedaadministrationoffices.

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“…stockownersmovewith their livestock to Haro Dibe in Gura Domole and forests ofArenaduringthebonamonthsandduringgennaandhagayatoBeraksituatedbetweenWelmalandDumalRivers.Stockownersmigratewiththeiranimalstolookforwaterandto escape from livestock diseases which occur in the dry season. The furthest pointsstockownersgofromtheforestsofArenaareasfarasSigoba,WerebaandHanta.AlloftheseareasarenorthofHermechainBerak.StockownersfromBerakdonotcometotheforestsofArenabecauseitistoocoldforlivestock.Ofthestockownerssurveyed,73.3%(11stockowners)havemigratedtograzingareasduringbonaandgennaseasons.”

Ayele (ibid) alsodescribes a systemof herd splitting,which is employedby stockownerswithlargeherdswhoneedtosearchforgrazinglandandearthsalt(haya):“Thetypeofcattlethatgotoforaincludesteers,drycows,immatureandmaturebulls.Werralivestockconsistsofmilkingcows,andatleastonebullthatgoeswiththeherd.ForacattleandcamelsgotoIda,Soma,andSole (Genale), Golol, Bilal, Borena, Jirmu (Welmal), Oda (Oborso) and Dumal River in the dry[season]andtoGuraDumalWoreda,andWelabuintherainyseason.”Thepricegiven for livestockwasox/bull –5000ETB; fattenedox/bull –10,000ETB;5500cow;15,000camel;800goat;900fattenedsheep;donkeymale2500;and70Birrforachicken.Onekgofhoneysells foraround50birr,andpeoplemainlyusetraditionalbeehives. Cropsgrownincludemaize,sorghum,sesame,teffandmungbean.Erraticandinadequaterainfallmakecropproduction difficult – in Sodu Welmal for example production is only 30% of what theyplant/grow.Mungbeanandsesamearecashcrops–a farmeronaverageporduces10quintalperyear.70%ofteff,maizeandsorghumareusedforhomeconsumption.Aquintalofsesamefetches1500Birr,mungbean1700,teff1800,maize760. ItwassaidthattodatetherearenoinvestorsinHarenaBuluk.In total throughouttheworeda itwassaidthat therewere23 landadministrationexperts,36livestock experts, and 21 veterinary/animal health experts. Crop extension includes bettersowingand soil conservation includingapplicationof fertiliser. Livestockextension focusesonvaccinationandimprovingmanagement.Inthefuturetheworedaplanstoconstructveterinaryposts, water points, electricity for some settlements, mobile networks, expand extensionservicesandenhanceproductionandproductivityofcropandlivestock.Inadditiontheworedaadministration wants to improve relations with the BMNP, including permission to allowinhabitantstomovewiththeircattleintotheforestareaduringthedryseason.

4.2SODUWELMALPA

SoduWelmalisclosetotheHarenaForest.ItisfoundinbetweenthecoreForestareaandDeloMena, southof theBMNP. It is an area thathas experiencedmuchpolitical tension.24DuringHaile Selassie’s time themajor livelihood of the areawas honey and pastoralism. Agriculture

24In2007respondentstalkedaboutthecivilwarthathadtakenplaceintheareabetween1962-1969calledDhombira(WeroWifa).Duringthistimethe‘shifta’ledbyWakoGutorefusedtogivehislandtothehebashaadministration(HaileSelassie).AperiodfollowedcalledJanadde(1970-1973).Duringbothoftheseperiodsrespondentsstatedthattherewasnogovernmentadministrationatthistime,anditprovedtobeatimeoftension,crueltyandstarvationforthepastoralistcommunities.ThecurrentperiodwasdescribedbythecommunityasYadigmeaning‘freedomoftheyouth’,illustratedbyacigarettepacket–“theycansmokeastheyfeellike”

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washardlypractisedandwhoevercultivatedwascalled‘fatfultu’(meaningsomeonewhobringsbad luck) so not socially acceptable. Therewas said to be a lowhumanpopulation atgomoji(lowlanddryareas)and in the forestareas.Grassandopengrazing landwasabundant, therewashigh livestockproductionandhighhoneyproduction.ToaccessgrazingduringgodantuataxofETB4peryearwasrequiredfromeachhouseholdirrespectiveofthenumberoflivestock.After payment one could settle anywhere. During the Dergue the area began to experiencedrought,populationincreased(thoughnotunusually),agriculturestartedandhoneyproductionbegantodecline.Thekebelestructurewasintroducedandsometimescommunitieswereaskedtosettleaccording to theirPA (Flintanetal2008). The resettlementofpeople fromHaraghehereintheearly2000shasplacedsignificantpressureonlandandresources,andquickenedtheconversionofforestandgrazingareastoagriculture.

Table4.1Wealthranking2007

Numberofhouseholds:187

Rich–Duressa Medium–WayaGobessa Poor–Hiyessa30-35cattle 15-20cattle 2-5cattle10-20shoats 5-10shoats -

1ha 0.5ha 0.25ha100quintalscoffee/year 50quintalscoffee 10quintalscoffee

14 52 1217% 28% 65%

Table4.2SoduWelmalwealthranking2016

Wealthcategory

Criteria

Rich

Medium

Poor

Coffee(quintalperyear) 20 10 2Crop(quintalperyear) 20 10 2Livestock* Cattle 30 15 5Sheep 20 5 0Goat 20 10 1Horse 3 0 0Mule 1 0 0Donkey 1 1 0Traditionalhives 80 30 10Transitionalhives 20 2 0Corrugatedtinsheet 100% 60% 0%ofchildrenattendingschool 40% 20% 10%Savings 0 0 0Total 10% 40% 50%

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In2007 thewealth rankingshowed that65%of thepopulationwereclassifiedaspoorand in2016 50% of the population was classified as poor25. This suggests that there has been areductionofpovertyinthePA.Howeveroncloserinspectionoftherankingthecriteriausedandthe figures given suggest that the overall degree of poverty in the communitymay not havedecreasedmuch.Forexamplein2007thepoorcategorywascategorisedashaving2-5cattle,10quintalsof coffee,and0.25ha forcropgrowing (thoughquintalwasnotmentioned). In2016this had reduced to 5 cattle, 1 goat, 2 quintals of coffee, and 2 quintals of crops. Furtherwhereasthemediumcategoryin2007held15-20cattle,5-10shoats,0.5haland,and50quintalofcoffeeperyear, in2016thishadreducedto15cattle,15shoats,10quintalcoffee,and10quintalcrops.Furthersomesourcesof‘wealth’oftherichesthadalsoreducedwithadramaticdropincoffeeproductionfrom100quintalsto20quintals.Thissuggeststhatoveralltherehasbeenashiftinincomesources,butoveralllittlereductioninpovertystatus.

Itisalsointerestingtonotethatin2007thenumberofhivesoneownedwasnotincludedintherankingcriteria,thoughsomerespondents indicatedthattheydidproducehoney. In2016thenumbersofhivesownedwere significantwith ‘rich’ holding80 traditional and20 transitionalhives; ‘medium’holding30and2; andpoorholding10and0 respectively. Theownershipofhiveswasmentionedinthe2016TrendAnalysisbelow–wherecommunitiessaidthattenyearsagopeopleownedonaverage40hives,andtodayown10.

In2016thenumberofchildrengoingtoschool inahouseholdwasusedascriteriaforwealthranking.Only10%ofchildrenfromthepoorcategorygotoschool,whichissignificantly lowerthanwasfoundinotherkebelethatparticipatedinthisresearch.

Table4.3TrendAnalysis2016

Before10years CurrentlyQuantityofgrazingland !!!!!

!!!!!

Areaundercropproduction ! !!!!!!!!!

Time taken to access wet seasongrazingarea

1hr 3hrs

Time taken to access dry seasongrazingarea

2hrs 6hrs

Quantityofbrowse !!!!!!!!!!

!!

Rightsforaccessinggrazingland !!!!!!!!

!

Types and number of livestockowned

Cattle 50 10

Sheep 10 5 Goat 50 10 Donkey 1 1 Chicken 5 7 Hive 40 10Conflictwithwildlife High Low

25Thisexercisealsooverlappedwiththe4throundPSNPwherethecommunitywereassessedandcategorizedalready.EventhelocalgovernmentstructureswereinfavourofreplicatingtheversiontheyusedforPSNP.

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Timetakentoaccesswateringpoint 1hr 3hrsHayajigilcha(3hrs) Hayajigilcha(5hrs)

Hayaurdee(4hrs) Hayaurdee(6hrs)Hayagurraacha(2.5hrs) Hayagurraacha(5hrs)

Timetakentoaccessminerallicks

Hayadiimaa(2hrs) Hayadiimaa(4hrs)

Timetakentoaccessmineralspringsduringdryseason

Horawerseessaa(4hrs)Horabushooftuu(1hrs)Horaabiiree(5hrs)Horadhoqqee(7%)

Horawerseessaa(4hrs)Horabushooftuu(2hrs)Horaabiiree(2hrs)Horadhoqqee(7%)

Incomefromlivestocksale !!!!!!!!!

!!!

Incomefromanimalproduct !!!!!!!!!

!

Time taken to collect fodder (forcalvesandsickanimals

1hrs 4hrs

Vaccination 3times/year 1time/year

Spraying 0% Yessometimes

Productionofanimalfeed 0% Introduced with the settlers likefeeding on leaves, sugar caneleaves and sweet potatoes (fewindividual)

Note:ThecommunityofSoduWelmelwerecautiousaboutdiscussingthechangesthathadtakenplaceoverthelastdecadeasmostarerelatedtothegovernmentresettlementprogramandover50%oftheparticipants in the exercises were settlers who did not favour the traditional way of life in the area.Therefore,theoutcomeoftheseexercisesisovershadowedbythefearofthelocalcommunitythatwasexpressed.

In Haile Selassie’s time the average household livestock holdingwas 120 animals, during theDergueitwas70,andtenyearsagoitwas20(thoughthewealthrankingin2007suggeststhatitismorelike30)(Flintanetal2008).IntheTrendAnalysisundertakenin2016theperceptionofthecommunitywasthat10yearsagotheaverageholdingwasover100,whichisclearlynotthecase. Inaddition thecommunity todayhadtheperceptionthat10yearsagotherewere largeareasofgrazing inthePA,however intheresearchstudy in2007communitymembersstatedthat therewas very little grazing area left then. Despite these inconsistencies the trends areclear–livestockholdingshavereducedtogetherwithgrazingland.

Althoughlivestockisthemainstayofthecommunity,communitymemberstendedtofollowthesettlers inrankingcoffeeandcropasdominant livelihoodactivitiesandreducethenumberofthelivestockholdingstoaveryminimum.Thecommunityrelatedincomefromlivestocktotheamountofyield that theyget rather thansalevalue.Usually theygetagoodyield in thewetseasonbutthesalepriceislow.Accordingthetrendanalysis,incomegeneratedfromthesaleoflivestockandlivestockproductshassignificantlyreducedfrom10yearsago.Thisisnotonlydueto reduced numbers of livestock held per household but also because of poorer quality ofgrazingavailable.

Some of the residents have kin and friends outside the kebele like in Malka Arba or MalkaAmanawheretheykeeptheirlivestock.CurrentlythereisaPastoralistCommissionofficeinthekebeleadministrationbutastheeldersinterviewedpointedout,therewillsoonbenoneedforit.

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Theareaundercropproduction increased incoverageover the last tenyearsascomparedtowhatitwasbefore.Communitymembersgrowmaize,beans,teffandwheat.

Althoughasignificantportionoftheharvestisconsumedathome,considerableamountofcropissoldoutinmarkets.Forinstance,theprice(2016)ofaquintalofteff;mungbean;sorghum;maize;andsesamewas1,800;1,700;600;760;and1,500EthiopianBirrrespectively.Thetimetakentoaccessbothdryandwetseasongrazingovertheduecourseoftimehasincreasedalotmakingpastoralistmodeoflifedifficulttosustain.

Both coffee andhoney is grown/obtained from the forest area. Though significant reductionswereseeninthecomparisonofthewealthrankingintheamountofcoffeecollectedandsold,communitymembersin2016didnotindicatewhythiswasso.

TheresettlementofpeoplefromHaraghe intheearly2000s isassociatedwithmore intensivefarmingpractices.TodayitissaidthathalfofthekebelepopulationisfromHaraghe.Theyareresponsible for chat/quat now dominating the land with other crops pushing-out the locallivestockbasedlivelihoods.Thesettlersareveryactiveandarepurchasinglandconstantlyfromthelocalpeople.It issaidthatthenumberofchat/quat-chewershasgrownsignificantlyinthevillage,whichisincreasinglyurbanising.

Climateandclimatechange

Theseasonalcalendarshowssimilartrendsasotherplacesinthattherearemoreresourcesandgreaterlivestockproductionintherainyseasons,ratherthanthedryseason.Labourdemandisprettyconsistentovertheyearwithmencarryingoutmorelivestock-relatedtasks,andwomencarryingourmorenon-livestockrelatedtasks.Diseaseseffectinglivestockalsodifferacrosstheseasons.

Table4.4Seasonalcalendar

SeasonsCharacteristics

Gana (March-May)

Bona(Dec-Feb) Adoolesa(June-Aug)

Hagayya(SeptoNov)

Rainfall !!!!!

!!!!!

Temperature !!! !!!!!!!

!!!!! !!

Wind !! !!! !!!!

!

Frost ! !!!! !! !!!Grazingavailability !!!!!

!!!!!! !!!!! !!!!!

!Wateravailability !!!!!

!!!!

!!!!

!!!!!!

Incomefromlivestock !!!!!!!

!! !! !!!!!!

Livestockyield !!!!!!!

!

!!! !!!!!

M

!! !! !!

!!Labour demand forlivestockrelatedactivities

F

!!!!!!!!

!!!!!!!!

!!!!!!!!

!!!!!!!!

Labour demand for non- !!!!!!!

!!!!!!!

!!!!!!!

!!!!!!!

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M !!!!!!!

!!!!!!!

!!!!!!!

!!!!!!!

livestockrelatedactivities

F

!!! !!! !!! !!!

Incidenceofcattledisease • Tummaa• Jogsaa• Gagabsaa• Fillis• Titisa

• Dhibeebiiraa

• Dhibeeaannankukkutu

• Furtuu• Abbaasangaa• Abbaagorbaa

• Maansaa• Darabbaa• Dhibeesaree

Animalfeed Grass (citaa),Leavesofmaize

Crop residue,andstraws

Grass and cropresidue

Grass and maizeleaves

Browse Arabee, hombaa,mata qomaa,wayyaboosa

Darguu, baalbunaa, baalahiddii, Arabee,hombaa, mataqomaa, wayyaboosa

Arabee, hombaa,mata qomaa,wayyaboosa,

Arabee, hombaa,mata qomaa, wayyaboosa

Purchasedanimalfeed Not applicable as the community do not purchase feed, though some settlers dogrowandpurchasefodder.

Grazingandgrazingresources

In2007communitymemberscommented that there isvery littlegrazing land left in thePA–today, there is even less. In 2007 it was said that it takes between 3-12 hours to reachwetseasongrazing;andduringthedryseasonittookevenlonger–upto15hoursmeaningherdershad to stayoutwith their livestockuntil 9pmatnight. Interestingly the trendanalysis statesthattodayaveragetimetoreachdryseasongrazingis6hoursandwetseason3hours;whichsuggeststhattheareasaccessedpreviouslyarenolongeravailableandthusthegrazingofthesmallernumberof livestockheldaregrazedcloser tohome.Havingsaid that therespondentsnamedanumberofgrazingareasthatwerealsomentionedin2007(seebelow).Todaygoodwetseasongrazing is said to include SoduWelmal,ArdaaXaddachaa,Cogee,andWamachanna. Not-so-good wet season grazing includes Laku and Dagona the areas lacksufficient grass and browse to feed the livestock; there is high rainfall and thick forestpreventingundergrowth;wildanimalslikelionandhyenaarealsofoundthere.26Dry season grazing areas that are considered good include Challicho (meaning ‘silent’),Dimbicho,Dhimpuu,Mandhisa/Callalagaa,andinMelkaErba27.AreasthatarenotsofavourableincludeHodam(invadedbyweedswhichharmlivestock)andCallalagaa(notenoughfeedandalsodunlandhul(leech)arefoundherewhichaffectslivestock).Thesegrazingareasfallwithin

26In2007communitymembersmentionedthefollowingwetseasongrazingareas:MelkaArba(Kalido)tousemineralspringsasHayaUrdae,HayaKaroo,HayaGurrachieandHayaJigelcha;GaraErba;MelkaAmanaPAinDeloMena;BerakPAinDeloMena;Chiri;HoraHadji;Tona;Worebu.27In2007communitymembersmentionedthefollowingdryseasongrazingareas:Dhimphu;Warsesamineralspring;Chalicho(HoraDhoqe)goodqualitycriticaldryseasongrazing;andchaffa(alongriverbankclosetohomeatMelkaArba).AlsoAdeyi,Qoorama,Kakarsa,BahduSodu,Dagonaforestareas,Arabeforestarea,Nyore,andLadaDima.

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the Forest and the BMNP. They have heard that the BMNP authorities are going to preventaccesstotheseareas.In 2007 community members were using some fodder to supplement diets of livestock,particularlyduringthedryseason.Inadditionsometimessugarcaneleaveswerepurchasedandfed, which one respondent said cost him ETB100 per year (Flintan et al 2006). In 2016 thecollection of fodder appears to have increased (see Trend Analysis and Seasonal Calenderabove),mainlyfromtheforestincluding:xoorsoo,xanaa,gagamaa,arabee,mataqoma,galee,gaguroandhomba.

Livestockwatersourcesandminerals

Sodu is surrounded by permanent rivers, which includeWelaml Guda (big) andWelmal Xiqa(small), and Callalaqa28. The community is heavily reliant on the use ofmineral springswhenthey move to the forest during the dry season, while mineral licks are used during the wetseason.Themajorityof thosemineral springsand licks thatwerementioned in2007arealsobeingused today (2016). In2007 someherderswould take their cattle to themineral springsthreetimesadayduringthedryseason.

Themajormineralspringsinclude:• HoraDhoqee(alsomentionedin2007)nearChalichoinHawoPA;• Bushoftu• Warseessa(alsomentionedin2007)• Hambiree

Figure4.1CommunityresourcesandlivestockroutesinSoduWelmalkebele

28In2007theriversmentionedwereShaweeandOgodaduringwetseason;andtheWorebaandBishanAddiiduringthedryseason.

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Figure4.2Majorlivestockroutesfrom/toSoduWelmal

MajorminerallicksincludefoundinMelkaArbaPA(allalsomentionedin2007):• HayaUrde(foundatMelkaArba)• HayaGurrachie• HayaJigelcha29

In 2007 the community alsomentioned a specialmineral spring atMekanaGobdela, but thiswasnotmentionedin2016.

Timetakentosomeofthelocationsonthemap(s):SoduWelmaltoAngetu=1hr;SoduWelmalto Hora Dhoqqee= 4 hrs; Sodu Welmal to Hora Hambiree = 4 hrs; Sodu Welmal to Ardadhadacha=3hrs,SoduWelmaltoJigelcha=3:30hrs;SoduWelmaltoMalkaArba=4hrs;SoduWelmal to HoraWarsesa = 2:30hrs; SoduWelmal to Malka Fara = 1 hr; SoduWelmal toH/Bushoftu=2hrs;SoduWelmaltoHayaUrdee=5hrs,SoduWelmaltoHodam=1hr,SoduWelmaltoDina’a=3hrs;SoduWelmaltoLakkuu=30min;SoduWelmaltoDagona=15mins.

Livestockproduction,healthandmarkets

Despite thechallenges to livestockproduction inSoduWelmal,animalsappear tobewell fedand comparatively healthy. Asmentioned above, increasingly livestock herders are having torely on supplementary feeding, but with the crop production in the area there are crop by-productsreadilyavailable(thoughthesemayneedtobepurchased).

29Inadditionin2007HayaKarro,andHayaShilliwerementioned.

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SomeofthemajorlivestockdiseasefoundatSoduWelmalin2016includes:

• Furtu(Anthrax)• AbaGorba(Blackleg)• Botote(Lumpyskindisease)• Maasaa(Foodandmouthdisease)• Goondee

InthePA,bothcropandlivestockextensionservicesareavailable.Theservicesprovidedincludefertilizers,vaccinationoflivestock,andtrainingsincropandlivestockmanagement.

Marketswerenotmentioned,butin2007theseincludedAngetu,MelkaArba,MakaneGobelle,HawoandBuluk.

4.3MELKAARBA

MelkaArba isabout30kmsfromSoduWelmalandAngetu(theworedacentre),andsharesasimilar history. The community at Melka Arba is mainly livestock keepers and unlike SoduWelmal,theexpansionofcropcultivationislessadvancedthoughhighlyencroaching.ThePAisfoundclosetoHarennaForest.

Socio-economicsandlivelihoods

Table4.5MelkaArbawealthranking2007

Totalno.ofhouseholds:286

Rich‘duressa’ Medium‘judgalessa’ Poor‘miskinoorhiyessa’Cattle30+ Cattle10-20 Cattle1-2Camel10+ Camel3-5 -Shoat40+ Shoat10-20 Shoat1-4Mule2+ Mule1 -

29 70 18710% 24% 66%

Table4.6MelkaArbawealthranking201630

WealthcategoryCriteria

Duressa(Rich)

JiduGalessa(Medium)

Hiyessa(Poor)

Livestock* • Cattle 40 20 5• Sheep 10 3 -• Goat 50 30 5• Donkey 5 2 1

Crop • Sesame(quintal) 20 10 4

30InitiallythecommunitywasuncomfortableaboutcarryingouttherankingexerciseastheyweresuspiciousthattheywerebeingaskedtodothisfortaxationpurposesortocategorisethemforthePSNPprograme.Therefore,theteamlefttheexerciseuntillaterinthedaywhenpeoplewerefeelingmorecomfortable.

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• Othercrop(quintal) 30 15 6Corrugatedtinroof(%age) 100% 80% 50%Number of children attendingschool

60% 80% 50%

Percentageineachcategory 20% 50% 30%* The community did not include camels within the ranking even though it is known that camels arepresent.Wealthypastoralistscanownoverfivecamels.

Acomparisonofthetwowealthrankings2007and2016suggestthatallwealthcategorieshavereducedpovertyandimprovedtheirlivelihoods,whichtodayincludecropproductionaswellaslivestock. Not only have the wealth-defining criteria of the different categories increased forexample in2007 the ‘poor’weredefinedashaving1-2cattleand1-4 shoat,whereas in2016theyweredefinedashaving5cattle,6shoats,1donkey,4quintalsofsesameand6quintalsofother crops; but also the number of poor decreased from 66% in 2007 to 30% in 2016 (thelowest%ageinanyPAsinthisstudy)withanincreaseof‘medium’from24%in2007to50%in2016,and ‘rich’ from10%in2007to20%in2016. Thissuggestsasignificant improvement inthewealth status of the community as a whole (unlike themajority of the other PAs in thisstudy).

Ingeneralcropgrowing isonlyforhouseholdconsumption.Howeverafewyearsbackgrazinglandswereallocatedtolocal investors(evensomeofthericherlocalfarmers)togrowsesame(locallycalledsaleeti).Atthattimethemarketforsesamewasverygoodandanofficewassetuptomanagethesale.Howeverthepricehassincedropped,theofficeisclosedandproductionhasstopped.Yettheinvestors/farmersstillholdontothelandeventhoughtheyarenotusingit.

A goodproportionof the childrenattend school ineachwealth category. Though respondentsaidthat‘rich’peoplewithlargernumbersoflivestockhaveahighlabourdemandincludingfortakinglivestocktograzing,andthereforearereluctanttosendtheirchildrentoschoolastheycancontributetheirlabour–hencetheunexpectedlylower%ageofchildrenattendingschoolinthe‘rich’category.

Table4.7:TrendAnalysis

Before10years CurrentlyQuantityofgrazingland !!!!!

!!!!!!!!!!

Areaundercropproduction !!!!! !!!!!!!!

Time taken to access wet seasongrazingarea

2hrs 4hrs

Time taken to access dry seasongrazingarea

1day <3days

Quantityofbrowse !!!!!!!!

!!!!!

Rightsforaccessinggrazingland !!!!!!!!!

!!!!!

Types and number of livestockowned

Cattle 70 20-30

Camel 10 1 Goat 120 10

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Conflictwithwildlife High LowTimetakentoaccesswateringpoint 1hr 4hrsTimetakentoaccessminerallicks 2hours 4hours

Timetakentoaccessmineralspringsduringdryseason

1days Over3days

Incomefromlivestocksale !! !!!!!!!

Livestockyield !!!!!!!!

!!!!!!

Vaccination !! !!!!!!

Climateandclimatechange

Table4.8Seasonalcalendar

SeasonsCharacteristics

Gana (March-May)

Bona(Dec-Feb) Adoolesa(June-Aug)

Hagayya (Sep toNov)

Rainfall !!!! !!Temperature !!!!!

!!!!!!!!!

!!!!!!!!!

!!!!!!!

Wind !!! !!!!! !!!

!

Grazingavailability !!!!!!

!!!

!!!!

!!!!

Wateravailability !!!!!!!!

!!

!!!!

!!!!!

Incomefromlivestock !! !!!!!!

!!!!!!

!!!!

Livestockyield !!!!!!!!

!!

!!! !!!!

M

!! !! !!!

!!!!Labour demand forlivestock relatedactivities* F

!!!!!!!!

!!!!!!!!

!!!!!!!!

!!!!!!!!

M

!!!!!!!!

!!!!!!!!

!!!!!!!!

!!!!!!!!

Labour demand for non-livestockrelatedactivities

F

!! !! !! !!

Incidenceofcattledisease • Abbaasangaa

• Darabbaa• Sombeere’ee

• Cittoo• Tummaa• Biiraa• Jogsa• Sombeere’ee

• Abbaagorbaa

• Maansaa• Galboo• Sombeere’ee

• Sombare’ee• Martoore’ee• Furtuu• Abbaagorbaa

Types of livestockfeed/fodder

• Maayodii• Gacaa• Luucoo• Osolee• Asaree• Biiqqaa• Lugoo

• Grass (Daafa,sokora)

• Hombaa• Dikee• Wayyabeessa• Arabee• Aaraa

• Baalabiiqqaa• Baala

harooressaa• Baala

bir’eesa• Cropresidues

• Grass(citaa)• Teffstraw• Maayodii• Gacaa• Luucoo• Osolee• Asaree

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• Bir’eesa• Baala

harooressaa• Dhigiri

• Onomaa • Biiqqaa• Lugoo• Bir’eessa• Baala

harooressaa• Dhigrii

*Menscoredlabourofwomenhighforlivestockactivities,asthemenareincreasinglyshiftingtofocusoncultivationof cashcrops i.e.non-livestockactivities. It is increasingly roleofwomenandchildren tolookafterlivestock.

The community divided the year as did the community in Sodu Welmal (see above). Thecommunitystressedthatrainfallisreducingyeartoyear.

Livestockgrazingandwater

Melka Arba is a vast PA with lowlands where livelihoods were dominated by pastoralism.Howeverthishasbeen increasinglycompromisedbycropfarming,atrendcommencing intheDergue time.Today,manygrazingareashavebeenencroachedby farming,given to investors(see above) and movement is challenged. In response community members move toneighbouringBerakPAformuchofthewetseason,andtotheforestsduringthedryseason.

Duringthewetseason–Ganna–thelivestockistakentoneighbouringBerakPA,wheresurfacewaterandreasonablegrazingattractlargenumbersoflivestock.Duringthedryseason–Bona–livestockgrazes inForest sitesasbelow includingmany inHawaPA.Following thedryseasonlivestockismovedbacktothekebeleMelkaArbaandgrazesindifferentgrazingareasthere.

Table4.9:WetseasongrazingareasandotherresourcesusedbyMelkaArbaPA31

WetseasongrazingareasfoundinBerakPA Characteristics

Libee

Kilkillee

HaraSoomooHarree

HaraGeeransaa

Xiilota

Kalido

Burgitu

Vastgrassland,whichisencroachedbythornybushes and shrubs, and woodlands. Best forwet season grazing when surface water isavailableforthelivestock.

Many of the grazing areas used in Berak PA have been encroached with shrubs and thornybushes. These are difficult for cattle to eat and digest, and so some livestock keepers havechanged their livestock types to goats and camels who are better able to eat/browse theseplants.Thethornybushescanscratchpeopleandlivestockastheypass.

31Wetseasongrazingareasmentionedin2007includeBerakPA(best);Chamaifor3monthsApril-June;ErbaMountain;Odda;KalidoMountain;TuluWambelleonwaytoMedaWelabu;GayyobetweenApril-June;andKarro.

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In 2007 community members expressed concerns that the grazing in Berak was becomingheavilyencroached,andsomepastoralistshadtomovefurthertoDeloMena.Inadditionitwassaidthatany ‘open’grazing inBerakwasbeinggivento investors. In2007respondentssaid ittookfourdaystoreachBeraki.e.aboutthesametimeittakestoday.

LivestockaregrazedintheHarennaForestduringthedryseason,wherelargeopengrasslandscanbefoundinsomeareas.FavouredgrazingsitesareCalichoandHawoo.

Table4.10DryseasongrazingareasandotherresourcesusedbyMelkaArba

Dryseasongrazingareas32 Characteristics

Hawoo

Calichoo

Ogodo

Qanqana

Hachoo

Riripha

Insura

Qaamukkoo

Masagatte

Hadaye

Garawicho

Xaaqoo

Furme

Gubalessa

Gambicho

Mainly forest areas, but often wide opengrasslands in the forest. Calicho and Hawooareconsideredbestgrazingsites.

QumbiHoroo Has been enclosed for watersheddevelopment

32In2007thefollowingdryseasongrazingareaswerementioned:GaraWicho(bestgrazingarea)howeveragricultureencroachingandthegovernmentmayrestrictaccessasitisontheborderofGobaandNenseboworedasandthelocaladministrationdoesnotwantpeoplemovingaroundthere;GaraFume(forestareaborderingGoba);Alemgena(Qumko)andAdeyi(nextbestgrazingareas)(HawoPA)butthePAresidents(manysettlers)areplantingcoffeethere,andnowconflictwithgrazers–fearthatproblemswillspreadtootherdryseasongrazingareastoo;Masagate(HoraGate)HawoPA;HoraDobo;Godubota;HoraAgam;WanaSidrsatoMedaWelabuDistrict;Dadme;Badessa;Garicho;Borale(borderingGoba);Qumbi(borderingGoba).

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Thetimetoreachgrazingsiteshasdoubledinsomecasesoverthelasttenyears.Thisisduetotheextensivecropcultivation thathas takenover largepartsof thekebele.Mostof this cropfarmingisundertakenbysettlerswhoweremovedtothearea12-14yearsagofromHaraghe.Crop cultivatorsharm livestock suchas cutting them,when livestockeat cropson theway tograzingsites.Previouslycommunitymemberswereabletorestandlivestockgrazeonthewaytotheforest,butnowtheyhavetotravelwithoutstoppingwhichputsastrainonbothlivestockand people. Most of these grazing areas are far from home and thus grazers must set uptemporarycampingsitesfromwhichtomovelocally.

Grazingareaswhereaccesshasbeenrecentlylostinclude:1. Konattu,whichhasbeenenclosedasalivestockranch.2. Kalidoo,Wanbera,whichhasbeenenclosedasacommunitykalo.3. QumbiHoroo,whichhasbeenenclosedforwatersheddevelopment.

In2007thecommunityexpressedstrongconcernsthattheirgrazingareaswerebeinglost,andparticularly due to change of land use to crops and coffee by the settlers still arriving fromHaraghe and Shoa (through the government’s resettlement programme). Conflicts wereoccurring between the settlers and pastoralists including pastoralists being chased out fromHawoPA. These conflicts appear to have continued if not increased today.Oneman in 2007sadlyexpressed:

Itusedtotakemefourdaystoarriveatthedryseasongrazingsiterestingonmywayatcertaindestinationsaspreviously.However,nowthisyearIspenteightandahalfdaysjustgettingtheresinceall theroutesarecultivatedand it isdifficult topassthrough. Ifear that in the future that all the outletswill be closed andwemight be chocked todeath.

Despite these concerns itwould seem from the 2016 research that the community is able toaccessmostofthesitesthatwereusedin2007,evenifsomeofthesehavebeenencroached.In2007 it was said that it took 4-8 days to reach the dry season grazing areas. In 2016 it wassuggestedthattenyearsagoi.e.circa2007ittook4hourstogettothedryseasongrazingareassuggestingthattheperceptionofthepastwasmore‘rosy’thanitwasinreality–andtoday,ittakesmorethan3days.Assuchitwouldseemthatthetimetakentoreachdryseasongrazingareasisroughlythesame.

Water

Inthewetseasongrazingareaswaterissourcedfromsurfaceponds.SpecificwatersourcesinMelkaArbakebeleinclude33:

33In2007communitymemberssaidtheymainlyrelyontheDidimoo,WelmarandMandhisarivers.Alsotheysaidwhenthevisitthelowlandsduringthewetseasontheymayfaceashortageofwaterunlesstheyreach themain river. And at Berak local peoplemay prevent them from usingwater wells if water isscarce–itusedtobegivenforfreetoeveryone,butnowthelocalsarerestrictingaccess.ItwasalsosaidthatErbaMountaingrazingareahasnowater,andittakesonefulldaytoaccesstheBidimoriverfromthere.(Flintanetal2008).

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• LagaBidimo• MandhisaRiver• HarooQuucuu• Burqitu• LagaDhigri(onlyduringrainyseason)• BurqaMioQerensa

Figure4.3MapofLivestockResourcesinMalkaArba,HarenaBuluk

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Figure4.4LivestockroutesfromMelkaArbatoBerak

Minerals

MinerallicksfoundintheHarennaBulukwetseasongrazingareas:- HayaUrde(alsomentionedin2007seebelow)- HayaBurqitu(alsomentionedin2007)- HayaKaroo(alsomentionedin2007)- HayaSangooti

HayaMalkaAmana- HayaGurachaa- HayaDiima

HayaUrdeisverywellknownandpeoplecomefromfarawaytouseit.In2007itwassaidthatpreviouslylivestockherderssettledthereduringtherainyseasonforamonth,butthesedaysitisimpossibletodothatduetoagriculturalexpansion.Itisalsonotpossibleforlivestocktofeedat the siteandmineralsmustbe loadedupontodonkeysandmulesor carriedbyhumans tosomewherewheretheanimalscanfeed.Itwassaidthatitusedtotake1-2hourstogettherefrom themain settlement sitesbutnow it takes5-6hours as agriculturehas cutoff livestockroutes.34

34Onvisitingthesitein2007itwasclearthatthesiteisshrinkingunderpressurefromagriculturalexpansion.Evenitisfearedthatpotentialhayagroundmaybecultivatedinthenearfuture.

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Mineralspringsfoundintheforestsusedinthedrierseasons,include:• HoraDhoqee(mentionedin2007)• HoraBushoftu• HoraXaaqoo(mentionedin2007)• HoraGaale(mentionedin2007)• HoraFarmo(Gormomentionedin2007)• HoraAgaamSooduu(mentionedin2007)• HoraXaxaaxessa

Fodderandfeed

The feedingof fodderand feed isnotpractisedhereasmuchas it is inotherkebele. In2007fodderwascollected(‘oda’leaves)andfedtocalves,weakandlactatinganimals.

Livestockproduction,healthandmarketing

It was said that the average number of livestock per household is 30 including 2-4 draughtanimals that are used for about 30 days per year. This is the same average holding as wassuggestedin2007.Cattlearesoldataround4yearsold,sheepat6months,goatsat5monthsandcamelsataround3years.Cowsgivearound2 litresperday,goats0.5 litresandcamels4litres.Communitymemberssaidthatmostlivestockkeepershavelocalbreeds–andtherearefew if any instances of cross-breeds. Though the community members mentioned camels indiscussion,theywerenotmentioned inthewealthranking(seeabove)–herethecommunityalso indicatedthattheaveragenumberofcamelsheldbyahouseholdhasdecreasedfrom10(tenyearsago)to1,whichsuggeststhatcamelnumbershaveindeeddeclined.

Some diseases are associatedwith specific grazing areas – Berak is known to have a diseasetransmittedthroughdeadtortoisebonesthatthelivestockeatandforwhichthereisnocure;andinGabmichooaplantcalledgondeisfoundwhichkillsananimalthateatsit.

Someof thedisease thatare found in thearea include:Gagabsa, Furtu (Anthrax),AbaGorba(black leg), Borte (lumpy skin disease), Maasa (foot and mouth disease), Goondee, Citto(Ectoparasite),Trypanosomiasis,Kormamu(Tumor).

Though the community complained that therewas a lack of veterinary services in thekebele(seebelow),thetrendanalysissuggeststhattherehasbeenasignificantincreaseinthepracticeofvaccinatinganimals.

In2007itwassaidthathyenawereabigproblemregularlykillinglivestock,thoughitwasnotmentionedin2016.

4.4Synthesisandfuturescenarios

Oneofthekeyproblems35identifiedbythecommunityinSoduWelmalandMelkaArbaisthatofanimalhealth.Thecommunitysaidthatthisisduetoalackofattentionbygovernmentand35TheSoduCommunityraisedtwokeyproblems,discussedonthemandsuggestedsolution.Duringthisdiscussion,someofthekebelegovernmentwerepresentpreventingand/orcreatinganatmosphereofmistrustandfearwhichkeptthecommunityfromfeelyspeaking.

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development actors, shrinking of grazing land from cultivation, population increase andsettlement, which leads to further decrease in the land available for livestock. There is nolivestockextensionsysteminthearea.Andasaresultthecommunitystrugglestomanagethehealthoftheir livestock.Drugsthattheypurchaseareoutofdate, ineffectiveanddonotcurediseases.

Arootcauseofthesituationwasidentifiedasweakpolicyonlivestock,andifpolicyexiststhenweak implementation.Theparticipants identifiedthatappropriateanimalhealthmanagementis one of the areas that the responsible bodies need to pay attention to. In addition, theycommented that the health issues is one issue but unless the grazing, the watering and themineral access is improved and given attention, health management alone cannot solve thesituation in the longer term. Though settlers suggested that improved breed and feedmanagementwasasolution,thiswasnotwelcomedbythelocalpastoralistorherders.

Asecondkeyproblemisthatthereisconflictbetweencropproducersandlivestockkeepers.ThisissuedividedthediscussiongroupinSoduWelmalandcreatedbadfeelingsasthosepresentwerepartofsuchconflicts.However,thosewhoraisedthisproblemidentifiedthecausestobeweaknessofthepolicyonlandusewhichblindlyfavourscropproductionandsettlement,populationincreasefromwithinandsettlement,shrinkingofgrazingland,cultivationoflandblockinglivestockmovementroutestograzingareas,wateringpointsandminerals.Againtheydidnotshyawayfromputtingalltheblameonthegovernmentpolicyforlackofclearguidanceandextensiononlivestockmanagementandevenonpastoralism.Thecommunity’ssolutionwastorespectandprotectlivestockroutes,allocatecroplandawayfromthegrazingareas,improvethequalityofthegrazinglandandimprovelivestockproduction.Localgovernmenthasdonelittletoaddresstheproblemandmayhavecontributedtoit.Inastudyonmigration,Wakjiraetal.showedthatlocaladministratorsinHarenaBulukDistrictpurposefullyencouragedinwardmigrationandsettlementsintheforestsandothernaturalvegetationareastoincreasethepopulationofthedistrict.A similarproblemwasgiven inMeklaArbawhohighlighted the shrinkageof thegrazingarealeading to feed shortage for livestock. The community said that this was caused by theexpansion of crop cultivation due to shortage of livestock; and weak attention given to thelivestock sector by government including livestock extension services (whereas extensionservicesforcropfarminghave increased).Theyalsosaidthatgovernmentpolicyfavoursmoreintensive livestock production and reduced livestock numbers including the introduction of‘improved’breeds.Thisisalreadybeingtakenupbythefarmer/settlersfromHaraghe.Thelocalgovernmentofficeconfirmedthis.Thisisdespitethefactthatlocalcommunitymemberswanttostrengthentheirtraditionallivestockproductionsystems,whichtheybelievebettermakeuseoftheclimateandresourcesavailable.

SolutionsprovidedforthislatterproblembythecommunityinMelkaArbainclude:

- Properlyplanning,managingandlegalisingthekalosystem.- Government should take back the land given to the investors/farmers for sesame

production and that is no longer being used, and return this to the community forgrazing.

- To integrate crop production with pastoralism in a more appropriate and friendlymanner. The community underlined that they do not want to stop crop production

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altogether,butrather,theywantboth.Assuch,theywanttoseemoreattentiongivento the livestock which is the backbone of their livelihoods. This would be throughextensionservicesand investments.Thecommunitystrengthenedtheir interest inthisregardby saying:”manaayyaallehinfeedhaheerumallehinfedha jettehintalli”.Literaltranslationbeing…”Iwantmymom’shouseandIalsowanttogetmarried”.

Figure4.5MapofgrazingareasinHarenaBulukworedaasdescribedbyrespondents

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5.0DELOMENA

As described above Delo Mena was originally part of Menu Angetu woreda together withHarenaBuluk,untilthetwoweresplit.Aspartofthissplitthe180,000hectaresofforestfoundin Menu Angetu were divided with 90,000 given to each woreda. As in Harena Buluk thisforestedareaisahighlyimportantdryseasongrazingareaprovidingrespiteforlivestockfromthedrylowlandareasinthedryseason.In2016theworedapopulationwassaidtobe116,107with18,645householdswith anaverage6.2perhousehold. Theworeda land size is 483,400,populationdistribution is29people/kmsq,with significantnumbersof kebele landborderingthePark(around61%).Theworedais15%highland,64%mid-altitudeand21%lowland.18%ofpopulationispastoral;45%agropastoral;28%cropfarmers;and9%other.Cultivatedlandis6%,cultivablelandis1%,grazinglandis19%,forestis24%,bushlandis36%andsettlementis2%.36

LivestocknumbersinDeloMenahavegrownsignificantlysince2007andbeforethatfrom2000.Asdescribedaboveinsection3,asthedatafrom2000relatestoMenaAngetu,the2007figuresfor Delo Mena and Harena Buluk have been aggregated to offer a comparison. In 2000 thelivestock population was reported to be: cattle 145,850; shoats 33,939; equines 5,906; andcamels11,953,whichequates to121,281TLUor197,648 (seeAppendix1).By2007 thishadrisen to: cattle 161,993; shoats 49,770; equines14,275; and camels 23,690,which is equal to151,341TLUor249,728heads.Thisrepresenteda25percentincreaseintheoverall livestockholdingoftheareabetween2000and2007.

Tocomparethesefigureswith2015,againthefiguresforHarenaBulukandDeloMenacanbeaggregated.ThismeansthatinwhatwasMenaAngetuworeda(i.e.nowsplitintoHarenaBulukand DeloMena) total livestock figures in 2015were 723,269 heads of livestockmade up of:479,601cattle,160,731shoats,37,515equines,45,422camels.This isanearly3-fold increasefrom2007,anda3.65-foldincreasefrom2000withincreasesacrossalllivestocktypesincludingcattle.

InDeloMenaalone,totalnumbersoflivestockheadsin2007was154,409:thiswasmadeupof102,324cattle,26,097shoats,6412equinesand19,576camels. In2015 thishad increased tototalnumberof490,892heads,madeupof322,626cattle,105,814shoats,17,780equinesand44,672camels.This isamorethan3-fold increase(i.e. ineightyears)with increasesacrossalllivestock types, including a more than 4-fold increase in shoats (mainly goats). This is verysurprisingconsideringthe increasedpressuresongrazing,andtheconversionofmuch landtocropfarming.

5.1.ErbaPA

Erba kebele is found close to the forest. The people in the PA depend largely onwild coffeeharvestandduetolittleavailablegrazingresources,livestockaretakenelsewheretograzeandbrowse.Trendsalreadyestablishedin2007oflandincreasinglybeingcultivatedduringthewetseason,hascontinuedmeaningarelianceongrazingelsewhereduringthistime(particularlyinBerakandHayaOdoPAs),howevergrazinghereisbeingincreasinglyrestricted.

36FigurescollectedbyNevilleSlade,FZSfromtheworedaadministationoffice.

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Socio-economicsandlivelihoods

Table5.1ErbaPAwealthrankingin2007Totalno.ofhouseholds:547

Rich–duressa Medium-jidugalessa Poor-hiyessaa Destitute-dhaba100+quintalscoffeeper

year30-50quintalscoffee

peryear1-3quintalscoffeeper

year1quintalcoffeeperyear

30+cattle 15-20cattle - -2+mules 1mule - -2+donkeys 1donkey - -50-100goats 10-20goats 1-4goats 2goats10-20chickens 10-15chickens 5-10chickens 1-5chickens10-20beehives 5-10beehives 1-5beehives -

55+quintalscrops 10-25quintalscrops 6quintalscrops 2quintalscrops11 67 211 -4% 23% 73% 0

Table5.2Erbawealthranking2016bywomen’sgroup37

Criteria Duressa(rich) Jidu Galessa(medium)

Harka Qaleessa(poor)

Hiyyeessa(verypoor)

Cattle 20-50 5-20 1-2 -Coffee(quintals) 50-10038 25+ 1-3 -Crop(quintals) 150+ 40+ 1-5 -Donkey 1-2 1 - -Mule 1 - - -Goat 5-20 2-5 1 Typeofhouse Corrugated

aluminumroofHut Hut Hut

%ofchildrenattendingschool

100% 100% 100% 100%

Honeyproduction(kg)

50+ 20+ - -

10% 45% 35% 10%Source:MaleandfemaleFGDs

Thewealthrankingcarriedoutin2017suggeststhatthelocalcommunityhasawell-diversifiedresource base, with livestock still featuring prominently. Comparing this wealth ranking withthat facilitated in 2007 shows a slight reduction in the number of livestock owned, andsurprisinglyitwouldappeartothebenumberofgoatsthathavereducedmost.Thiscontradictsthe information provided at woreda level, which shows a 3-fold increase in livestock in DeloMenaasawhole.Theamountofcoffeecollectedappearstohavereducedsomewhat,thoughthe women in their exercise suggested that some ‘rich’ households could collect over 300quintals per year; and in addition honey production appears to have declined. On the other

37Thewealthrankinghereisacombinationofthewealthrankingscarriedoutbytheseparatewomen’sgroupandmen’sgroup.38Womensaidthiscouldgoupto300quintals.Alsowomenmentioned‘fruit’butitisnotsurewhatwasmeantbythisandweguessthatitmeans‘crop’.

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hand therehasbeena significant increase in cropproduction,with the ‘rich’ category said toproduce150+quintalsofgrainperyear,andthe ‘medium’categoryproducing10-25quintals,comparedto55+and10-25quintalsrespectivelyin2007.

OverallitwouldseemthatthecommunityinErbaPAhasoverallbecomealittlewealthier,andonthebasisthatthewealthrankingsareindeedcorrect,the‘rich’categoryhasincreasedfrom4%to10%,the‘medium’categoryfrom23%to45%,andthe‘poor’reducedfrom73%to35%.Thoughitwouldappearthatthe ‘destitute’grouphasgrownfrom0to10%,this is infactnottrue as in 2007 itwasmentioned that the number of destitutewas not shown in thewealthrankingasthelistofcommunitymembersfromthePAofficedidnotincludethemastheydidnot pay tax. The community members did say at the time that there were destitute in thevillage, but did not show them on thewealth ranking. – therefore therewere at least somedestituteeventhoughthe2007rankingshows0.

An interesting phenomenon shared among all wealth groups in 2007 is access to educationwhereregardlessofeconomicbackgroundofhouseholds,childrenofschoolageattendschool(DMER_FGD_01).

Table5.3TrendAnalysis2016

Characteristics Tenyearsago PresentGrazingland !!!!

!!!!!!!!

Cropland !!!! !!!!!!!!

Timetakentoaccessgrazing(wetseason) Oneday TwodaysTimetakentoaccessgrazing(dryseason) Lessthan30minutes Over2hoursWateravailability(dryseason) 30minutes 30minutesWateravailability(wetseason) Availableatthegrazing

landAvailableatthegrazingland

Timetakentoaccessminerallicks(wetseason) Availableatthegrazingarea

Availableatthegrazingarea

Incomefromlivestockproduct* !!!!!!!!

!!!!!

Timetaketoaccessmineralsprings Available at the dryseasongrazingareas

Available at the dryseasongrazingareas

Grassavailability !!!!!!

!!!!

Browseavailability !!!!!!!!!

!!!!!!

Righttoaccessgrazingland !!!!!!!!!!

!!!!

Typesofanimalowned Same SameQuantityoflivestockowned !!!!

!!!!!!

Incomefromlivestock* !!!!!!!!

!!!!!

Timetakentoaccessfodder Lessthan30minutes Over4hoursNotes: *The community discussed at some length the issue of ‘income’ – at first they said that theirincomenowismuchmorethanitwastenyearsago,butthentheyaddedthatbecausethepriceofgoodpurchasedhad increasedsomuchthis incomedid in factpurchase less.Thecommunitythenagreedtoshowthesignificantreductioninincomebecauseofthisi.e.reflectingreducedspendingpower.

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The trend analysis also illustrates the gradual move from a livestock and forest productlivelihood-based system (coffee, honey) to a more diversified one including crops. Thisdiversification seems to be working well for the community. However community memberscomplain that though growing crops is of benefit, it is increasing at a rate that is difficult tocontrolandtheywouldliketoseemeasurestakentoensurethatcropfarmingdoesnotfurthercompromisethelivestockproductionsystem.

Table5.4Seasonalcalendar

SeasonsCharacteristics

Gana (March-May)

Bona(Dec-Feb) Adoolesa(June-Aug)

Hagayya(SeptoNov)

Rainfall !!!!!!

! !!!

Temperature ! !!!!!!!!

!!!! !!

Wind !!! !!!!!!!

!!!!!

!!!

Grazingavailability !!!!!!!

!!!!!!!!!!

!!!!!!

!!!!!!!

Wateravailability !!!! !!!!!!!!!

!!!!!!!!!

!!!!

Incomefromlivestocksale !!!! !!!!!!

!!!!!!!!

Income from livestockproduct

!!!!!

!!!!!!!!!!

!!!!!

!!!!!!!

Quantity of livestockproducts

!!!!!!!!

!!!!!!

!!!!!!!

M

!!!!!!!!

!!!! !!!

!!!!!!!!

Labour demand forlivestockrelatedactivities

F

!!!!!!

!!!!!

!!!!

!!!!!!

M

!!!!!!!!!!

!!!!!!!!

!!!!!!!!!

!!!!!!!!!!

Labour demand for non-livestockrelatedactivities

F

!!!!!!!!

!!!!!!

!!!!!!!

!!!!!!!!

Incidenceofdisease !!!! !!! !!!!!!!!

!!!!!!

Source:Maleandfemalefocusgroupdiscussions(DMER_FGM_01andDMER_FGF_01)

Intermsoflabourmendominatelivestockproduction.Womenalsocontributethroughsuchascalfmanagement,animalhealthmanagement,preparationoffoodforherders–howevermenwouldnotgivetheseactivitiesthesamedegreeofimportanceasthoseactivitiescarriedoutbythemselves. During Bona it is considered easy work to take the animals to the forest area,guarding the animals against wild animals and theft. The men considered Ganna (the wetseason)tobethemostlabourintensivewhentheysaidthatthereisnorestduetocultivationactivities.WomenalsoworkhardduringGanna,responsibleforweedingandfeedingthemaleworkparties,andoftenworkintothenight–however,again,malerespondentsgavelittlevaluetothiscontribution.

Grazingresources

To date, Erba kebele has always had excellent dry season grazing in forest/wooded areas –livestock are moved there to escape the sun/heat particularly in the lowland areas for 3-6

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months.HoweverduringthewetseasonnearlyalllivestockaremovedoutofthePAtoBerakandNanegaDeehranotonlytoavoidthecropsthenbeinggrowninErba,butalsotogivethegrazinginErbaarest.

Daroo isoneof thebestdry season sites inErbaand is surroundedby forest. Special grasseslocally called maaxa/gaguro and gamagne are found there. Most other grazing areas areforested with grasses called daafa(cita), gale, homba, hamoca, wayaboosa, xoorso and dikigrowingundertress/bushes.Therearealsoothergrazingareasofpoorerqualitymainlyfoundinwoodedareas,and/orwhereaccessisrestrictedduetosteepterrainofthearea.

In 2007, community members mentioned a long list of grazing areas, the majority inforest/woodedareas (seebelow). It isunderstoodthatthemajorityof thesearestillavailablebut their access may be more restricted due to land use pressures and reduced quality(excessive use). Grazing and browse tends to be better the deeper into the forest one goes.Herders tend to make a cluster of temporay huts as a base – this is encouraged by the PAadministrationinordertolimitdamagetotheforest(fire,cutting,illegalhunting).Herdersareexpected tobe responsible for theareawhere they settlewith the livestock.Herders tend tomoveinagroup(neighboursand/orrelatives),andareoftenmadeupofyouth(aged8-14).

In 2007 particularly popular sites were Arda jaldessa/Aalge; Qarssa Kurkuru; Daroo;Awajiro/Jirru;Qanqicho;Borte;MelkaQarsa;Abuubb/Habubi;andAdami (thoughthis lastonewas consideredpoor quality through close to home). In 2007 itwas said that several browsespecieshaddisapperedincludingremoo,jojottaandluchee.Somerespodentsmentionedusingkalo(orgrazingreserves).Onesitewasmentionedashavingaparasitecalledulaanul/ulaandula–thatisasitecalledQundhi,andin2016othersiteswerementionedashavingthisparasite(i.e.thatin2007werenotmentionedashavingit),includingWandesaandHoitu.Thissuggeststhatthisisagrowingproblemandappearstobeoccurringinthosesiteswherethereismorefarmingtakingplace.

Thoughitisimportantforcattletomovetothecoolerenvironmentoftheforestduringthedryseason,thegoatswouldhappilybrowsearoundthesettlement.Howeverbecausethetwoarenormallygrazedtogether,thegoatsaretakenwiththecattletotheforest.Thisisusuallydonebythemen(perhapswithonewife)whilehis(other)wifeisleftatthehomesteadlookingafteryoung,weakandlactatingcows.

Table5.5providesasummaryofdryseasongrazingareasusedbytheErbacommunityFGDsin2016,andmappedinFigures5.139

39In2007respondentsmentionedalonglistofdryseasongrazingareas–itisunderstoodthatin2016themajorityofthesearestillavailable,butwithincreasinglygreaterrestrictionsincludingfromotherlandusesandreducedquality:Ardajaldessa/Aalge(forestarea);QarsaaKurkuru(goodquality);QarssaHarre(goodquality)(GPS37N0S94229/UTM0716607);QarssaHidi;Gargara;Zilo;ChafaDheera;Daroo(popular);GoraQalo;TarbaRoofu;DolaBoru;O’Etu;Awajiro/Jirru(forestareainsouthernpartofBMNP)(popular);BoyiElemaArdatarre(45minutesfromDirra,borderingHayaOdaPAwithsomerestrictionsduetoavocadofarm);Lemman(steepanddifficulttoaccess);Qanqicho(goodquality,goodquantity,protectionfromsun–forestareaincreasinglyseeingcommercialplantationsrestrictingaccess);ErbaGoga(onwardfromWadesa);Abuubb/Habubi(onwardfromWadesaandErbaGoga,approximately4hoursfromErbaPA);Borte(forestarea)(popular);MelkaQarsa;Adami(poorgrazingbutclosetohome);

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igure5.1RotationalgrazingoflivestockaroundErbaPA,DeloMena(2007)

Qundhi(lesspreferredduetoparasitecalledulaanul);Ardajaldessa.Othergrazingareasmentionedwhicharethoughttobedryseaonare:Denda,AdoHuka,andHelgolQuoji.

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Table5.5DryseasongrazingareasinErbaPA

Dryseasongrazingareas Characteristics

Daroo

QarsaaKurkuru

6hours travel fromthePAcenter to thenorthborderingGobaworeda.Topqualitygrasslandsurroundedbyforestandwoodland.PreferredbyallthePAherders.Grasstype:maaxa/gagaroandgamagneNowthegrazingareafalls inthegazettedboundaryoftheBaleMountainNationalPark.

Awajira

Gargara

Korjoo

Hanje

Haaxa-Qallee

Mata-gooba

Horahigana

Tarbaraafuu

Borte/Dalabaru

Woodland grazing areas. Ranges from 3-5 hours from the PAcentre.Foddertypeissimilaracrossthewholewoodlandbutofvaryingquantity,including:

• Daafa• Gaallee• Homba• Hamoocaa• Wayyabessa• Xoorsoo• DikiCommunity members have heard that these woodlands alsonowfallwithinthegazettedboundaryoftheBMNP.

Wadessa

Adami

Siisa

ThesewoodlandsareneartothePAcentrewithlowqualitygrazingandbrowse,andpotentialforconflictwithotherlandusersincludingcoffeegrowers.ThewoodlandfallspartiallyinboththeOromiyaForestEnterpriseareaandBMNP.Thedistancerangesbetween1-3hoursfromtheirPAcentre.

Wadessaisparticularnotsogoodsincethereisaparasitecalledulandhulaafoundthere.

Hoitu This woodland falls in the Forest Enterprise area with poorgrazingresourcesasitisveryneartotheirsettlement.

Hoituisalsoinfestedwithulandhulaa.

In2016themajorityofdryseasongrazingareasstillusedbyErbaPAlivestockkeepersarefoundeitherwithintheBMNPorwithintheboundariesoftheOromiaForestandWildlifeEnterprisearea.The latterhas increased inauthorityoverthe lasttenyears(seeBox3.1).Withthis increasingauthorityandreach,togetherwiththreatsfromtheBMNPauthoritiesto prevent all access of livestock to the national park, the Erba community is extremelyconcerned that they will lose access tomost of the dry season grazing areas, which willmaketheirlivelihoodimpossibletomaintain.Asaresulttheyfeardestitution.

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In thewet season themajorityof livestockaremovedoutofErbaPAand taken to the lowerlands inBerak.The livestockand theirherderswill stayhere throughout the long rains.Somewill stay longer while others may move back for the Adolessa or cold dry season returningduringhagaya(ortheshortrains)i.e.visitingtheareatwiceforroughlythreemonthseach(seeFigure 5.1) Livestock aremoved out of Erba PA in thewet season for several reasons – one,because cultivation of crops takes place, two to avoid the damp and cold and resultingsicknesses/disease,tomakethemostofthegoodwetseasongrazinginBerakthatispreferredbythecattleandresultsinhighmilkproduction.

Table5.6WetseasongrazingareasusedbyErbaPA40WetseasongrazingareasusedbyErbaPA

1.WetseasongrazingareasfoundinBerakPA Characteristics

DimaSole

Qeremsa

Waqdabare

Qanqana

HaraGalbo

Dhugicha

Bururi

Sadeta

Vastgrassland,whichisencroachedbythornybushes and shrubs, and woodlands. Best forwet season grazing when surface water isavailableforthelivestock.

Hunduko

KotichaJema

Already given to investors so no longeravailableforuse

Kilkile/Basaqu

2.Wetseasongrazing found inNanegaDheeraPA(onwaytoBerak)

Characteristics

Hurufa

Gogowe

Vast grassland mixed with bushes andwoodland

40In2007thefollowingwetseasongrazingareaswerementioned:OdoBilawa(HayaOdoPAorBerakPA)criticalwetseasongrazingtakesonedaytoreach,canbeshortofwater(verypopular)–togettheretravelthroughHayaOdoandgrazethereonthewaythoughanalternativerouteisthroughGogeeandHermecha;HayaOdo;Basaqu/Basaku(popular);Handuko(HayaOdoPA)takesonedaytoreach,canbeshortofwaterbutcriticalandrichwetseasongrazing(popular);Qute(HayaOdoPA)howeverincreasedsettlementsograzingdifficult;Cirree(HayaOdoPA);Sadeta(BerakPA);Libe(Berak);Waqdabar(Berak);HoraGobana(Berak);HoraQarsa(Berak);Dhogicha(Berak);HagolaSire(Berak);Barfota(Berak);Qeranso(Berak);DimaSole(Berak);Gogwe(NanegaDheeraPA);Hurufa(NanegaDheeraPA).

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Figure5.2:GrazingaroundNanegaDheera

InthewetseasonherdsfromErbaPAaswellasfrommanyotherneighbouringkebele41movetoand congregate in Berak kebele. ThoughBerak’s residents have traditionally provided for thissharingofthekebele’sgrazingresources,theyareincreasinglybecominglesstolerantandmanyresidentsasrecentlyestablishedcooperativeshavestartedtoenclosethegrazingwithfences.Thesecooperativesarenowtryingtopreventnon-cooperativemembersfromusingthegrazinginwhichtheyhaveinvestedtimeandresources,and/orarechargingfortherighttograzingintheenclosure.MostrecentlythegrazingareasofSaardettaCaamsaandGogoweinBerakwereenclosed,andtheirusebytheErbacommunity(andotheroutsiders)prohibited.Theyalsosaidthatmembersof theBerakcommunityhadburnedtheir temporaryhouses.This isanewanddisturbing trend for the Erba community and one that they have complained about to theworedaadministration,butwithnoresponsetodate.

Though this protection of grazing resourcesmay bewell-intentioned by Berak residents (andFARMAfrica/SOSSahelwhohavesupportedtheprocess) inordertobettermanagetheirownresources, Berak livestock owners still move to the forested higher-altitude areas with theirlivestockinthedryseasonandusetheresourcesofothercommunities,followingthetraditionalgodantusystem.Assuchthoughtheyareincreasinglyrefusingtosharetheirownresourcestheyarestillexpectingtousethoseofothers.Berakcommunitymemberssaidthatthehospitalityofthose communities in the forest is becoming increasingly hostile and that these communities

41IncludingWabero,HayaOda,Burgitu,Dhirri,WaltaeeGudina,Gongowe,MalaAmana,KaleGolbe,Bobiya,OdaDimaandDeyukebeles.

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wereresponsibleforburningsomeoftheirowntemporaryduringthegodantumigrationsuptohigherareasthisyear.

AsecondpressureonthegrazinglandsinBerak(asmentionedbyErbacommunitymembers)isduetolocalgovernment(woredalevelLandAdministrationandInvestmentOffice42)allocatinggrazing lands (includinghighquality grazing areas) to investors for crop agriculture (examplesgivenwereHundukoandKotichaJema)–undertakenwithoutconsultationoflocalcommunities(primary or secondary users). In addition, local government does not control the investors –manyofwhomcultivatemorelandthantheyhavebeenallocated/leased(oftendouble).Landfor crop growing is given to those that have influence with local government officials. Theincreaseinlandallocatedtocropfarmingnotonlyremovesthegrazinglandfromthelivestockproductionsystem,butalsooftenblocksaccesstowatersourcesorothergrazingareas.Inordertoprotecttheselandsforgrazing,Berakresidentsseelittleotherchoicethantoenclosethem.Despite complaints to woreda officials about these allocations, the woreda continues toprioritisecropagricultureoverlivestockproductiondespitelivestockbeingthebackboneofthelocalcommunities.Thisisdiscussedfurtherbelow.

The increased conversion of grazing areas to agriculturemeans that it now takes double thetimetogettothewetseasonsitesthanitdidtenyearsago,accordingtorespondents.Andwithincreased pressures on thewet season grazing areas, communities are forced tomovemorequickly to the dry season ones once ponds in Berak have dried up– putting added stress onthese. Previously communities would take a month tomove from Berak to the forested dryseasongrazingstopping tograzeandbrowsealong theway,butnowall thisgrazingbetweenthetwohasbeenlosttoagriculture.

Accesstograzingareashasbecomeacriticalissueforthecommunity–whowereoutspokenintheircomplaintsandconcerns.Thoughgrazing isan issue inbothdryandwetseasons, it is inthe wet season where tensions over access to grazing are of greatest concern. Erba kebeleprovidesdryseasongrazingformanycommunitiesinneighbouringkebelesincludingBerak.Thisismainly in the forestedareas,whichprovideshadeandacoolerenvironmentduring thedrymonths.Where thesegrazingareas fallunder theexpandingOromiyaForestEnterpriseareas,theErbacommunitieshavebeenorganisedintoforestusergroups,whichamongstotherthingsisresponsibleforcontrollingaccesstodryseasongrazingareas.Bylawsprovidethegovernanceframeworkformanagementanduse.Whenaskedwhatwasthedifferencebetweenthissystemandtherangeland/livestockcooperativesofBerak(describedinmoredetailbelow)communitymembersrespondedthattheirbylawsdonoteffectthegodantusystemforanyone–theydonotstopanyonegrazingintheseareas–andthoughinfuturetheyanticipatechargingfeesforgrazing they have not started doing this yet. In addition, residents of Berak and otherkebelefreelyusetheforestforcollectionofnon-timberforestproducts.CommunitymembersstressedthatifBerakdidindeedpreventthemfromusingthewetseasongrazingfoundthere,thentheyin turnwould refuseBerak livestock keepers access to Erba grazing areas. Theybelieved thatthiswouldleadtoconflictbetweenthetwocommunitieswhointhepasthadsharedresourcespeacefully(DMER_FGM_01).

42Theworedaandzoneassessanddecideonpotentiallandsfordifferentinvestmentandsubmittohigherauthorities(region)toinvitepotentialinvestorstoapply.Communityisnotincludedinthedecisionsaboutuseoflandforinvestment.

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Figure5.3ResourcemapofErbaPAproducedbymaleFGD(DMER_FGM_01)

Figure5.4ResourcemapofErbaPAproducedbyfemaleFGD(DMER_FGF_01)

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Ofadditionalconcern(andflaggedbycommunitiesasbeingmostserious)isthelossofaccesstograzing areas in Erba kebele itself. This is due to the current demarcation of the recentlygazettedboundariesof theBMNP (seeSection1.2). This is a very ‘hot’ issuewith communitymembersvigorouslycomplainingabouttherecentdecisionsmadebytheParkandparticularlyabout its boundary demarcation, which now encompasses many of their traditional grazingareas.This, they sayhas completelygoneagainstwhatwasagreedpreviouslywithPark staff.CommunitymemberssaidthatwhentherecentroundofdiscussionshadstartedabouttheParkboundaries,theyhadbeeninvolved,andconclusionsreachedleftthemwiththeunderstandingthat theywould still be able to use the grazing areas that they havebeenusing for decades.Howevernow,theyhaveheardthattheywillnotbeabletouseanyoftheseareas–andeventhatweektheyhadheardthattheywouldnotabletousetheforestatall.Withtheadditionalpressures on their grazing resources as described above, the Erba communities feel they arereachingacrisispoint,thatcouldverypossiblyleadtoviolentconflictandsignificantproblemsfor their futurewell-being. They said that thoseworking to protect the BMNPwereworkingagainstthemandtryingtodestroytheirlivelihoodscompletely.43Theexpansionof theOromiaForestandWildlifeEnterpriseareas isa further threat– butatleast here the community is given the opportunity to co-manage the forest and to useresources,albeitunderagreaterdegreeforrestrictionandcontrol.Manyofthecommunityaremembersofforestusercooperatives,whichhavebeenestablishedbytheEnterprisetomanageforestresourcesincludinggrazing.Notonlyhastheamountofgrazingreduced,butalsothequality.Thecommunitydescribedhowpreviouslytheyhadusedfiretocontrolbushencroachmentbuttheuseoffirehadbeenbannedby local government officials. Now grazing areas have been overtaken by bush and scrubby-woodland.SupplementaryfeedingoflivestockCommunitymembers interviewed said that in order to supplement grazing and browse, cropresidues are fed to livestock (DMER_KIM_01) i.e. after harvest. In addition women collectharoressa,dhigri,ulegaaluuandbirelukoduringthewetseasontofeedtoweakandlactatinganimalsremainingaroundthehomesteadwhilsttheotherlivestockmovetowetseasongrazingareas(DMER_KIM_01).In2007itwasmentionedthatwomencollected1-2backloadsoffodderperdaywhenneeded.Somefodder/browsespeciesthatweresaidtohavedisappearedin2007includerermoo,jajattaandluchee(Flintanetal2008).

Livestockwaterresources

Thecommunityiswell-endowedwithwaterresourcesincludingriversthatflowthroughouttheyearandpermanentsprings.These includeHoitu,Deyu,Mulka,Wadessa,Calcali,Dimbe,Hidi,Sisa and Usho44 rivers surrounding the grazing sites in the forest. However, increased

43Theleadresearcherfacilitatingthisdiscussionexpressedhisconcernthatthecommunityisveryangryaboutthesituation,whichisverytenseandclosetobreakingpoint.Hefeltthatthereisastrongpossibilityofthecommunityturningtoviolenceunlesssomethingisdonetoresolvethesituation.44Dryseasonriversmentionedin2007include;ErbaQala,ErbaGuda,Denda,IrbaTuma,O’tu,BarcumaandHengeso,MichaandDimbefoundinuppermountainarea.Mostofthesearedifferenttothose

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agriculturalencroachmentof livestockroutesandgrazingareas ispreventing livestockmovingtotheriversandotherwateringpoints.Inadditiondhulandulaarefoundinseveraloftheriversandwhich attack livestock when drinking.Wadessa River, close to Erba village has themostabundantprevalenceofdhulandula.

InBerakduringtherainyseasonwaterisabundantinsurfaceponds(calledhara)45. In2007itwas said that the government had developed many of these. However once the rains slowdown,thesequicklydryupandthenlivestockandtheirkeepersareforcedtomovebacktotheirown villages despite grazing still being available there. Livestock is then grazed around thehomesteads during themonths ofMay/June - August. InHagayaa (November to December)livestockisagainmovedtoBerakasrainsfilluptheponds,andfromthere,livestockaremovedafterabouttwomonthstothedryseasongrazingareasintheforest.Asabove,accesstoBerakisbecomingincreasinglychallenging.

Livestockmineral/saltsprings(hora)andlicks(haya)HoraHigana is themainmineral spring usedby livestock in Erba kebele. However, the cattletroughisbrokenhere,whichmakesitdifficulttoaccessthespring.Whenthereisgoodgrassthelivestock are taken to Hora weekly and graze around the site for some time: alternatively,livestockaretakenthereeverytwomonthsincludinginthedryseason.DuringAdolessawhenlivestockismainlykeptaroundthesettlement,visitstohoraareinfrequentandrather,livestockaregivenadditionalfeedtokeepthemhealthy.Thereisonehora(HoraQabaCaama)foundonthewaytoBerakinNanigaDheeraPA46.InBerakPAtherearenomineralsprings,andinsteadwhenlivestockaretakenhereinthewetseasontheyusetheminerallickshayathatarefoundthere. There are also several licks found on the way there. The main mineral licks used bylivestockfromErbaPAare47:

• HayaOda(foundatOdakebele)• HayaGafarsa(foundatGogowegrazingareainNanigaDheerakebeleonthewayto

Berak)• HayaDambala(foundatKaleGolbakebeleonthewaytoBerak)

AndinBerak:• HayaDimaSole• HayaGalbo• HayaHaraBargage• HayaDimaJirime• HayaSadeta• HayaHaraGobena• HayaBalade

mentionedin2016,anditisanticipatedthatthisisbecausetherepondentsaretalkingaboutsmalltributarieswithdifferentlocalnamesratherthanmajorrivers.45Surfaceponds(orhara)foundinBerakduringrainyseasoninclude:HarasGalbo,Saiida,QeremsaQallaa,QeremsaGudaa,Baree,DimaSoolee,Balade,Waqdabar,Bargage,DimaJirime,Dhugicha(theonlytemporaryspring),Sadeta,Gobena,QabaSoomoo,Qaraasi,Gurra,QabaHereri/humfis;andinKaleGolbakebele:HarasDembela,Kooba,Tarre,Dulecha.In2007repondentsalsomentionedtheRiversDayu,Yotodi(thoughmanyirrigatedfarmsalongit),Ganna,AwajiroandTagona(foundonlowermountain).46Horamentionedin2007includeHoraEgana,HoraAwajiroandHoraAbaWarra.47Hayamentionedin2007includeHayaQerensa,HayaAdo,HayaSayidaandHayaGurati.

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Climateandclimatechange

ThePAreceivesitsfirstrainfromSeptemberthroughNovemberandthenextrainsfromMarchuntilMay.Thoughrainfallisstillrelativelyhigh,theintensityissaidtohavedecreasedoverthelast 10-20 years. The rains thatwere currently falling (during the first phaseof research)wassaid to be 60%ofwhat is normally expected. In 2007 communitymembers also complainedthatthereweremorerecurrentdroughts.

Atthesametimetemperatureissaidtobeincreasing,particularlyduringbona(thedryseason).JunetoAugusttendtobethehottestmonths.

Livestockandlivestockhealth

Itistheseasonsofchangewhenmostlivestockarelosttodiseasei.e.inAdoolessaandHagayaasvariabletemperaturesandrainfallmakethelivestockmorevulnerable.Windalsobecomesaproblem.

Wildlife attacks are a particular problem in Bona, including hyenas and lions. Communitymembersdiffered in theiropinionas towhether incidencesofpredationhadgoneupornot.Those that argued that numbers had gone down said that this was a result of increasedsettlement and encroachment into the forest. In 2007 community members also said thatwildlifeattacksonlivestockhadincreasedovertimeandwereaproblem–theysaidthatinthepastpeoplehadweaponsandwerepraisedforkillinganimalssuchaslions.Butnowcommunitymembersarenotallowedtohaveweaponsortokillwildanimalseveniftheyareeatingtheirlivestock–sotheincidenceoflivestockbeingkilledbylivestockisontherise.

Ingeneral,resourcesfoundinErbaandneighbouringkebelefavourlivestockproduction,andifaccess is maintained livestock production will remain the mainstay of the local economy.Despite this, government interventions and support such as extension services prioritise cropagriculture over livestock, with few resources dedicated to livestock extension services orimprovinglivestockproduction(DMER_FGDM/F_01).

When livestock is sick a community member said he buys drugs from private vendors andadministersthemhimself.Thereisnoveterinaryclinicinthekebele.Boththedrugsthathebuysfrom vendors and from the market are often not effective (DMER_KIM_01). Communitymembers have not been taught about improved livestock husbandry (DMER_KIM_01).Communitymemberscomplainedthatthoughthegovernmentsupportscropextensionthereislittleifanylivestockextensionservicesandthequalityoflivestockdrugsavailableisverysmallandofpoorquality. In2007differentdiseasesmentionedincludegarba,abasanga,shahicha,qirixi bussanddhukubaalatti. Communitymembers said thatwhen suchdiseases occur theywillburythelivestockthatdieorburnthem;andthenleavetheareaimmediately.

There is little, if any, incorporation of improved breeds or artificial insemination. Communitymembersbelievethatlivestockaremorefertileoncetheyhavedrunkfromhora.

Bona (thedryseason) isthebusiestperiodfor livestocksales,whenbuyersfromhighlandandother parts of the country come to Delo Mena to make purchases (DMER_FGDM_01;DMER_KIM_01).Duringthistimetheweightofthelivestockisatitslowest,butduetodemandpricesareattheirhighest.DuringthewettermonthsbuyersareunabletogettoDeloMenadue

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to poor quality and water-logged roads – so despite livestock being of better quality/healthduringthisperiod,salesarefewerandpricesarelower.

In2007,thepriceofabullwasETB3000.MarketsusedatthattimewereHarodumail(47kmsaway)andMana(7kmsaway)heldevertwodays.Howeveratthattimerespondentssaidthattherenotmuchofacultureofsellinglivestockproducts,onlyeggs.

5.3BERAKPA48

Berak kebele is found at a distance from the forest towards the lowlands. Livestock ownerspracticegodantu system taking their livestockup into the forestedmountainareas in thedryseason.GrazingisgoodinthePAandlargenumbersoflivestockfromotherPAsvisitduringthewetseasonbothfrommorehighlandareas(includingErbaasdescribedabove)andthelowlandsincluding herds of camel that are reported to have increased over the years. Some land isallocated to investors for large scale agriculture such as biofuels, and access to water andgrazingisbecomingmorechallenging.Fromaround2010FARMAfricaandSOSSahelhavebeensupportingthepilotingofPRMinthePA.

Socio-economicsandlivelihoods

Table5.7Wealthrankingin2007Totalnumberofhouseholds:560

Rich‘duressa’ Medium‘wayyoogobessa’ Poor‘deegaa’40+camel 10-30camel -30+cattle 20-25cattle 3cattle50+goats 25-45goats 15goat1mule - -

3-5donkey 2-3donkey -24 287 2494% 51% 45%

In2007thewealthrankingshowedthatthoughtherewereafewhouseholdsdefinedas ‘rich’with as many as 40 camels, 30 cattle49, 50 goats and other livestock, the majority of thecommunity(96%)hadmuchlessthanthiswith51%beingrankedas‘medium’wealthand45%ranked as poor with only approximately 3 cattle and 15 goats. For a PA with rich grazingresourcesthenumberofpoor,inparticular,wassurprising.

48TheresearchteamexperiencedsignificantproblemsgettingtoandmovingaroundBerakduetoheavyrainfallmakingroadsimpassableforthevehicle.Theteamhadtowalkand/orusepackanimalsandwerelimitedtocarryingoutinterviewsanddiscussionswithcommunitymembersrelativelyclosetothemainsettlement.49Itwasnotedin2007thatthoughthewealthrankingstatesthattherichown30+cattle,herdsof100cattleormoreweredisclosedbysomeoftheindividualswhowereinterviewed(Flintanetal2007).

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Table5.8Berakwealthranking2016

Rich‘olana’ Medium‘gidugalessa’ Poor‘harkaqalleessa’40+cattle 15-40cattle <10cattle60+goats 20-60goats <10goats30+camels 10-15camels <5camels

30+quintalmaize 10+quintalmaize <5quintalmaize10+quintalsesame 5-10quintalsesame <5quintalsesame30+quintalsorghum 15-30quintalsorghum <5quintalsorghum10+quintalwheat 5-10quintalwheat <2quintalwheat

5% 30% 65%Note:The%ageofcommunity indifferentwealthcategorieswasbasedonpurelywhatthefocusgroupdiscussion suggested. However, it should be noted that the evaluation of households leading toqualificationornotofthePSNP,wastakingplaceatthesametime,andtheresearchersfeltthattheFGDmembershadsomewhatinflatedthenumberofcommunitymembersinthe‘poor’category.Thewealthrankingcarriedoutin2016showedsimilarresultsintermsoflivestocknumberspereachwealthcategorytothoseprovidedin2007,excludingthepoorcategorywhichappearedtohavenotonlyincreasedin%age,butalsointermsofwealthhavinglesslivestock.However,asnoted above, the PSNP evaluation was taking place at the same time that would determinewhich householdswould qualify for the PSNP, so the ‘poorness’ of the poorwealth categorycouldhavebeenexaggerated.Intermsofcrops,itwouldseemthatcroppinghasincreasedinimportanceasa livelihoodcomponent– itwasnotmentionedatall in2007:thoughthisdoesnotmeantosaythattherewerenocropsbeinggrownatthattime,itwouldappearthattheywerenot important indeterminingwealth statusunlike today.Asonecan see theamountofgrains produced is fairly substantial; and overall the combination of livestock and cropproduction across the wealth categories was one of (if not the) richest out of all thecommunities/PAsthattookplaceinthisstudy.TheBerakcommunitydividedupayearintotwelvemonths(Sooma,Soomafura,Sadatal,Haji,Zaka, Safara, Maulida 1ffa, Maulida 2ffa, Maulida 3ffa, Zara, Rajaba and Hexo). These arespreadoverfourseasons–Ganna(Rajaba,HexoandSooma),Adoolessa(Soomafura,Sadatal,andHaji),Hagaya (Zaka, Safara,Maulida 1ffa) andBona (Maulida 2ffa,Maulida 3ffa, Zara).BerakPAhassimilarwetanddryseasoncharacteristicsasErbaandSoduWelmalPAs.

Table5.9:Seasonalcalendar

SeasonsCharacteristics

Gana(wetseason) Bona(dryseason)

Adoolesa(Autuman)

Hagayya(Spring)

Rainfall !!!!!!

!!!!

Temperature !! !!!!!!

!!!!!!!!!!

!!!

Wind !! !!!!!!

!!!! !!

Grazingavailability !!!!!!

!!!!!

!!!!

!!!!!

Wateravailability !!!!!!

!!!! !!!! !!!!!!

Incomefromlivestocksale !!!!!

!!!

!!!!!!!!

!!!!

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Incomefromlivestockproduct

!!!!!!!!

!!!!

M

!!!!

!!!! !!!!

!!!!

Labourdemandforlivestockrelatedactivities

F

!!!!!!

!!!!!!

!!!!!!

!!!!!!

M

!!!!!!!

!!!!!!!

!!!!!!!

!!!!!!!

Labourdemandfornon-livestockrelatedactivities

F

!!! !!! !!! !!!

Incidenceofdisease !! !!!!!!

!!!!!

!!

Communitymembers (DMBK_FGM_01) said that labourdemandbetweenmenandwomen isequal in all seasons–bothworkhard.Women spend themajorityof their time looking afterlivestocktakingaboutsixtypercentoftheirtime.Menspendthemajorityoftheirtimeonnon-livestockactivities includingcropfarming. It is themenhoweverthattakethe livestocktodryseasongrazingareas.

Table5.10TrendAnalysis

Characteristics Tenyearsago CurrentlyQuantityofgrazingland–opengrassland !!!!

!!!!!!!!

Quantityofcropland !!!! !!!!!!

Timetakentoaccessgrazingindryseason 12hours 12hoursTimetakentoaccessgrazinginwetseason(ontheunderstandingthattheyhavemovedtothewet season grazing area and have a baseestablishedthere).

2hours 4hours

Timeneededforaccessingwaterforlivestock DoubledBrowseavailability !!!!!

!!!!!!!!!!!!

Righttoaccessgrazingland !!!!!!!!

!!!!!

Typesofanimalowned Same SameQuantityoflivestockowned !!!!!

!!!!!!!!!

Numberof conflictswithwild animals that killlivestock

!!!!!!!!!!

!!!!!

Incomefromlivestock !!!!! !!!!!

!!!!!

Foodfromlivestock !!!!!!!!!!

!!!!

The trend analysis suggests that the quantity of grazing land has reduced by half, and thequantityofcroplandincreased.Browseavailabilityhasalsodecreased.Thishasresultedinhalfthe number of livestock owned compared to ten years ago, and a reduced income and foodfrom livestock.Conflictwithwildanimalsweresaid tohavedecreased– thereason for this isnot clear but perhaps it is due to there being fewer wild animals because of the increaseddisturbancetotheirhabitatbecauseofcropfarmingetc.

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Climateandclimatechange

Thecommunitystatedthatrainfallislesstodaythanitwasfouryearsago,andasaresultisnotfillingthepondsduringthewetseason(s).

Livestockgrazingresources

TheGamoji(lowland)grazingareaisthekeygrazingforthecommunityinBerak,whichextendsacross an area of 150km sq. Livestock is kept here during the main rainy season – ganna.Grazingresourceswouldallowlivestocktostaytherelongerbutsurfacewatertendstorunoutafter twomonths (there is no permanent water source here) and also livestock ismoved toavoidcontractionofadiseaselocallycalledgirixibussi,whichisassociatedwithtortoisebones(seebelow).

This is a vast grazing area, for which the community is developing management plans. Thecommunityareorganisedintograzingcooperatives(asmentionedabove),similartoforestusercooperatives.Thegrazingareahasbeendividedintothreemanagementzones,includingsomekeptasideasareserve.Onecooperativehasbeenestablishedforeachzone/block,exceptforWaqdabare where the zone has been divided into two blocks, thus with two cooperatives,becausetheareaislarge.Thethreemajorzonesare:

i) Zone 1: Kobe (one block) – here a lot of land is being given by local government toinvestorsforagriculture.Theareaispronetoconflictandcurrentlythereisfightingbetweencommunitymembersandtheinvestors.50

ii) Zone2:Sadeta(oneblock)–thereisoneinvestorhere.

iii) Zone3:Waqdabare(twoblocks)–therearenoinvestorsfoundhere.Theareaiswide,soithasbeendividedupintotwoblocks.

Throughthegrazingcooperativesthecommunityisincreasinglytryingtoplacesomecontrolsongrazing, in order to better manage, develop and protect it and ensure that there is enoughgrazingavailablefortheirownuse,aswellasforthevisitorswhoaremany(comingfrommorethantenneighbouringkebele).Thishasmeantthattheyarestartingtoplacerestrictionsonthegrazing, particularly by outsiders, and this has caused some of the discontent voiced bycommunitymembersfromErbakebeleasdescribedabove.Accordingtothecooperative’sby-laws,1Birr ischargedforonecattle,and2Birr ischargedforonecamel forthewholeofthewet season. Outsiders are also charged for using the mineral lick – 1 Birr for 1 quintal ofminerals.51Cooperativememberscomplainthattheyarewillingtosharetheirgrazingandotherresources, but the visitors do not follow the cooperative rules (e.g. grazing rotations), andthereforeincreasinglytheyaretryingtostopthemcoming.

Increasinglythecommunityhasseenthehealthofthewetseasongrazingareadeteriorate. Inparticulartheyhaveseentheinvasionofjirime(athornybush),whichhastakenoverlargeareas50Communitymemberssecretlygotheinvestors’landandallowtheirlivestocktograzethere.Theyaredissatisfiedwithhowtheinvestorsbehaveincludingthattheydonotallowlocalpeopletotaketheirlivestockthereatall–evenafterharvestwhenthelivestockcouldgrazeontheleftoverstooks/straw(whichotherwiseislefttorot).51InterestinglytheworedaLivestock/PastoralOfficedidnothavethisinformation.Theysaidthatthepracticeisnew,andrequiresclosemonitoring.

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of previously quality grasslands. Previously the community used to destroy it by burning thegrasslandsthreetimesayear.However,thegovernmenthasbannedtheuseoffireinthisway.Nowthebushistakingover,isunpalatable,preventsmovementandalsoharbourswildanimals.Thegrassisbeingdestroyed.

LivestockistakentothedryseasongrazingareaduringAdolessaandstaythereforaroundtwomonths.ThisiscalledBadda,andtheherdersfromBeraktendtogonofurtherthantheWelmelRiverusingtheforestedareaaroundWelmelandbelowtheroadthatgoesfromDeloMenatoHarena. Though inhabitants from Erba and neighbouring kebele come to Berak in the wetseason,therespondentsspokentosaidthattheinhabitantsofBerakdonottaketheirlivestockas farasErbaor to theHarennaForest (though thisdisagreeswithwhat theErbacommunitymembers said!!). The highland areas have a good grass type called citta and hudugudessa,mixed with browsed plants. There are some problems with wildlife here including lion andhyena,butthisnotsignificant.Themainchallenge is the increasingcultivationtakingplaceonthewaytotheseareas,andtoalesserextentintheseareas,whichblockslivestockmovementanddestroysthegrazing.

FollowingAdolessa the livestock is takenbackover time to the lowlandareas.DuringHagayatheystayingrazingareascalledKurfe,BarfataandLibeforaroundonemonth.

Table5.11providesasummaryofdryseasongrazingareasusedbytheBerakcommunity52

Table5.11DryseasongrazingareasandotherresourcesusedbytheBerakcommunityDryseasongrazingareas Characteristics

Saala(Sole?)HadhoCiisaGaleeKorbessaAdeWaataaRaphiArdaakuufa

Okotiin

Inhighlandareas.Thesegrazingareashavegoodpasturemixedwithwoodland.Water is sourced from theWelmel River closeby.Goodgrasstypesincludecittaandhudugudessa,mixedwithbrowsers.Cultivationishamperingnormalmovements.

Kurfe

Barfatu

Libe

NotedasAdolessaseasongrazing

In2007itwasnotedthatthoughBerakdoeshavereasonabledryseasongrazing,livestockkeepers prefer to go toWelmal River area because there is betterwater availability, andalso it reducedthechanceofanthraxsaid tobecausedby thedeadbonesof tortoisesofwhichtherearemanyinBerak.In2016respondentssaidtheystillusetheareaaroundtheWelmalRiverforgrazing.Ittakes4-6hourstogettotheWelmalRiverfromBerak.

52In2007thefollowingdryseasongrazingareaswerementioned:temporarysettlementontheWelmalRiveraroundArarandtowardsitsource,thoughtherecanbeaproblemduetowildanimalattack,starvationduetoinsufficientgrazing,andaccidentswehrecattlefalloffsteepslopesintovalleys.CanmovefurthertoHoraKoree(MedaWelabu),Jage(mineralspring–alsowetseasongrazing),Libe,Barfatuandthefollowingthoughtherecanbeshortagesofwaterhere:Dimasola,GorroZallo,Haragissa.

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Table5.12providesasummaryofwetseasongannagrazingareasinBerakkebele53

Table5.12WetseasongrazingareasandotherresourcesusedbytheBerakcommunity

Wetseasongrazingareas Characteristics

Sire

Dimasole

Dimajirime

Qerensa

Feeja

Baladee

HaraGoobana

Waqdabare

Leedi

MadaCallo

Diriyee

Hargisa

Grasses found here include daramo (in abundance), kodhessa,farado, jejeba, hasare, kuyera. Browse found here includesbisdhuga, hagarsu, hamarressa, kokoro (when it rains), fursa,huruffo, jirime. Jirime is a thorny bush that has invaded thegrazingland,butisbrowsed/eatenbygoatsandcamels.Aplanthasbeenintroducedbyinvestorfarms–aweedthatwasnotseenintheareapreviously,andhascausedlivestockdeaths.

53Wetseasongrazingareasmentionedin2007include;Blade,HalloLaku,HoraGobana,Waf-Dabar,HaraFeransa,GaroFallo,Sodeta(popular)andBiteWaqdabari(thoughtherewasaprobleminbothoftheseduetohyenaattackandprevalenceofdiseases–kirite,awara,abbasanga,joge,Jage,Dimasole,Barfotee(livestockwells),Hamayaa.InadditiontheymentionedthatthefollowingusedtobeavailablebutnowtheyarereservedforothercommunitiesaswellasbeingwithinParkboundaries:HoraSora(mineralspring)reservedforMenaandBarbarecommunities,Qerensa(meaningleopard),reservedforMenaandBarbarecommuniites,HoraSogida(reservedforBarbarecommunities),Hode(reservedforMeddaWalabucommunity),HoraManebo(reservedforMeddaWelabucommunity).

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Livestockwaterresources

Water is available in the kebele as surface water in ponds during the wet season. It isunderstood that the government helped to build the ponds some years back. However, thecommunity said that since 2012 there has been rainfall scarcity and this hasmeant that thepondshavenotheldwaterforaslongastheyusedto,sorestrictinggrazinginthearea.Manyofthe ponds are also sites ofmineral licks orhaya – see below. Two key ponds areHara AbdiHussein andHaraMame (though this one is now used only for human consumption due towatershortages).

Inthedryseasonthecommunitytakesthelivestocktothehighlandareas,andheretheyaccesstheWelmel River (and others) in order towater their livestock. Though the River provides areliablepermanentsourceofwater,itnowtakesthemdoublethetimetogettotheRiverthanit did ten years ago because increased cultivation in the area has blocked livestock routes.OtherRiversclosetoBerakareatheDumalandtheDeyu.54

Livestockmineral/saltspringsandlicks

Whenthelivestockmovetodryseasongrazingareastheyvisitthemineral/saltspringsorhorathere55. InBerakPAduringthewetseasonthelivestockvisitthemineral licks,mainlyfoundinthe sameplaces as the surfacewaterponds.Communitymembers said their livestock get fatandhealthy(withmilkincreasing)whentheusetheminerallicks.Theseinclude:

HayafoundinBerak:- HayaDimaSole- HayaDiamJirime- HayaHaraGobena- HayaHaraKoro- HayaBalade- HayaDarara- HayaBarfata56

Inaddition,somehayahavebeendestroyedorencroachedbycultivation includingHayaJage(destroyed),HayaSadeta(encroached),HayaLibe(encroached)andHayaSora(encroached).FodderIn 2016 community members interviewed did not mention fodder collection, thoughobservation suggests that fodder is collected particularly for those animals kept around thesettlementduringthedryseason. In2007fodderspeciescollectedincludedadda(tree),galee(climber),andgrass.

54Otherwatersourcesmentionedin2007incudeHoralGuratti,QabaaDima,QabaaKadir,Dimituu(wetseasonponds),Jage(waterwell),Balade,SadetteandDumanRiver9thoughnotconvenientassurroundedbybusheswithspikes.AccessingwaterindryseasonwassaidtobedifficultandincludedWelmalRiver(6hourswalk),HayaDima,andBururii(dryseasonpond).BytheendofthedryseaonthecattlecanbetooweaktowalktotheRiversoitmustbecollectedandbroughtbackforthelivestocknearthehomestaead.55In2007thesewerementionedasHoraSodetaandJageHora-bothsaidtobeinthePA.56In2007respondentssaidthattherewereusingeightminerallicksatthattime.

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Livestockproduction,healthandmarketing

Communitymemberssaidthatthelivestocknumbershavereducedinresponsetothereducedgrazingandbrowseavailable.Thiscontradictstheinformationprovidedatworedalevel,whichshowsa3-foldincreaseinlivestockinDeloMenaasawhole.

In 2007, a women’s FGD said that numbers of livestock per individual livestock keeper havedecreasedfrom100inHaileSelassie’stime,to50intheDergue,andwerethenin2007only5(though the abovewealth ranking shows thatmost households held considerablymore thanthis).Furtherin2016despitesomequestionsonthevalidityoftheresultsparticularlythe‘poor’category57,thewealthrankingshowedthatlivestockfiguresperhouseholdweresimilar(orthesame)tothefiguresgivenin2007perhousehold,eventhoughthenumberofhouseholdshasincreased,and therewereclearlygreaterpressureson landand resources (particularlyas theamountofcropsgrownhasincreasedsubstantially).Thiswouldsuggestthatlivestocknumbershaveactuallyincreased.

Themarketsusedbythecommunitywerenotmentioned. In2007theseweresaidtobeDeloMena(mostused)andDidre(inMedaWelabuDistrict)whenvisitingtheWelmalRiver.

Communitymembersmentioned that theyhadheard that the local government is looking tointroduce a new breed of cattle into the area, which the government has said will improveproductivity.However,thecommunityisverysuspiciousaboutthisandthemotivationsofthegovernmentinthisregard.

Themost serious health problems for livestock are i) guro (mastitis) and ii) a disease locallycalledgirixibussisaidtobecausedbylivestockeatingdeadtortoisebones58.ThetortoisehangaroundthepondsandminerallicksintheBerakgrazingareasduringthewetseason–lionskillthetortoiseandleavetheboneslyingaround.Communitymemberssaidthatlivestockseekoutthebones,andiftheyareallowedtoeatthemtheycandiewithinoneortwodays.Inordertoavoidthisthecommunitylimitsthetimegrazinginthearea.Thecommunitysaidthatthisisoneofthemostseriousproblemsthattheyface,andactionisrequiredtodealwiththeissue.Theyevensuggestedvaccinatingthetortoisetokeepthemhealthy.

Anumberofotherdiseaseswerementionedbythecommunityincludingabasanga,abagorba,gaamamansaandfurtu(whichissaidtoattackfatanimals).Inaddition,anewplanthasbeenintroducedfromthefarmsoftheinvestors.Thiswasnotfoundintheareabeforetheinvestorscame.Theplantmakescattlesickwhentheyeatit,andcankillthem.Aroundtwentycattlehavebeen killed in thisway.Note: thiswas alsomentioned in other PAs abovewhere large farmswerepresent.

57Asabove–theresearcherssuggestedthatthe‘poorness’and%ageofthe‘poor’categorymayhavebeenexaggeratedbycommunitymembersbecausetheevaluationforthePSNPwastakingplaceatthesametimeandsomecommunitymemberssawthetworelatedi.e.iftherewereseentobemorepoorinthecommunitythenmorecommunitymemberswouldqualifyforparticipatinginthePSNP.58Thisdiseasewasalsomentionedin2007.Otherdiseasesmentionedthenincludebiraa,jongii,turnea,andaware.

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Community members complained that the government is not providing them with livestockextensionservices.Thismeansthattheyaregivennoguidanceabouthowtoimprovelivestockproduction.Therearenotdrugsavailabletotreattheir livestock.Theybuyuselessdrugsfromprivatetraders(licensedornot-licensed)–thereisnoalternative.

Thecommunitysaidthatthegovernmentonlyseemsinterestedinincreasingcropcultivationinthearea,but thearea is not suitable for thisbecause there is a shortageof rain. In addition,evenwithadequaterainfallthelanditselfdoesnotsupportmorethanonecropping.

Conflictswithinvestors

In 2007 community members were already complaining that their land was being given toinvestors–atthattimemainlyforgrowingofbiofuel(jatropha)andlocalpeoplehadprotestedthemoveresulting intheirarrestand imprisonment. InBeraktoday,communitymemberssaythe continuing loss of their land to investors is the biggest problem that they face. Thecommunity is angry that their grazing land, including theirbestgrazing land, isbeinggiven toinvestors by the government (mainlyworeda governmentwith approval of zone/region). Theinvestorstodayaremainlylocal,butwithbusinesspartnersfromoutsidethearea.

Communitymemberscomplainedthattheinvestorscultivatetwotothreetimesmorethanthatwhich they are allocated/leased, and often use it for other purposes that what theircontract/leaseagreementstates.Chemicalsandfertilisersusedbytheinvestorsharmtheland;and a plant introduced by the investors kills their livestock. Some communitymembers evenwentas faras tosuggest that the investorshadpurposefully introducedtheplant tokill theirlivestock.59Now,theysay,allthebestlandinBerakPAhasbeendemarcatedforinvestors,andthey(thelocalcommunity)arenotallowedtouseit,evenitisnotunderproduction.Yetwhenthecommunityasksforlandinordertocultivatecrops,thegovernmentdeniesthemsayingthattheydonothavetherightimplementsortoolstofarmtheland.Wheninvestorsabandonland,itisofpoorerlandqualityandmoredegradedthanitwasbefore.

Livestockkeepershaveexpressedtheirdissatisfactionatthesituationbyallowingtheirlivestocktoentertheinvestors’farms.Thismayresultinthelivestockbeingimprisonedbytheinvestors.Thisisanongoingconflictbetweenthetwogroups.Eventhelocalkebeleadministratorsarenotin agreementwith the plan of the higher levels of government to allocate land to investors.Currentlythereseemsnotsolutiontotheproblems.Communitymemberssaidthissituationis“humanaangudeedu”meaning“rapingthem.”

5.4Synthesisandfuturescenarios

Communitymemberssaidthattodaytheyarefacingcrisesthattheyhaveneverfacedbefore.Therearefourcriticalfactorsinfluencingincreasedconcernsofcommunitymembersovertheirfutureaccesstograzingareas,andasaresult,theirlivestock-basedlivelihoodsandfuturefoodandhumansecurity.Thesearei)theenclosureofgrazingareasinBerakkebele–theareausedbyErbaresidentsforwetseasongrazing;ii)theallocationofgrazingareasbylocalgovernmentto investors; and iii) the demarcation of the boundaries of the BMNP; and iv) increasing

59Whentheresearcherbroughtupthisissuewiththegovernmentextensionagenthesaidthatthoughindeedtheplantisdangerous,ithasnotbeenpurposefullyintroduced.

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restrictionsputinplacebytheOromiyaForestEnterprise.ThisisdespitethefactthatlivestocknumbersintheDeloMenaworedaasawholehassubstantiallyincreased(seeabove).

OfcriticalimportanceandtheissuethatcommunitiesareveryangryaboutinErbakebeleisthedemarcationof theboundariesofBMNPcurrently takingplace.Theysaid thatbefore the lastfewyearstheyhadagoodrelationshipwiththeParkandnowthisiscompletelybreaking-downastheyfeelmarginalisedatbest,andatworsethattheParkandthoseworkingfortheParkaretrying todestroy their livelihoods. They know thatpoor landand resourceuse cannegativelyimpactonthewildlife,vegetationandbiodiversity–andtherearesomewhodonotabidebycommunities’ rules related tograzingpatterns forexample (i.e. somedonotmoveoutof theforestinthewetseason).However,manyofthepressuresonlandandresourcesdonotdirectlycome from them,but rather fromgovernment for example the resettlementprogrammeandthe ongoing distribution of grazing land to investors and/or have been influenced by climatechange.

There is population increase in local communities and this is contributing to a greaterexploitationofresourcesincludingencroachmentoftheforests.However,communitymemberssaid that theycanoffersolutions for this including theprotectionofcriticalgrazingareas firstandforemost(e.g.inBerak),providingalternativelivelihoodsforthosewhotrytosettleintheforest,andpunishthosewhodonotabidebylocalbylaws.Communitymembersstressedthattheyhaveneverdamagedthe forest–a forest that theirancestorshavebeenusing formanyyears–yetnowtheiraccesstotheforestisbeingtakenawayfromthem.

In order to resolve the escalating negative situation, the community suggested the followingsolutions.Theysaid thatParkstaff shouldmeetwith themanddiscusshowthe issuescanberesolved–theParkshouldnotmakethesedecisionsalone.Livestockshouldbeallowedtograzein the places they have been grazing to this time, with agreed rules and regulations andpunishments for thosewhobreak these. If the Park insists that livestock is not allowed at allwithin the boundaries, then the boundary should bemoved to the other side of Daroo (dryseason grazing area). Forest adjacent communities should be given sole right to protect andguide the utilisation of forest resources to avoid loss of the biodiversity, including controllingthosepeoplewhostaylongerintheforestthanhasbeenagreed.Inaddition,thegovernmentshould better control investors – giving the land used by the poor to rich investors can onlydamagelocalcommunities,andinvestorsshouldonlybeallowedtousetheamountoflandthathas been leased to them. Remaining grazing areas need to be protected for grazing and notallocated toagriculture. Livestock rearingdoesnotmeandestroying the forestsand land,butcrop farming does – so livestock is a better use of the land than crop farming in that it alsoprotects the forest and wildlife. The community said “our livestock production should besupportednotdestroyed.”In Berak, the most critical issue is the increasing allocation of their grazing lands to outsideinvestorsbythegovernment.Thisreflectsabiasbygovernmentforcropagricultureandagainstlivestock–abias that isnotonly reflected in this landallocationbutalso through the lackofextension services provided for livestock and lack of response or support for dealing withlivestockdiseases.Thecommunitiesdescribedthegivingoflandtoinvestorsaskillingthelandand“raping”themselvesasthe land isnotsuitableforcultivation,theirbestgrazingareasarebeingtakenaway,andtheirlivelihoodsarebeingdestroyed.Atthesametimegrazinglandsarebeing infested by invasive species, that they are no longer allowed to or able to control.Livestock productivity is decreasing due to poorer quality of grazing areas and disease.

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Population is increasing and people are getting poorer – the trends in land use and resultingchangesinlivelihoodscanonlyleadtoacontinueddeteriorationofthecommunity.PreviouslythetwoPAspeacefullysharedresources,butdividesarebeingestablishedasBerakPArestrictsaccessofErbaPAresidents towetseasongrazing,andErbaPArestrictsaccess toBerakPAresidents todryseasongrazing.ThoughErbaPAhavenotyetstartedrestrictingthisaccesstheyarethreateningtodosoifBerakfurtherlimitstheiruseandaccess.Thoughsomeofthe contributing land use changes taking place that are fueling the situation are led bycommunitymembers themselves theyhavebeen aggravatedby the interventions in the areaincluding the BMNP, the Oromiya Forest Enterprise and others such as the PRM activitiessupported by FARMAfrica/SOS Sahel. These interventions haveworkedwithin PA, ecologicaland/orintervention-focusedboundariesthathavefailedtounderstandand/ortakeintoaccounthow local communities work across the boundaries, and the cooperative arrangements thatexist to do so. This confirm the need for such actors to take and support a widerlandscape/watershedapproachthatwouldbebetterplacedtounderstandandincorporatesucharrangements,andlimitstheunanticipatednegativeimpactsofworkinginasmallerarea.Figure5.6MapofgrazingareasintheDeloMenaworedaasdescribedbyrespondents

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6.0NENSEBOWOREDA6.1Introduction

Nenseboworeda ispredominantly sub-tropical (52%)and temperate (45%)withsmall tropicalzones (3%). In2007naturalvegetationcoveragecontinued topredominate (58%) followedbyarable land(22%)andpasture(18.5%).Theclimatemainlyfollowstwoseasons–adryseasonfromDecembertoMay(thoughtheremayberain inJanuary),andawetseasonfromJunetoNovemberwithJulythroughtoSeptemberreceivingtheheaviestrainfall.Livestockpopulationsof theworedadate in2000stoodat100,617cattle;17,252shoats;and6,210 equines, which equals 76,194 TLU or 124,079 heads of livestock. No 2007 data wasobtained. The total number in 2015howeverwas251,845heads,madeupof 156,353 cattle,70,777 shoats, and 24,715 equines. This shows a doubling of livestock numbers over the 15years,withalesserincreaseincattlenumbers(only50%),buta4-foldincreaseinthenumberofshoatsandequines.Thisisnotsurprisinggiventhemoresedentarisedlivingintheworedawitha large amount of cattle kept in more intensified zero grazing systems, whereas shoats inparticularareabletobrowseonremainingresourcesmoreeasily.Nensebo is regarded as ‘highly suitable for crop production’ and in particular coffee by theregionalgovernment(OSG2000).In1975Ayele(1975:56)reportedthat:

“InNenseboWoreda,LivestockZone,livestockownersgrazetheiranimalsinthebroad leafed areas from November – January, and on the open plains fromMarch to November. The stockowners take their animals to the forest areasbecauseoflackofgrazing.Theymovetotheplainswhenthegrasses,herbsandplantsintheforestareasareharmfultotheiranimals,andalsobecauseoftheabundanceofbitingfliesintherainyseasonintheforests.”

Table6.1Comparisonoflivestocktypein2000and2016

Typeoflivestock No.in2000 No.in2016Cattle 100,617 156,281Sheep 57,411Goats

17,25213,366

Horses 21,147Mule 983Donkey

6,210

2,585Total 76,194TLU Poultry 31,990Traditionalbeehive 50,427Transitionalbeehive 1,931Modernbeehive 367

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Table6.2Cattlepopulationbystageofgrowth,productionstatusandsexinNenseboworeda2016Cattle No.Cow 48,365Heifer 31,657Bull 26,831Steer 17,506Ox 5,019Calf 26,903Total 156,281In2000NenseboWoredastillhadextensiveforestcover.SatellitedatacompiledbytheBERSMPsuggestsa9%reductioninforestcoverbetween2000and2006.Thoughtheareaofgrazinglandstayedprettymuchthesameduringthisperiod,theamountofagriculturallandincreasedbythesameamount–9%.Thisconfirmswhatcommunitymembersdescribe–thatforesthasbeenmainlyclearedforagriculture(SeeFigure5.1and5.2).Figure6.1:Sateliteimageryshowingareductioninforestcoverby9%andconversiontoagriculturebetween2000and2006(SourceFlintanetal2007).

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Figure6.2:Theamountofgrassandgrazingarearemainedthesame

6.1SOLANAPAThere is very little grazing area in Solana PA.Not only ismuch area forested, albeit reduced,whatgrazingareatherewashasgraduallybeenconvertedtoagriculture.Thistrendcommencedinthe1960swhenHaileSelassie,convincedthattherewaspotentialforagricultureinthearea,gathered landless people from the northern and central parts of Ethiopia, particularly fromAmharaandShoa,providedthemwithfirearmsandasiteintheforestandtoldthemtobuildthemselvesasettlementandclearand‘develop’theforest.Despiteconflictswiththelandlordsofthearea(localchiefsand‘shifta’astheywerecalled)thesettlersclearedtheforestandhavebeenlivingthereeversince:thepeoplearoundWorka(themaintowninNensebo)arealmostallsettlers.Thisperiodwascalled“Ye limaatzemen”or“Bara limaati”meaning“developmentcamping”.Originallyhavingnolivestockafewwereintroducedbutfacedchallengesofdiseaseand“dangerousforest insects”. In2007communitymembersstatedthattherewerealready“noresourcesleftforlivestockinthePA”(Flintanetal2008).

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Livelihoodsandsocio-economicsTable6.3Solanawealthranking2007Totalnumberofhouseholds:154

RichOlanna

MediumJidugolessa

LowGadanna

VerylowBayeeGadaana

40 quintals coffee peryear

25 quintals coffee peryear

10 quintals coffeeperyear

5 quintals coffeeperyear

1ha.enset 0.5haenset 0.25haenset 0.125haenset30quintalsothercrops 20 quintals other

crops10 quintals othercrops

5 quintals othercrops

16 43 63 3210% 28% 41% 21%

Note:In2007livestockwerenotmentionedatallduringthewealthranking.In 2007 livestock was not considered a strong component of livelihoods, and rather peoplereliedoncoffee,ensetandtoalesserextentothercrops.Onaveragepeoplehadlandholdingsof 2ha. Any remaining land at that time was being distributed to the landless by thegovernment.Peoplereliedonprivateenclosuresfortheir livestock,and/or livestockweretiedup–withtheobjectiveoffatteninglivestockforthemarket.Atthattimefeedshortageswereexperienced during the dry season and then fodder and feed supplements were oftenpurchasedtogivetothelivestock.Today only a few members of the community keep livestock, not considered to be a largecomponentoftheirlivelihoodsystem.Livestockismainlykeptunderzero-grazing,withgrassescut-and-carriedforthembythelivestockkeepers.Duringthewettermonths(June-November)most communitymembers are involved in coffee production in the forest areas. Communitymemberssaidthatgrazingareashadalsobeenconvertedtocoffeeplantations.Taxesarepaidtolocalgovernmentforuseofland.Communitymemberssaidthattheyarecarefultoonlyfarmandkeeptheirlivestockwithintheirallocatedindividualhouseholdboundariestoavoidconflictswithneighbours:thoughsometimesconflictsdooccurbetweenlandholders.Bothmenandwomencontribute to the livelihood system.Women’s responsibilities includingmilking cows; looking after calves; cutting grass and feeding animals; providing animals withwater and for domestic use; cleaning the house, washing clothes etc.; selling milk andmaking/selling butter inmarket; gathering firewood; selling/trading of goods; and supportingtheir husbands in coffee production, crop and vegetable growing. When the husband is notaround thewifewillbe responsible for the familyand livestock. Oftenchildrenwill alsohelpwiththeseactivities.Men’sresponsibilitiesincludefarming(weeding,planting,harvesting,selling);fencingofgrazingareas(enclosuresfordifferenttypesofanimals)andthoseareasthatareusedforcut-and-carryand/or hay production; veterinary care of animals including taking for vaccinations; selling ofanimals; purchasing of grazing/grass, mineral soils and other livestock inputs as required;collectingfeedsfromfarmlandsandpasturesfor livestock;feedingofmineralsoilstolivestockwhenneeded;generallivestockmanagement;andoverallfamilycareandsecurity.

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An average household head from the ‘rich’ wealth category educated to grade 3 from ahouseholdoften,has7cattle,5sheepand2donkeys,togetherwith4hectaresoffarmingland.On the land he grows coffee, enset, barley, teff, maize and vegetables such as cabbage andonion.Hisannualharvestforbarleyis8-10quintalsperhectare,andformaizeitis10quintalsperhectare–mostgrainsaregownforhouseholdconsumption.Onehectareoflandforcoffeeproduces25quintals–nearlyallsoldatthelocalmarket.Heusespurchasedchemicalfertilizerandorganicincludingcowdungandcomposttoincreaseproductivityofland.Overthelastfewyearsheexpandedhiscoffeegrowingareaasitisamorelucrativecrop.Heplanstogrowmoregrainsinfutureforhouseholdconsumption(NESO_KIM_01).Anaveragehouseholdfromthe‘poor’wealthcategoryeducatedtograde6has2cattleand1donkey, with 1 ha of farming land on which he grows coffee, enset and vegetable such ascabbageandonion.Hehasadequatefeedforhislivestockparticularlyinthewetseasonwhenhecutsgoodqualitygrassfromhisenclosure.Inthedryseasonhehastorelyonuseofensetandweeds that grow under the coffee bushes. He produces 25 quintal of coffee on his onehectareofland,thoughthiscanbeloweredto12.5quintalswhentherainfall isinadequateorerratic.Hesellsthecoffeeandensetproducedandusesthemoneytopurchasefooditemsforhouseholdconsumption. Hedoesnotusechemicalfertilizerforhiscropsbutsometimesaddscompost. In futurehewants togrowmorecrops tomore incomeandmeet familyneeds,buttheshortageoffarmlandhindersthis.Whenhiscowislactating,approximatelyeverytwoweekshiswifemakesbuttertosellinthemarket(NESO_KIM_02).A male youth aged 26, educated to grade 9 has 3 cattle and 2 sheep, and comes from ahousehold of 4 members. He has 2.125 ha of land on which he grows enset, teff, coffee,eucalyptustreesandvegetables includingcabbage,chilliandonion.Heproduces20quintalofcoffee,and50quintalforensetfromhis landwithmajoritysold.Heusescompostto increaseproductivity.Hegrowsandcutsgrassforhis livestock inthewetseasonon landthatherentsfromanother landholder for400-500/haper year. Sometimes thegrass isnotenoughandhehastofeedthelivestockensetorletthemgrazeinthemarshyareas,thoughtheycanpickupliverflukewormshere. In the dry seasonheuses enset leaves,weeds, and teff straw. In thefuturehewantstogrowmorecoffeeasthislucrative(NESO_KIM_03).Communitymembers said that thepopulation in thePAhas significantly increased in the lasttenyears.Theyalsocommentedthat in thepast therehadbeenaproblemof thievery in thekebelebutthisisrarenowduetoincreasereligiouspractice,thecommencementofcommunitypolicingandotherthings.Inthelastfewyearsanewroadhasbeenbuiltconnectingthekebelewith the woreda capita, Warka. There has also been the introduction of mechanized coffeecleaning technology, which has contributed to better quality coffee and higher prices. Withincreasedincomestherehasalsobeenanincreaseinmoney-saving.GrazingAsabove,nearlyalllivestock(particularlycattle)iskeptunderaprivatizedzero-grazing,cut-and-carry grass-fed system: there are only small patches of communal grazing around e.g. alongroadsides,orinforestareaswherethereisnocoffeebeinggrown.Itwassaidthattodayitcantake30minutes to findgrazing if required,butmost livestockkeepersdon’tuse it.Therearesaid tobesomeareasnotused foranything in thekebele,because theyaresteepand fullof

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stones and bushes, or wet/marshy and there is high incidence of liverfluke worms and thepoisonousplantcalledgonde(seepreviously)here.Thoughcommunitymembersin2016saidthattherewereareasforgrazingtenyearsago,theinformationcollected in2007suggestedotherwiseandcommunitymembersat that timesaidthat in fact the situation was the same as it is today i.e. very little if any grazing. Similarlythoughin2016thecommunitysaidcropgrowingwashalfwhatitistoday,in2007communitymemberssaiditwasmore(NESO_FGD_01).Therewassaidtobenobrowseavailableinthekebele.FeedandfodderIn 2007 community members were feeding purchased feed supplements and crop residues(mainly teff), banana leaves and enset to their livestock to get them through periods of feedshortage (mainly in thedryseason). Inadditionresidues from localalcoholbrewingwerealsofedtolactatingcowsandoxen.In2016,generallyanimalsare fedoncutgrasses, takingupabout60%of their feed.Another15% of their feed consumption is taken by leaves/stems of enset, and 25% made up ofsugarcane tops, barley and teff husks, maize stooks and straw (considered to be of poornutritionalvalue),anddifferentpalatableweeds (includingthosethatgrowunder thecoffee).Thereislittleplantingofimprovedforagegrasses,apartfromsomeelephantgrass.Ingeneralthere is sufficient feed for the livestock, though there may be shortage in a prolonged dryperiod. It takes on average 30 minutes to cut-and-carry grass (NESO_FGD_01). In 2007,respondentsmentionedthehighcostofpurchasingfodder,howevertodayitwouldseemthatmostpeoplegrowtheirownand/oruseagriculturalby-products.There is little feeding of purchased concentrates to animals, though barley can be fed todonkeys that are very important for the transportationof coffee from the farm to thehome,and then tomarket. When there are feed shortages priority is given to calves, lactating andpregnantanimals,andthosebeingkeptforfattening.WaterforlivestockIn2007respondentssaid thataccess toall communalwaterpointshadbeenstopped,andsotheymainlyreliedonsurfacewater,whichsometimesbecameaproblembetweenDecembertoFebruary(driestmonths).Todayrespondentssaidthatthereissufficientwaterfor livestockinthekebele.Whenthedryseason is very prolonged, some of thewater pointsmay dry up, but there are usually othersources available. It takes no more than 10 minutes for most people to collect water. Nopayment is required for using thewater point (NESO_FGD_01;NESO_KIM_01;NESO_KIM_02;NESO_KIM_03).

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MineralsCommunitymemberssaid that in thepast thereweremineral sources in thekebele,but theyhave over time been destroyed or ploughed up. Today, there are nomineral springs or licksclosebysocommunitymembersbuyminerals(bojii60)inthemarketbroughtbymerchantsfromShallaaandArsiNegelleworeda.This ismixedwith local soil (the red layerunder the topsoil)andfedtothelivestock.Thispracticewasalsobeingcarriedoutin2007.Livestockproduction,healthandmarketingToday,theaveragelivestockholdingissaidtobe3animals,comparedwiththe15animalsthatcommunity members aid was the average holding ten years ago, though the wealth rankingsuggestsmorethanthis.Akeyinformantfromthehigherwealthranking(NESO_KIM_01)has7cattle,5sheepand2donkeys.Thereareapproximately6776livestockinthekebelewithmorethan60%beingcattle(4155innumber), while the remaining are shoats (29.3%) (1,985) and equines (9.4%) (636). Note thelargenumberofoxen–morethan10%ofalltypesofcattle,beingrequiredfordraughtpower;andhighnumberofbulls–mainlybeingfattenedforsale.Table6.4TypeandnumberoflivestockinthePAin2015

Cattle No. Otherlivestock No.Oxen 443 Horse 318Cows 1543 Mule 13Steers 150 Donkey 305Heifers 795 Sheep 325Bulls 610 Goats 1660Calves 614 Total 4,155 Total 1,985

Communitymemberssaidtheybenefitedfromthesaleoffattenedanimals,particularly inthedryseasonwhen livestock tendtobemorehealth, there is feedavailable includingensetandhay, and animals tend to put onweight. Though enset is not favoured as a forage (can givecattlediarrheaduetohighwatercontent),itisreadilyavailable. Theyalsogetincomefromlivestockproductssuchasmilkandbutter(whenthereareconduciveweatherconditionsandgood feedsupply)and there is timeavailable toprocess them. In thepastthesellingofmilkwasviewedasataboo,notleasttopreventthesellingofthemilkthenrequired forhousehold consumption.However today thereare increasinglyotherproducts toreplace themilk consumed (thoughperhapsnotashealthy).When livestockproductsarenotconsumedathome,theyaresoldinthenearbymarket(Warka,thedistrictcapital)about10kmwalk.

60In2007,respondentssaidthatthiswassodamineralsfromtheRiftValleylakes.

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Community members said they usually sell livestock when there is a specific need such asshortageoffoodforthehousehold;forpurchaseofclothing,schoolitemsorpaymentofschoolfees;tocovermedicinal/healthexpenses;orotherfamilyevents/matters(NESO_KIM_01).Tenyearsagocommunitymembers said thatonaverageahouseholdearnedaboutETB5,000peryearfromlivestockandlivestockproducts,buttodayitisnotlessthanETB12,000.Theyfeltthat production of and income from livestock products has increased from ten years agobecauseofbetterroadaccessibility,expansionofmarketareas,theuseofinformationsystemsandcommunicationtechnologye.g.mobilephones.Itwassaidthat10yearsagobecauseofthepooraccesstomarketsetc.abullwassoldforETB3,000buttodayawell-fattenedbullcansellforETB12,000inthenearbymarket.Respondentssaidthatthefatteningofbullsissomethingtheyhave learnt inrecentyears (NESO_KIM_03).Becausehighpricescannowbereceivedforlivestockandlivestockproducts,itwassaidthatcommunitymembersoftenprefertosellthemthen to consume them at home, leading to a significant reduction of livestock and livestockproductsusedforhouseholdconsumptionoverthelasttenyears.Tenyearsitwassaidthataliterofmilksoldfor5birr,andtodayitsellsfor20birr.Livestockdiseasesweresaid tohave reduceddue to increasedavailabilityofvaccinationsanddrugs.Acommontime fordisease isat thestartandendof the rainyseason,as theweatherchanges.Diseasesassociatedwithplantpoisoningusuallyhappeninthewetseason.Therearealsoliverfluke/faciolaandleechesdhulandhulaorulanulafoundinthemarshyareasbutcareistakentoavoidallowingthelivestockintotheseareas(marshy).Thoughdiseasessuchasblackleg,pasturollosis,FMD,andgastrointestinaldiseasesareknowninthekebele,therehasbeenan almost zero occurrence over the last ten years (NESO_FGD_01). Itwas interesting to notethata key informant from the lower ‘poor’wealth ranking contradicted this view, saying thatsuch diseases were still common (NESO_KIM_02). When illness occurs communitymemberstend take animals to clinic or call the veterinary personnel to the house (NESO_FGD_01;NESO_KIM_01;NESO_KIM_02).Thoughonerespondentsaysthathealsotreatsanimalshimself(NESO_KIM_03).Thecommunityexperiencesnoconflictswithanimalsasgenerallyanimalsarekeptathomeinenclosures.5.2GERAMBAMOPAGerambamoPAissetadjacenttoforest.DuringHaileSelassie’stimethequalityandquantityofgrasswasveryhighbutproductive landwasunder theownershipof thenobilitiesand feudallandlords where access was granted upon the payment of access feeds. When the Dergueregimetookoverlandwasnationalisedanddesignatedascommonpropertyforthepeople,andsoaccesstograzinglandwasopenand“100%free”(Flintanetal2008).In 2006 more than half of the PA remained under forest while the remaining while theremaining landwasmainlygrasslandmanagedby individualhouseholds,mainlyasenclosures.UndertheEPRDFlandhadbeenmeasuredandassignedtoanindividual(orhusbandandwife)land holderwith a legal certificate. In 2006 a redistribution of landwas carried out, and anymarginalremainingcommunallandsand/orlivestockroutesweredistributedtolandless/joblessyouthasplotsofapproximately1ha.Therewasalsoasmallamountofsubsistenceagriculture.

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TodaythereisnocommunalgrazinglandleftinthePA,withalmostalllivestockownershavingtheirownpaddocks–privategrazingareaenclosedwithabamboofence(grownontheirownland).Locallycalledkalo,theenclosureisusedforcattleandsheep.Therearedifferentkalofordifferent age groups, sex and type of livestock. Horses graze around the homestead, usuallyshackledtopreventthemwanderingtoofar.Inthepastlivestockwasabletofreelyroamintheforest,meadowsandgrazinglands,thoughtherewasthedangerofwildanimalsandlivestock-thieves.FarmersinthePAgrowenset(falsebanana),barley,cabbage,onion,garlicandpotato.Livestockdungandotherorganicwaste isused tomakecompost for fertilizingcrops,particularlyensetand barley. Enset and barley provides the major staple in the diet as bread and porridge(respectively). In 2007 though the growingof ensetwas commonplace, the growingofothercropswaslesscommon.As across all of Nensebo woreda, the year is divided into twomain seasons – gana (June –October, with particularly heavy rainfall between July and August) and bona dry season(November–May)thoughinwetteryearsthedryseasoncanfinishatendofJanuary. SeverefrostcanoccurinOctoberandJanuary,whichcanaffecttheenset.Socio-economicsandlivelihoodsTable6.5GerambamoWealthRanking2007Totalno.ofhouseholds:91

Rich Medium Poor50+cattle 25cattle 2-5cattle50+sheep 15sheep 4-5sheep20+horses 3horses 0-1horseIhaenset 0.5haenset 0.125haenset12 46 3313% 51% 36%

Women tend to have responsibility for taking care of cows and calves, andmilking, includingtaking them to the enclosures, and cleaning out shelters.Women canmake butter from themilk,whichtheycansell.Theywillalsomilkthegoatsandsheep,themilkofwhichwillbeusedforconsumption inthehousehold.Mentendtopreparefeedforthe livestock;andsetuptheenclosuresincludingbuildingthefences(seebelow).Themenalsotakethelivestocktothedryseasonforestgrazingareaandwateringpoints.Themenalonesellandpurchasecattle,horses,donkeysandmules;whereasthewomenwillsometimestakecareofthebuyingandsellingofsmallruminants. Womentakecareofalldomestictasksandtakingcareofthechildren.Theyalsotakegraintothemilltomakeintoflour.Womentakecareofthegrowingandweedingofenset, andmen cut it down.Womenprepare it.Men construct households and tend to takecare of most of the crop farming activities. Community members also produce honey in avarietyofhivesincludingtraditional,transitionalandmodernhives.Inthetrendanalysisthecommunitysaidabouthalfthelandisundercropproduction,howeverfromobservationitwasclearthatinfactitwaslessthanthis.Tenyearsagothecommunitywas

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reliantonensetasastaple food,but todaythediet ismorevaried includingbarleyandothergrains.Onerespondentwhogrowsenset,barleyandvegetablessaidheproducesbetween8-10quintalsperhectare.Heconsumesmostofwhatheproduces,andsellsonlyaround4-600Birr’sworthofproduce.Heusesbothdungandartificalfertilizeronhiscrops.Thoughhegrowsmorethanhedidbefore,heneedstogrowmoretofeedhisfamily.Humanpopulationissaidtohavegrownsignificantlyinrecentyears.Polygamyisstillcommonin the PA. One key informant (identified as ‘rich’) has two wives who live in separatehouseholds,butsharethegrazingandcroppingareas(NEGE_KIM_01).ClimateandclimatechangeAsdescribedabovetheclimateintheareaisfairlywetanddroughtsareuncommon.Themostrecentdroughtoccurredin2008whenmanylivestockownerslosttheiranimals,asmanyas80-100atatime.GrazingforlivestockTwenty-five years ago grazing land in the PAwas communal and open. In 2006, as describedabove a processwas underway to allocate any remaining communal land and even livestockroutes to landless/jobless youth. Today, there is little communal open grazing left inGerambamo PA. Instead private enclosures are constructed, with different enclosures fordifferenttypesandagesoflivestock.Onerespondent(NEGE_KIM_01)saidhewastheonewhohadintroducedenclosurestothecommunitysomeyearsback.Hegrowsgrassinhisenclosuretofeedhislivestock.Duringthewetseasontheenclosuresaremovedevery2-3days,while in thedryseasontheycan stay there for around7 days.During the rainy season the groundbecomeswet and verymuddy quickly. The enclosures are found around homestead and take about 10minutes toaccess.Noonecanenteranotherherder’skalowithouttheirpermission.Therearenotrees intheenclosuresastheirpresencecanmakethegroundmuddyandsoggyunderneath,andfallenleavescanrotandmakeabadsmellthatstopsthelivestockeatingthegrass.Grassessuchasdarimo(perennialandpalatablegrass)andsidisa(leguminousandherbaceousplant,scientificallycalledtrifoliumspecies)areusedasanimalfeedduringthewetseasonoftheyear. Sidisa isusedwithcaution,because if it iseatenbyanimalswhen it is atbudding stage(especiallybycattle) itwill leadtobloatingof thestomachof theanimal,andmayevenkill itinstantly.Toavoidthisproblemtheanimalsshouldgrazethegrassbeforeitsbuddingstageorafter flowering. In fact, theherders alreadyknowhow to takenecessary caution inusing thisgrassforanimalfeed.Inthedryseasontheenclosurestendtodryupandcanbecomedusty.Thereissomestillcommonlyheldwetseasonpasturebutitisswampyandthereisapoisonousgrasscalledgondethatcanalsooccurinthearea.Therearealsoleechesandflukewormsthataffectthelivestockwhentheydrinkwaterthere.

In2007communitymembersdidnotmentionuseoftheforestareasforgrazinginthehoweverin2016,communitymentionedthatduringthedryseasonlivestockiscommonlysentintothewoodlandareas.Herelivestockareshelteredfromtheheatandgrazeintheshelterofthetrees.

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Livestockwillalsobrowsethetreesincludingsaato(Ericaarboria),heexo/heto(Hygeniaspecies)andgaramba(Hypericumspecies).Careneedstobetakenintheforestedareaastherecanbeleopard found there, and theground canbe steepand slippery. Therearenomajor livestockroutesinthePAasthereislittlemovement.In2007communitymemberssaiditwasacommonpracticeforthosewithrelativelylargetractsofenclosedlandbutfewlivestocktorentouttheirlandtothosewithmorelivestockonaseasonalbasis–itwassaidthatthishadbeencommonpracticeinGerambamoforsometime.

Browseisbecominglessavailable,mainlybecauseforestcoverisdecreasing.WaterforlivestockThoughsometimeswatersourcesmaybelowe.g.inalongdryseason,thereisnoseriouswaterprobleminthePA.Itusuallytakesabout10minutestoaccesswater.Water isfreelyaccessedi.e.withoutpayment. Inaddition there isusuallyhighhumidity in theareaandhighmoisturecontentinthegrass,solivestock’swaterneedsarenotsohighasinotherplaces.MineralspringsandlicksIn the past the community was using hora in Baatu, Dhaldu, Bursa and Arbuchi. Howeverincreasingly communitymembers have stopped using them as theywere far away and somehadbeenploughedupforcropcultivation.Insteadtheypurchaseminerals(calledbojii)fromaplace in Arsi Negele woreda, andmix it with red soil and feed it to their livestock. The bojiicontainscalcium,phosphorousandsodiumchloride.FodderandfeedFeedshortagesarenotnormallyencountered, though if thedryseason is longtherecanbeafeedshortage.Atthistimetheywillbeforcedtofeedtheiranimalswithfeedslikefalsebananaleaves (locally knownwese/wesse/ orwarke/warqee -enset), crop residue (barley straw), anddifferent plants leaves. The enset leaves and corms need to be chopped up, which can be alaborious task.One respondentcommented that though livestockwilleat theenset, it causesthe animal to get diarrhea. Barley strawhas poor nutritional quality. The researchers did notencounter anyone who fed purchased feed concentrates to their livestock. In 2007, onecommunitymembermentionedfeedingtheresidueleftfromthemakingof localbeertotheirlivestock;aswellasenset,bananaleaves,cropresidues,andhay.Atthistimethefatteningoflivestockwasalreadycommonplace.Theywill alsomove their animals to forest areas allocated as their private grazing area. Thecommunitydonottendtostorefeedandforage,anddonotmakehay.Grazinginprivateenclosurescanberented.Tenyearsagorespondentssaiditcostaround400Birrperyear,whiletodayitcostsaround10,000Birrperyear.LivestockProduction,MarketingandHealthAccordingtothetrendanalysis,tenyearsagotheaveragelivestockholdingwas50(includingalltypes),whereastodayanindividualherderhasaround20. However,thenumbersof livestock

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providedbytheworedagovernmentshowthatnumbershavesignificantlyincreasedfrom2000to2016(seeAppendix1).

Table6.6ThetotalnumberoflivestockinGerambamokebele(in2016):

Typeoflivestock NumberCattle 21,050Sheep 11,432Goats 936Horses 2,436Mule 4Donkey 9Total 35,867Table6.7CattlepopulationinGerambamoPAbystageofgrowth,sexandproductionstatus

Cattle No.Cow 5,408Heifer 5,620Bull 3,583Steer 3,315Ox 399Calf 2,725Total 21,050In2007communitymemberstoldaninterestingstoryaboutdonkeys–theysaidthatpeopleinthePAvieweddonkeyswithsuspicion.ThefirsttimeafarmerbroughtadonkeytothePAitwasshunnedbythecommunity,andwomenandchildrenwhohadneverseenadonkeybeforeranawayfromit infright–eventhecowsandotherlivestockweresaidtobeafraidof it!Thoughthiswasnotmentioned in2016, itwouldseemthatthesuspicion isstill thereasaccordingtothe above livestock figures there are still only 9 donkeys (and 4mules) in the kebele despitetheirusefulnessaspackanimals.Thecommunitysaidthattheygetmanybenefitsfromthelivestockandlivestockproducts.Theyconsume the products of livestock as food such asmilk,meat, eggs, etc.61 They do not onlyobtainmilkfromcows,butalsofromgoatsandsheep.Goatsmilktendstobegiventochildren,and sheep/cow’s milk used for coffee. They also sell the livestock and livestock products topurchaseclothesfortheirchildrenandthemselves.Inmostcasesgoatsandsheepareusedforfood in the formofmeat in thehousehold, inaddition tomarketing them.Theoxenarealsousedforploughingonthefarmlands.Horsestendtobeusedfortransportinghumansandgoodstoandfrommarketand/ortown.Theycanalsobeusedasdraughtanimals(NEGE_FGMx_01).Therecanbeascarcityof livestockfeed inthedryseason,andassuch livestocktendtobe inpoorconditionandproducinglittlemilk,resultinginlowerpricesforthemandlessincomefromtheirproducts.

61In2007itwasmentionedthatmorelivestockproductsareproducedattheendoftherainyseasonwhenagrasstypecalledqunniflowers.

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Livestockdonottendtobesoldduringharvesttimeasthecommunityhasenoughtoeat.Themost common time to sell livestock is the month or two prior to harvest time in order topurchasegrainandotherfoodstuffs.Livestockarealsoindemandattimesofreligiousandotherfestivalsorcelebrations–andthepriceoflivestockcanbehighatthistime.Generallyspeakingtherehavebeenimprovementsintheamountof incomepeopleearnfromtheirlivestock.Beforetenyearsandindividualherdercouldearnonlyabout4,000Birrfromhislivestock; whereas today a livestock herder can earn around 10,000 Birr. Consumption oflivestockproductsislessthanitwastenyearsagoasmorearesold–thisisduetoachangeineatinghabitsaswellasinanefforttoraiseincome.Womeninparticularareveryactivesellingmilkandbutter.LivestockdungIsusedasafertilizeroncrops.Itcanalsobeusedasfuel.

Accordingtothecommunity(NEGE_FGMx_01),duetotheexpansionofvaccinationservicesthetypesandincidenceofdiseaseinthekebeleisminimum.Sometimesdiseaseswillhappenatthestart and end of the rainy season (i.e. when theweather changes). Diseases associatedwithpoisoning from plants usually happen in the wet season. Generally diseases like Black leg,Pasturollosis,FMD,diseasescausedbyliverflukeworm,andgastro-intestinaldiseasesaretypesofdiseasesknowninthekebele.MostoftheseoccurinthemonthsofSeptember,Novemberand December. When animals are sick they can be taken to the veterinary clinic or call fortreatment(NEGE_KIM_01;NEGE_FGMx_01).

Artificial insemination does not tend to be used and rather livestock keepers tend to rely onmoretraditionmethodsbyplacingabullwithacowwhenreadyformating.Afterthecowhasbecomepregnanttheyput it inaseparateenclosureor(kalo) forgrazing.Theyalsoprepareasuitableandcleanshelterforthecowtosleepduringthenight:thishelpsthemgetagoodsizeandhealthycalf.Atthistimetheyputthecalfforfreesucklingsoastogetenoughcolostrum.Lactatingcowsarealsoputinacleanandgoodshelter,andarekeptinaseparateenclosureorkaloaroundtheirhomesteadsoastogetenoughgrass.Oncetwomonthsold,calvesarekeptina separate safe enclosure allowing them access to good green forages for good rumendevelopmentandtoavoidcompetitionovergrazing/orpasturebyotherolderanimals.Theycanstillbeallowedtosucklefromthecowatthesametimemilkingiscarriedout(NEGE_FGMx_01).Though conflicts with wild animals used to be fairly common, today it is not because thedestructionoftheforestthenumberofwildanimalshasreduced.Livestockthieveryhoweverissomething that increased over the last few years. Cattle and horses were the major target.Sometimes80horsescouldbestoleatatime.Andoneday5cattlewerelost.Todaythestealinghas reduced due to better communication facilities, road access, condemnation by religiousleaders,theestablishmentofcommunitylevelcommitteesactiveinsupervisingandidentifyingwho isdoingwhat in thearea including theappearanceofanyneworstrangepersons in thekebele. Respondents said that today there is no place tomovewith stolen livestock and if ithappens,itcanbeeasilydetected.

There isa livestockmarket inGerambamokebele itselfthatservestheresidentsofthekebeleand the surrounding kebeles in the woreda and adjacent woredas such as Kofele, Adaba,Dodola,GedebAsasa,andShashemene.Livestockownersbringtheirlivestocktothemarketinthe town along different routes. This is one of the opportunities the livestock owners in the

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kebele enjoy at present. In addition to Gerambamo livestock market they also use NegeleMetama(inDodolaworeda)andGata(inKokosaworeda).

6.4Synthesisandfuturescenarios

InNenseboworedathereisclearindicationoffurtherintensificationoflanduse–atrendthatwasalreadyclearlyseenin2007.Thoughrespondentssaidthatlivestocknumbershavedeclinedovertheyears,thelivestockfiguresfromtheworedasuggestotherwise,withanapproximate50%incattle,andnearlyquadruplingofshoats.Thoughtherecouldbesomemistakesinthedata,particularlyfrom2000,itwouldsuggestthatthoughlandforgrazinghasreduced,communitieshaveintensifiedtheuseoftheremaininglandinaproductivemannerincludingzerograzing,cut-and-carry,andsupplementinggrasswithagriculturalby-products.

InSolana,communitymemberssaidthattherewasnotaproblemofquantityofforageforthenumberoflivestockowned,howeverthequalityishighlyvariable.Thoughinthewetseasonthereisplentyofgoodgreengrasstofeedthelivestock,inthedryseasontheyareforcedtorelyonensetandbarley/maize/teffstraw,whichisnotofgoodnutritionalvalue.DespitethisinbothSolanaandGerambamothefatteningoflivestockforsaleappearstobeafairlylucrativebusiness,particularlywiththeimprovedaccesstomarket–akeyreasonforfarmerstoincreaselivestocknumbers.Despitethismemberssaidthattheyonlytendtoselllivestockwhenthereisaspecificneedforfinances.

InSolanainparticular,thenumberoflivestockislowerthaninGerambamo,withcommunitymorereliantonthegrowingofcrops,whichhaveincreasedintheirvarietysince2006.Thegrowingofcoffee,ratherthanrelyingonwildcoffeeisanotherrelativelynewexperience,notseeninanyotherkebeleinthisresearchstudy.ForthecommunitymembersofSolanacoffeeistheirmainincome-earner.Thecommunityisalsooneoffewtobeusingchemicalfertilisersaswellascomposttoimproveproductivity.

InbothSolanaandGerambamothosewithmorelandandlesslivestockarerentingtheirexcesslandtothosewithgrazing/grassneeds.Thisisapracticethathasbeencarriedoutforsometimebutincreasingastheholdingoflivestockbecomesmoreconsolidated.

CommunitymembersseemedoptimisticaboutthefutureoftheirlivelihoodsinbothPAs,withyouthinvolvedinagriculturalproductionincludingbothlivestockandcrops.Ingeneralitwouldappearthatincomeshaveincreased,andtoadegreethatallowssometosavemoney.Theimprovedinfrastructure,roadsandcommunicationintheareahasbeenakeyfactorinthisopeningupmarkets.Therealsoappearstobeagoodlivestockextensionsystemintheareaandreasonableveterinarycare–nearlyallrespondentssaidthatlivestockdiseaseshadreducedintheareabecauseofimprovedvaccinationprogrammes.

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7.0ANALYSISANDCONCLUSIONS

TheBaleMountainsEcoRegionhasarichhistoryof livestockproduction.Despiteanumberofchallenges livestock remains themainstay of themajority of livelihoods in both highland andlowland areas. Though movements across the altitudes still exist particularly amongstcommunitiesinthesouthernpartsoftheregionandwhotakelivestockuptoforestareasinthedry season from drier lower parts, the movement of livestock today in most areas is moreopportunistic and in response to available resources than the more predictable godantumovementsofthepast.

Figure7.1LivestockgrazingonthehighSanettiPlateau

This study has shown that trends seen ten years ago including increasing cultivation of landincludinggrazingareas,lossoflocalcontroloflandtoinvestorsandtheNationalPark(andmorerecently the Oromia Forest and Wildlife Enterprise), as well as intensification of livestockproduction and diversification of livelihoods have all intensified. Some communities alsocomplainedaboutchangingclimate, reducedrainfallandhigher temperatures (BerakPA,ErbaPA).

Accordingtothewealthranking,mostPAcommunitieshaveseenanincrease(ifonlyslight)inoverallwealthstatus.ThiswasparticularlythecaseinFasilAngessoPAwherelivestocknumbershadseeminglyincreasedeventhoughcropfarmingwasalsomoreprevalent.Alikelyreasonfor

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thisisthatthelivestockkeepershavebeenabletotaketheirlivestockuptotheSanettiPlateauwheretheirmostimportant(highquality)grazingisfound.HoweveriftheBMNPistocarryoutits threats of excluding livestock in this area, thiswill prevent suchuse and in the face of noalternatives it will likely have significantly negative impacts on Fasil Angesso community’slivelihoods. SomePAshowever are facingmore challenging conditions includingHilassa PA inGobaworeda,wherepovertylevelsappeartohaveincreasedoverthedecade.Seeminglythisisa result of reducingproductivityof land for crop farminganda lackof alternative grazing forlivestock,contributingtothepoorlivestockproductivitylevelsseen.

At thesametimecommunitiesarestruggling tomaintaincontrolof their lives (including foodand land security), population growth, access inputs and extension services to improve theirlivestock production and deal with diseases and new threats such as invasive species, andmaintainaccesstotheresourcesimportantfortheirlivelihoodsystems.Conflictsbetweenlandusersare increasing, includingbetweencommunitiesthat inthepastwillinglysharedlandandresourcesincludinggrazing.Toadegreethishasseeminglybeenaggravatedbywell-intentionedinterventionsbyNGOs.Inthosecommunitiesthatarebetter-offandareclosertotowns(suchas those in Goba woreda) the going of children to school has increased in importance andoccurrence.

InBerakPA,acommunityrich ingrazingareasandtraditionallyahost formanyneighbouringlivestockinthewetseason,hasseenlargesectionsofits landtakenoutofcommunitycontrolanduse,andprovidedtoinvestorsforgrowingofcropsandsuchasbiofuels.Thiswasaprocessstarted in the early 2000s, and during the study in 2007, communitymembers were alreadycomplainingaboutthesituation.Withtheincreaselossofgrazinglands,communitymembershavestartedgrowingmorecropsandarebeginningtoencloseandincreaseregulationsontheremaining grazing areas. Today Berak’s livestock keepers face conflicts with the investors(secretly releasing their livestock on the investors’ land in protest), and with visitingcommunitiesfromotherareaswhoarriveinBerakstillexpectingtousethegrazingastheyhavefor decades but now faced by community by-laws and rotational grazing practices. Unlesssomethingisdonetoresolvethesituationthenconflictislikely.

Humanpopulationhasgrownsignificantly in the last9-10years. SeeTable7.1.Unfortunatleyhumans are often accompanied by domestic dogs that pass disease to the Ethiopianwolf ofwhichthereareonlyapproximately150 innumber intheBaleEcoRegion.Dogspassdiseasescuchascaninedistemperandrabiestothewolves,theeffectofwhichwasmostrecentlyseeninadistemperbreakoutin2016killingoffasignificantnumberofwolves(seeFigure7.1).

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Table7.1No.ofhouseholdsinresearchworedain2007and2016

Households Woreda/kebele 2007 2016 Delo Mena Erba 547 1,176 Berak 560 1028 Harena Buluk Sodu Welmal 187 732 Melka Arba 286 1338 Goba Fasil Angesso 253 351 Hilassa 297 563 Ashuta 482 650 Nensebo Gerambamo 91 1020 Solana 154 1021 Source:KebeleAdminstrationoffices

Note:These figures shouldbe treatedwithcautionas someappear incorrectand thesourcedatahadsomeotherquestionableaspectstoit.

Figure 7.2 Sightings of wolves and domestic dogs during the 2015-16 wolfbreeding season. Source:EWCP2016

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Astudycarriedoutin2016oflandusechangebetween1985and2015,usingremotesensingandGIS,aswellasdatafromtheCentralStatisticalAgencyoncroplandandhumanandlivestockpopulationgrowthwasundertakenacrosstheBaleMountainsEcoRegion.Itshowedthatforestlost123,751hawhilefarmlandgained292,294ha.Farmlandandurbansettlementexpansionwerefoundtobethebiggestdriversoflandusechange.Forestcoverlossuntil1995waslessthan1000haperyear,whileafter1995,itincreasedtoanannuallossofmorethan5700ha.Theaverageannuallossofforestbetween1985and2015wasmorethan4500ha.Farmlandgained50,271habetween1985and1995.Between2005and2015,thegainoffarmlandwasestimatedat103,320ha.However,theaverageareaaddedtofarmlandannuallywasestimatedatabout10,575ha.Shrublandalsoshowedasimilartrendtoforestsaround1995.Approximateannuallossesofshrublandfrom1985to1995,1995to2005,and2005to2015were2204,6081,and1023ha,respectively.Patternsoflossofcoverofgrasslandchangedafter2006.Until2005,theestimatedannuallossoftheareacoveredbygrasslandwas1,536ha,whichincreasedto5,244habetween2005and2015(Hailemariametal2016).

Figure7.3LandusechangeintheBaleMountasEco-Regionbetween1985(a)and2015(b)

Mostofthearealostfromforests,grassland,andshrublandwasconvertedtofarmland.Between1985and1995,anestimated50,271haofnewfarmlandwasgainedfromforest(37.6%),shrubland(35.9%),andgrassland(16%).Inthefollowing10years(upto2005),farmlandgainedanestimatedareaof138,703hafromforests(48%)andshrubland(43%).However,between2005and2015,theareaconversionfromshrublandtofarmlanddeclinedto9%.Duringthesameperiod,forestsandgrasslandwereconvertedandcontributedtofarmlandatmoreorlessthesamemagnitude,i.e.,43.2%and42.3%,respectively.Withinthestudyperiod(1985–2015),thetotalareaofforests,shrubland,andgrasslandconvertedtofarmlandwas

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estimatedatabout123,751,93,078,and83,158ha,respectively.Duringthesameperiod,farmlandgainedabout292,294ha(ibid).

Figure 7.4Deforestatoin (a) and farmland expansion (b) in BaleMountains EcoRegionbetween 1985and2015(Source:Hailemariametal2016)

Theabovestudyshowsthat2.2%ofgrasslandintheBaleMountainsEcoRegionbetween1985and2015,aswellasforests.Whilst livestockpopulationhasexpandedatthesametime–thepressure on remaining resources is signifiicnat. Livestock keeprs across the Region arecomplainingaboutthesechanges.AllbutthosecommunitiesinNensebo,complainedthattheyhave lost important grazing areas to crop production. Not only this, but crop growing oftenblocks migration routes meaning that it takes longer to move to those grazing areas stillavailable and/or water sources. Community members are not adverse to crop growing, andindeed most respondents (apart from the very poorest) do grow some crops if only forsubsistence. Local government has encouraged this with the provision of inputs, tools andextension services as well as an increase in markets and prices of agricultural products. SeeFigure7.5foraconsolidationofthedifferentlivestockroutesdescribedbyrespondentsinthisstudy.

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Figure7.5Livestockroutesdescribedbyrespondentsinthisstudy

However, though communitymembers see the benefit of growing crops aswell as livestock,theywouldliketoseemoreextensionservicesandsupportfromgovernmentforlivestock(andnot only for crops). This was a complaint raised in the study in 2007, and though extension(includingveterinary)servicesdohaveappearedtoimprovedinsomeareassuchasinNensebo

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woreda (where livestock disease appears to have significantly reduced), in others particularlythose that are more isolated such as in Harena Buluk and Delo Mena woreda, and even inHilassa PA in Goba, livestock extension services are close to non-existent or severely lacking.Whenasked,kebelegovernmentadministrationoffices inthemajorityofPAsstatedthattheydo have one land use administration expert, one livestock expert, and one agronomist –however as suggestedby the communities the capacity of these experts to address all needsacross the woreda is overwhelming and therefore the service that they provide is severelywanting.Communitymembersblamed the lackof support for livestockasapolicy issue fromabove, which meant that adequate resources were not allocated to livestock productionsystemsandtheirimprovement.

Additionally in all PAs where there were state or investor crop-growing farms, communitymemberscomplainedthatthefarmshadintroducednewplants(invasivespecies)intotheareathat was degrading grazing areas, and even poisoning livestock. Community members alsomentionedaplant calledgonde that grows inmarshy areas and close to rivers,which causessickness anddeath to cattle if they eat it. These new invasive species are increasing in theirprevalenceandneedurgentattention. Inmostcases respondents said that livestocknumbersperhouseholdhadincreased.

Having said that, across the zones, woreda and PAs that participated in this study livestocknumbershavegrown,andquitesubstantiallyinsomecases,accordingtogovernmentfigures.InBale zone (as shown in Appendix 1) cattle numbers have increased from 2,290,163 in 2000,1,635,302in2007to2,825,215in2015.Shoatshaveincreasedfrom653,676in2000,to640,498in2007to1,934,461in2015.Equineshaveincreasedfrom234,379in2000to210,036in2007to519,887in2015.Andcamelshaveincreasedfrom67,956in2000,to125,782in2007andto226,616in2015.InGobaworedafiguressuggeststatethatby2015,totallivestocknumbersweresaidtobetotalof190,726heads,madeupof95,715cattle,74,04shoats(mainlysheep),and20,957equines,around25%increasefrom2007. Thoughthenumberofcattlehas increasedonlyslightly, it isthenumberofshoats thathave increasedmostsignificantly -bya factorofsixbetween2000and2007,andagaindoublingbetween2007and2015.Ifacomparisonismadebetween2000and2015thenshoatswouldhaveincreasedbyafactorof11.Prior to 2007 Harena Buluk and DeloMena were one woreda -Mena Angetu woreda. TotallivestockfiguresofHarenaBulukandDeloMenain2015were723,269headsoflivestockmadeup of: 479,601 cattle, 160,731 shoats, 37,515 equines, 45,422 camels. This is a nearly 3-foldincreasefrom2007,anda3.65-foldincreasefrom2000withincreasesacrossalllivestocktypesincludingcattle. InHarenaBulukalone livestocknumbers in2007totaled95,319heads,madeup of: 59,669 cattle, 23,673 shoats, 7,863 equines, and 4,114 camels. In 2015 these hadincreased to 232,377 heads of livestock made up of: 156,975 cattle, 54,917 shoats, 19,735equines,and750camelsgivinga2.5-foldincreaseontotalnumbersandwithcattle increasingnearly3-fold,shoatsandequinesover2-fold,andcamelsreducingsignificantly.Thereasonforthefallincamelnumberswasnotclear.Mostsignificantistheincreaseincattle.

InDeloMenaalone,totalnumbersoflivestockheadsin2007was154,409:thiswasmadeupof102,324cattle,26,097shoats,6412equinesand19,576camels. In2015 thishad increased tototalnumberof490,892heads,madeupof322,626cattle,105,814shoats,17,780equinesand44,672camels.This isamorethan3-fold increase(i.e. ineightyears)with increasesacrossall

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livestock types, including a more than 4-fold increase in shoats (mainly goats). This is verysurprisingconsideringthe increasedpressuresongrazing,andtheconversionofmuch landtocropfarming.

Livestockpopulationsoftheworedain2000stoodat100,617cattle;17,252shoats;and6,210equines,whichequals76,194TLUor124,079headsof livestock.No2007datawasobtained.The total number in 2015 however was 251,845 heads, made up of 156,353 cattle, 70,777shoats,and24,715equines.Thisshowsadoublingoflivestocknumbersoverthe15years,withalesserincreaseincattlenumbers(only50%),buta4-foldincreaseinthenumberofshoatsandequines. This is not surprising given themore sedentarised living in theworedawith a largeamountofcattlekeptinmoreintensifiedzerograzingsystems,whereasshoatsinparticularareabletobrowseonremainingresourcesmoreeasily.Where landpressuresprevent livestockmovement, thishas ledto thereplacementofgrazingwith zero-grazing systems (Solana PA and Ashuta PA), supplementationwith cut-and-carry ofgrasses (Gerambamo)andthe increased feedingof fodderand forage includingcropresidues,plants, enset and other. In some PAs including those in Nensebo woreda (Gerambamo andSolana) the fattening of livestock in enclosures is now an important contribution to locallivelihoods. The opportunity to do this has been increased by improved infrastructure in thearea. However, most communities say that the fodder and forage are poor substitutes forgrazing/grass and is reflected in lower productivity of livestock in some cases. The feeding offeedconcentratestolivestockwashardlymentioned.Inadditiontheintroductionof‘improved’breedshasbeenseenoverthelastdecade,thoughthesearemainlydairyanimals.Thoughthemarketing of livestock has increased however, in nearly all cases those interviewed said theyonly sell livestockwhen there isa specificneede.g. topaymedical fees, school fees,or foraculturaleventsuchasfuneralorwedding.

Ingeneralwateraccesswasnotaproblem,andthoughsomecommunitymembersmentionedit took longer to take livestock towater points in areaswhere there is increased farming, ingeneralmostcommunitieshaveaccesstowaterallyearround(excludingseverelyandunusuallydrymonths). Inadditiontheuseofhoraandhaya isstillcommonproviding importanthealth-givingmineralsforthelivestock.Thoughsomehayahavebeenlosttoagriculturesince2007,itwouldseemthatthemajorityofbothhayaandhoraarestillinuse.Wherecommunitiesdonothaveaccess to thenatural salt sourcesand/orwhere livestockdonotmove (i.e. inNensebo),mineralsupplementsarepurchased(saidtobesoda-basedmineralsfromtheRiftValleyLakescalledbajji),mixedwithsoiland feedto the livestock.Whereveterinaryservicesareavailabletheyappeartobewell-usedbycommunitymembers,includingvaccination.Thereappearedtobe little introduction of improved breeds in the more highland areas, though they werementioned in Goba andNensebo (i.e. wheremore intensification of livestock production hastakenplace).

Thelackofsecuritytolandandresourcesisanunderlyingcauseofmanyoftheproblemsthatthecommunityface.Governmentpromotesindividuallandholdingovercommunal,reflectedinthe strong drive in the area to allocate and certify individual plots of farming land toindividuals/households.Howevercommunallandsincludingthoseremaininggrazingareasthatmany livestockkeepersdependuponremainunregistered/certified.Further,because livestockaremovedtodifferentareasforwetanddryseasongrazingthelandisleft‘vacant’forpartoftheyear.Localgovernmentarguesthatthislandcouldbeputtobetterproductiveuse,andwithnocertifiedowner,thegovernmentcaneasilyallocatethatlandtootheruserssuchasinvestors

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or to landless youth. In some PAs e.g. Ashuta in Goba, the government is encouraging thecommunity to pay for grazing; and in Solana andGerambamo the leasing of grazing to otheruses is a common occurrence. The renting of draught power (oxen) is common in the cropfarmingareas.

TheintroductionofPRM(participatoryrangelandmanagement)inBerakPAbyFARMAfricaandSOS Sahel, has to a degree legitimized local land use including grazing and contributed tosecuringthelandforthecommunity,followingamanagementplanandregulatingbylaws,witha resourceuser agreementestablishedbetween the local PAgovernment and thedesignatedcooperative(s).Howeverasdescribedabove,the increasedformalisationandcontrolofaccesstothesegrazingareas(traditionallyusedbymanyneighbouringcommunitiesinthewetseason)isnowleadingtoconflictsbetweentheBerakPAandthevisitingsecondaryusers.ThissituationdemandstheintroductionofamorewatershedorlandscapeplanningapproachthatconsiderslandandresourceuseacrossthewholeBaleregion,theimplicationsofoneinterventioninoneplaceonothers in the region, andhowbest negative impacts of such an intervention canbepreventedand/ormitigated.

Forest encroachment from farming was an issue of significant importance for manycommunitiesandparticularlythosethatusetheforestareasforgrazing.Thishadnotonlyleadto problems in access resources as well as a degradation of those resources because highernumbersof livestockareusing lessavailable,butalsoconflictsbetweenherdersand thecrop(including crop) farmers. Though the Oromia Forest and Wildlife Enterprise state that theysupportcommunity-based/participatoryforestmanagement,thecomplaintsofthecommunitysuggest otherwise and the OFWE would rather appear to be seeking to restrict/prevent theaccessofthecommunityratherthanworkingwiththemtomanagetheforestareas.Thisseemsto be a lost opportunity for a win-win situation where the OFWE would benefit from thecommunityhelpingmanagetheforest,andthecommunitybenefitingfromkeepingaccesstoit.

However, themost important issueformanyofthecommunities,particularlythoseborderingBMNP(includingErbaPA-DeloMena,andFasilAngesso-Goba),istherecentdesignationofthePark and plans to demarcate the boundaries and exclude herders and their livestock fromgrazing inside. This was the most heated issue discussed, with community members highlyaggravated and increasingly resentful, and seeminglywilling to take allmeasures tomaintainaccess.TheysaidthatthissituationshouldneverhavearisenasinthepasttheyhaveprotectedtheParkandsuchastheEthiopianWolf,andarestillwillingtodoso.Indeedwhenapproacheditisusualforlocalcommunitiestocooperativewithvaccinationcampaignsofdomesticdogstopreventspreadofdiseasetothewolves.Yetcommunitieshavebeenleftoutofdecision-makingprocesses about the Park, and now these recent moves to exclude them and their livestockreflectacompletelackofregardforthem,theirlivelihoodsandtheirwillingnesstoparticipateinthemanagement and protection of the Park. They believe that if the Parkwas toworkwiththem then compromises and solutions could be found that will benefit all. A good solutionwould seem therefore that the Park authorities and supporting NGOs such as FrankfurtZoological Society improve opportunities for the participation of willing communities in Parkdecision-making and management, and compromises/agreements are established allowinglimitedandregulateduseofpartsofthePark(e.g.prioritygrazingareas)anditsresources.

The BMNPDesignation Council ofMinisters RegulationNo. 338/2014 states that an AdvisoryCommitteefortheBMNPshouldbeestablishedandwillmeeteverythreemonths.ThisshouldincludesuchastheHeadoftheOfficeofthePark,butalsoshouldincludechiefadministrators

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of thePark’sneighbouringworedas;headsof thePark’sneighbouring kebeleadministrations;representativesofthePark’sneighbouringworedacommunityelders;andrepresentativesfromyouthandwomenassociationsofneighbouringkebeles.ThedutiesofthisCommitteewouldbeto“advisetheofficeoftheParkincarryingoutitsdutiesandresponsibilities;advisetheofficeofthe Park to enhance the contribution of the local community around the Park in themanagementandconservationoftheParkwithasenseofownership;andprpareannualplansoftheParktogetherwiththeofficeofthePark”(Art.7:1-3,Regulation338-2014).HowevertodatethisAdvisoryCommitteehasnotbeenestablished.Ifitwasestablishedthiswouldbeoneof the forums where neighbouring communities could at least have a say in the BMNP. TheRegulationsalso states thatpenalties shouldbeadministeredon thosewho causedamage towildlife orwildlife resource, and on thosewho allowdomestic animals to transgress into thePark“takingintoaccountthefinancialcapacityofthelocalcommunities.”

An important future development for the region in the futurewould be land use planning atdifferent levels. Currently the Oromia Water Works Supervision Development Enterprise isproducingalanduseplanfortheBalezone.Thedocumentwasnotfinalizedintimeforreviewinthisstudy,butitwilllikelyhavestrongimplicationsforfuturelanduseinthearea,prioritizingdifferent land uses in different areas. Additionally there are opportunities for lower levels ofland use planning through the government structures e.g. at woreda level, as well as atcommunitylevel–andalreadybeingcarriedoutinBerakPAsupportedbythePRMprocess.Akeycomponentofsuchlanduseplanningshouldbeconsideringdifferentscenariose.g.withorwithout grazing in theNational Park. In addition amore indepth and quantitiative aswell asqualitiativestudyof livestocknumbersandmovementsacross thewholeBaleMountainsEco-Region(includingadetailedlivesetockpopulationcensus)isrequired.

Amajor issue iswhat is the ‘carrying capacity’ of the land–however if this is tobeproperlycalculatedthenitneedstobedoneonascaleofthewholelandscapesothatthedifferentpartsofthelandscapeandtheirrelevanceforlivestockproductionatdifferenttimesoftheyearandotherfactorsaretakenintoaccount,togetherwithmovementbetweenthese.Suchmovementis important forensuringcattle inparticular remainhealthyandproductive in thechallengingenvironment across the different altitudes and climates, so preserving the more beneficialcomponents of the extensive livestock production that has a comparative advantage in theregion:bothintermsofproductionandintermsofconservation,grasslandsifwell-managedaremore beneficial to the environment than crops. If such land use planning processes areimplementedinaparticipatory,inclusivewayinvolvingalllandusers,withpossibilitiesforsomeconsensus about future land use, then these processes could contribute to the resolution ofmanyoftheproblemsthatwereencounteredinthisstudy.

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Wakjira,D.T.;D’Udine,F.;Crawford,A.MigrationandConservationinBaleMountainsEcosystem.2015.Availableonline:https://www.iisd.org/sites/default/files/publications/migration-conservation-balemountains-ecosystem-report.pdfYosephAssefa,K.WescheandMasreshaFetene(undated),TheStatusoftheEricaceousVegetationontheSouthernSlopeoftheBaleMountains.

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APPENDIX1:LIVESTOCKPOPULATIONINBALEZONEBYWOREDAIN2000,2007AND2015Comparison of livestock populations between 2015, 2007 and 2000 where figures were available

Cattle Shoats Equines Camels Total numbers 2000 2007 2015 2000 2007 2015 2000 2007 2015 2000 2007 2015 2000 2007 2015 Bale zone 2,290,163 1,635,302 2,825,215 653,676 640,498 1,934,461 234,379 210,036 519,887 67,956 125,782 226,616 3,246,174 2,611,618 5,506,179 Selected woreda Goba 74,397 88,038 95,715 6624 39,129 74,054 17,711 26,806 20,957 0 0 0 98,732 153,973 190,726 Dola mena 102,324 322,626 26,097 105,814 6412 17,780 19,576 44,672 154,409 490,892 Harenna Buluk

145,850 59,669 156,975

33,939

23,673 54,917

5906

7,863 19,735

11,953

4114 750

197,648

95,319 232,377 West Arsi zone N/A N/A 284,001 N/A N/A 1,423,745 N/A N/A 481,733 N/A N/A 9 N/A N/A 2,189,488 Selected woreda Nensebo 100,617 N/A 156,353 17,252 N/A 70,777 6210 N/A 24,715 0 N/A 0 124,079 N/A 251,845

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A. Livestock Population of Bale zone by woreda in Year 2015 (Zone, Livestock and Fishery Development Agency, Robe 2015) Woreda Shoats Equine

Cattle

Sheep Goat Horse Mule Donkey Camel Poultry

Agarfa 229,206 46,070 29,634 11,810 4,983 16,984 0 40,150

Berebere 311,881 14,931 155,265 838 17,128 28,045 8,133 132,755

Dinsho 69,515 80,498 8,859 18,461 358 6,949 0 25,666

Gasara 128,266 17,560 17,301 6,112 1,298 11,037 0 32,349

Gindhir 204,278 17,121 61,742 2,501 3,571 28,813 4,650 75,981

Gololcha 161,830 11,101 49,679 1,632 3,295 21,592 2,990 39,210

Gobba 95,715 63,405 10,649 11,225 2,151 7,581 0 17,642

Goro 135,742 8,789 25,371 1,960 3,994 10,922 1,684 26,757

Sinana 287,825 55,978 15,769 9,200 2,820 14,000 0 60,000

Dalo Mena 322,626 14,912 90,902 13,994 1,275 2,511 44,672 50,665

Dawe Kachan 89,184 35,563 100,725 5,647 35 269 20,289 10,472

Dawe Sarar 51,393 53,381 114,145 11,212 10 50 38,588 9,420

Gura Dhamole 88,512 13,721 39,378 5,893 333 1,129 4,639 8,454

Harena Buluk 156,975 7,782 47,135 8,706 5,753 5,277 750 38,881

Laga Hidha 175,100 14,800 252,000 160,100 6 9,340 38,700 23,314

Madda Walabu 213,962 11,901 233,020 7,873 1,541 4,775 19,446 133,249

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Rayitu 50,355 31,733 92,151 13,163 811 294 39,992 4,653

Sawena 52,850 29,500 61,990 9,750 295 585 19,540 18,044

Total 2,825,215 528,746 1,405,715 300,077 49,657 170,153 244,073 747,662

Source: Bale Zone Livestock and Fishery Development Agency Office

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B. Livestock Populations of Bale zone by woreda in Year 2007 (Zonal Agricultural Office, Robe 2007) CATTLE SHOATS EQUINES CAMELS TOTAL Woreda Oxen Steer Cow Heifer Bull Calf Sub Total Sheep Goats Sub Total Horse Donkey Mule Sub Total Agarfa 35013 400 41649 25169 23954 15640 141825 27780 27581 55361 5111 10750 1948 17809 0 214995 Berbere 10144 5100 17775 20333 5100 20222 78674 1008 86274 87282 174 7284 2790 10248 1831 178035 Delo Mena 6079 2932 50867 24448 6261 11737 102324 4596 21501 26097 1199 4512 701 6412 19576 154409 Dawe Kachen 5458 0 7219 9900 9057 10700 78674 3562 18186 21748 73 2937 563 3573 7154 111149 D/Sarer NA NA NA NA NA NA 6400 5708 17492 23200 0 2571 9 2580 5822 38002 Dinsho 9542 474 54806 8058 7130 12892 92902 43434 4169 47603 10995 2238 1050 14283 0 154788 Gassera 15753 1575 24629 11377 14315 12341 79990 15753 17328 33081 7877 8758 6302 22937 0 136008 Gindir 27618 1165 59723 31859 836 20479 141680 5648 19957 25605 583 13236 834 14653 407 182345 Gololcha 8477 6935 31904 23898 19044 23334 113592 2601 23409 26010 44 8606 629 9279 813 149694 Goba 15680 981 33746 10268 9693 17670 88038 31083 8046 39129 18193 6334 2279 26806 0 153973 Goro 25676 0 55440 25917 21254 23701 151988 7787 3733 11520 1555 8746 3429 13730 9829 187067 Gura Damole 2917 239 11795 5991 2433 4125 27500 755 7090 7845 279 1450 204 1933 2550 39828 Herena Buluk 3647 1086 21531 11231 9521 12653 59669 4710 18963 23673 2709 3952 1202 7863 4114 95319 Laga Hida 10312 13258 45668 26517 23572 27990 147317 5671 57128 62799 0 11607 6328 17935 23119 251170 Meda Walabu 9048 4530 30143 9585 14177 14264 81747 3672 59559 63231 10 2766 937 3713 16227 164918 Raitu 2165 0 9023 5065 2333 3864 22450 11508 22661 34169 181 4045 41 4267 9020 69906 Sewena 14502 0 15210 7476 7562 7032 51782 13948 4260 18208 2 4136 243 4381 25320 99691 Sinana 40701 2076 45264 32646 23665 24398 168750 19486 14451 33937 4134 20579 2921 27634 0 230321 Total 242732 40751 556392 289738 199907 263042 1635302 208710 431788 640498 53119 124507 32410 210036 125782 2611618

NOTE - The cattle sub total for Dawe Kachen is incorrect but has been maintained so as not to alter the rest of the data.

110

C. Livestock Population in Bale zone by woreda in 2000 (Oromia government 2000).

SHOATS EQUINES Woreda CATTLE Sheep Goats Sub total Horse Donkey Mule Sub Total CAMELS TOTAL Adaba 176187 48349 20529 68878 14034 12001 530 26565 0 271630 Agarfa 130914 12225 10867 23092 3112 7732 1033 11877 0 165883 Beltu Laga Hida 103851 7795 2055 9850 0 2055 391 2446 16313 132460 Berbere 74500 3850 26400 30250 NA NA NA 4752 2210 111712 Dodelo 266619 42336 10273 52609 NA NA NA 38648 0 357876 Gasera Gololcha 307561 5934 56158 62092 4301 10100 2864 17265 393 387311 Ginir 186486 7374 37067 44441 NA NA NA 10692 0 241619 Goba 74397 1899 4725 6624 9263 832 7616 17711 0 98732 Goro 144606 3339 18203 21542 2061 4224 1329 7614 4048 177810 Gura Damole 63173 NA NA 42000 NA NA NA 1580 3200 109953 Kokosa 192397 51672 23310 74982 43089 601 197 43887 0 311266 Meda Walabu 66069 50757 1711 52468 0 2249 616 2865 17509 138911 Mena Angetu 145850 3973 29966 33939 367 4394 1145 5906 11953 197648 Nensebo 100617 15620 1632 17252 NA NA NA 6210 0 124079 Raitu 5978 5978 7738 13716 NA NA NA 6636 9830 36160 Sewena 63440 5000 22000 27000 NA NA NA 2514 2500 95454 Sinana Dinsho 187518 56533 16408 72941 NA NA NA 27211 0 287670 Total 2290163 322634 289042 653676 76227 44188 15721 234379 67956 3246174

Note:Intheyear2000someworedasuchasHarenaBulukandDeloMenadidnotexistintheirownright,butwerepartofotherworeda.Thereforeithasnotbeenpossibletocalculatecomparetheirlivestockpopulationfigures.

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APPENDIX2DIGITISEDMAPSOFGRAZINGAREALOCATIONS1.GOBAWOREDAAshutaPA

FasilAngessoPA

107

HilassaPA

DELOMENAWOREDABerakPA

108

BurkituPA

ChiriPA

109

MelkaAmanaPA

NaniGaderaPA

110

WaberoPA

WaitaiGudinaPA

111

HARENABULUKWOREDAGerbiGaloPA

KumbiPA

112

SoduLalaftuPA

SoduWelmalPA

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APPENDIX2–CASESTUDYINDIVIDUALINTERVIEWS

GOFA_KIM_01

Respondent B has twenty cattle (including three cross-breeds), thirty-one shoats, eight horses, onemule,threedonkeysandthreehens62.Threeofhislivestockarecross-breed.Threearedraughtanimals,whichareusedfordraughtpowerforabout68daysoftheyear.Heisconsideredofmediumwealth.Heis forty years old and educated to 7th Grade. At the time of interview he was living on the SanettiPlateau.

Proportionalpilingoftypesoflivestock

Ingeneral,hefindsgrazingisgoodforhislivestock.ThebestmonthinthewetseasonforgrazingcattleisRajaba/Badhessa(April)andthebestmonthinthedryseasonisNovember.GrazingisscarcebetweenDecemberandMarch,whenthereislowrainfall.ThebestwetseasongrazingisfoundinTulluKorma,GogoyenaandAdoolaonthePlateauaroundhishomestead;andthebestdryseasonpasturesarefoundinChaffaBal’aandChaffaZabiclosetotheriver.InthewetseasonhedirectshiscattleouttograzeonthePlateauunaccompanied–thelivestockknowtheroutetothegrazingareaandwilltakethemselvesbackandforth(aroundoneandhalfhourseachway).Otherlivestocktendtograzeorbrowsearoundthehomestead.

There is no bad pasture area, though cattle do not like the dry season areas because the land issometimesmarshyandhinderstheirfreemovement.HeusesHoraQixiixa(qitita)asamineralsource.HeusesRiverMichaforwateringoflivestock.

Woodland grazing includes xooshinee (Toshine), adaaddoo, xuuqqaa (Tuqa) and saatoo. Livestockdiseasessuchasqufaa(coughing)andrajoo(lungworm)arefoundinthisarea–which,itisbelievedarecausedbyatypeofworm.

Table:LivestockproductionparametersTypeoflivestock Agewhensold(year) Adultmales Milk

Cattle

Livestock numberper household(range/percentage)

Female(adult)

Male(adult)

Numberofdraughtanimals

Numberof daysdraught

Monthsbetweenbirths

Prolificacyrate

Durationoflactation(days)

Milking(liters/day)

Localbreed 17 4years 5years 3 68 18months 1 210 2.5

Crossbreed 3 6months 6months ----- ----- 12months 1 270 6

Sheep 30 ---- ----- ----- ----- 5months 2 ----- -----

Goats 1 --- ----- ----- ----- 5months 2 ----- -----

62Confirmedbyphysicalcount.

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Table:Foodpurchasedandvalueofanimalproducts Feed Valuationofanimalproducts Homeconsumption* Marketed NotusedTypeoflivestock % of forage

purchased% meat(slaughter)

%milk %hidesandskin

%organicmatter

% meat(liveanimal)

%milk %organicmatter

%hidesandskin

%organicmatter

Cattle Localbreed -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --Crossbreed -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --Sheep -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --Goats -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --

*AtoJemalGutodonotpurchaseanyforage**Ato JemalGuto used animal products for home consumption; the amount of animal product hemarketed isinsignificant(ashetoldtothestudyteam);thus,thisTableisblank.

Table:ForagefeedcostandfarmgatepricesoflivestockproductsandliveanimalsFarmgateprice(inBirr) Feedcost Priceofproducts(inBirr)Type of

livestock Heifer(sub-adult)

Adultfemale

Adultmale

Foragecost(kg)*

Milk(L)

Hides &skin(piece)

Organicmatter(kg)

Draught(rent/day)

Cattle Localbreed

2500 6000 7000 -- -- --- -- --

Crossbreed

3200 20000 --- -- -- ---- -- --

Sheep 800 1200 1300 -- -- 40 -- --Goats 600 800 1000 -- -- --- -- --

*Donotpurchaseforage

Proportionalpilingoftypesoflivestockandindicators Adequate

grazingclosetohome

Adequate

waterclosetohome

Doesnot

needextrafodder

Needslittle

care

Canbeusedforpullingplough

Cattle 000000(6) 00000(5) 000000(6) 00000(5) 00000000000000000000(20)

Sheep 0000000(7) 00000(5) 00(2) 0000(4) 0(1)

Goat 0000000(7) 00000(5) 000000(6) 00000(5) 0(1)

Equine 0000000(7) 00000(5) 000000(6) 000000(6) 0(1)

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Proportionalpilingofgrazing/fodderspeciesandindicators Adequategrazing

closetohomePlentifulsupplyallyearround

Notexpensive*

Palatable Hasmedicinalvalue

Marga 00000000(8) 00000000(8) --- 000000(6) 0(1)Xooshinee 00(2) 00(2) --- 0(1) 00000000000000000(17)Saatoo 0000(4) 00000000(8) --- 000000000000 00(2)Xuuqqaa 000000(6) 00(2) --- 0(1) -

*Fodderisnotpurchased.

Proportionalpilingofgrazingresources

Characteristics Goggoyena TulluKormaa Adoola CaffaaBal’aa CaffaaZabii

GoodQuality 0000000000(10) 00000(5) 00(2) 0(1) 00(2)

GoodQuantity 000000000000(12) 0000(4) 00(2) 0(1) 0(1)

Closetohome - 00000000(8) 0000000(7) 000(3) 00(2)

Nocontroloveracces

- - - 00000000(8) 000000000000(12)

Protectedbuthavepermissionto

graze

0000000(7) 00000(5) 00000000(8) - -

Hehas been told that he canno longer access the grazing areas in theBMNP.He said that the ParkAdministrationhad toldhim that this is inorder toavoiddisturbance to theendemicEthiopianWolf.However Respondent B said that wildlife and the local people have lived with their livestock in thisenvironmentforgenerations.

Hetendstoonlysellaged(morethan4-5yearsold)andpoorerqualitylivestock.Ifhiscross-breedcowscalve, then thesemay be sold at 6months. Cross-breeds tend to have calves every 12months, localbreedsevery18months(withaprolificacyrateof1);sheepandgoatsevery5months(withaprolificacyrateof2).Localbreedslactateforaround210daysandproducearound2.5litresofmilkperday;cross-breedslactateforaround270daysandproduce6litresofmilkperday.

GOFA_KIM_02

RespondentCis56yearsold,educatedto5thgradeandisfromahouseholdof10familymembers(sixmale and four female). The household owns ten cattle (including two crossbreed and two draughtanimals),fourteensheepandsixhorses.Heisconsideredtobelowerendofmediumwealth.Hesayshesells cattleat threeyearsoldandsheepat sixmonthsold.Thedraughtanimalswork for75daysperyear.Sometimeshorsesareusedfordraughtpower.Localbreedsprovidetwolitresperday.

GoodwetseasongrazingareasareHadawe,Angesso,Munjaa,FaasilaandtheSanettiPlateau.Thesameareas are alsoused for dry season grazing – the Sanetti Plateau in particular is critical.Other grazingsites,consideredpoor, includeMicha (steepslopes)andTogona.Whenthere isashortageof feedheusually takes his livestock up to the Sanetti Plateau, where they will stay for six months or so.

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Sometimes familymembers take the livestock. He follows themain road fromGoba Town up to thePlateau,takingabouttwohours.

Favoured grass species are Xooshinee, Xoorsoo, Garamba, and Siddiisa and Saatoo. Grass is calledmarga. Saato is not so palatable, but has high medicinal value. He does not purchase fodder orconcentratesforhislivestock.

Some of the grazing areas are said to have a high instance of disease including Trypanosomes andlungwormincludingHadawe,MunjaandAngesso.

He says hehas permission to grazeon the Sanetti Plateaubut hehears that access to grazing in theNationalPark isnowprevented.Grazing inAloshe isalsopreventedduetoOromiyaForestEnterprisedesignatingthegrazingareashereasgovernmentforestland.TheParkAdministrationhastoldhimthathemustkeepoutoftheBMNPinordernottodisturbtheEthiopianWolf.

Hetakeshis livestocktomineralsprings twiceperyear–usuallyHoraQititaandHoraMutirqiso.Thishelps to keep them healthy. The major livestock diseases are Trypanosomes (waan qabbanaa),lungworm (rajoo) and black leg (dubar’aa).He uses both government and private clinics to treat thelivestock. He has begun using genetic improvement technologies such a AI and synchronisation.However,hehasnotobtainedbenefitsasheexpected.

LivestockmarketsarefoundinGobaandRobeTowns.

Table:LivesockproductionparametersTypeoflivestock Age when sold

(year)Adultmales Milk

Cattle

Livestocknumber perhousehold(range/percentage)

Female(adult)

Male(adult)

Numberofdraughtanimals

Numberof daysdraught

Monthsbetweenbirths

Prolificacyrate

Durationoflactation(days)

Milking(liters/day)

Localbreed 8 3yeras 3years 2 75 12 1 130 2Crossbreed 2 -- -- ---- ---- -- -- ----- -----Sheep 14 6months 6months ---- ----- 6 1 ------ -----Goats -- --- --- ---- ----- -- -- ----- -----Horses 6 --- ---- ---- ------ 12 1 ------ -----

Table:Foodpurchasedandvalueofanimalproducts

Feed Valuationofanimalproducts Homeconsumption Marketed NotusedType oflivestock

%of foragepurchased*

% meat(slaughter)

%milk

%hidesandskin

%organicmatter

%meat(liveanimal)

%milk

%organicmatter

%hidesandskin

%organicmatter

Cattle -- -- --- -- -- -- -- -- --- --Localbreed -- -- 100 -- -- -- -- -- 100** --Crossbreed --- --- ---- --- --- --- --- --- --- ---Sheep --- 2 --- --- --- --- --- --- --- ---Goats --- ---- ---- --- --- --- --- --- --- ---

*Donotpurchaseforage**Hidesandskinare100%marketed

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Table:Forage*feedcostandfarmgatepricesoflivestockproductsandliveanimalsFarmgateprice Feedcost Priceofproducts(inBirr)Type of

livestock Heifer(sub-adult)

Adultfemale

Adultmale

Foragecost(kg)

Milk(L) Hides &skin(piece)

Organicmatter(kg)

Draught(rent/day)

Cattle -- ---- ---- ----- ----- ---- ----- -----Localbreed -- ---- ---- ----- ----- ----- ----- -----Crossbreed --- ---- ----- ----- ---- ---- ----- -----Sheep --- ---- ----- ---- ---- 45 ----- ------Goats --- ---- ---- ---- ---- ----- ---- -----

*Thereisnopurchaseofforageandanyotherlivestock

Proportionalpilingoftypesoflivestockandindicators

Adequategrazingclosetohome

Adequatewaterclosetohome

Doesnotneedextrafodder*

Needslittlecare

Canbeusedforpullingplough

Cattle 0000(4) 000000(6) -- 000000(6) 00000000(8)

Sheep 0000000000(10) 00000000(8) --- 0000(4) -

Horse 000000(6) 000000(6) --- 0000000000(10) 000000000000(12)

- *Thereisnouseofextrafodder

Proportionalpilingofgrazing/fodderspeciesandindicators Adequategrazing

closetohomePlentifulsupplyallyearround

Notexpensive*

Palatable Hasmedicinalvalue**

Marga 000000000000(12)

00(2) - 0000000000(10)

00(2)

Saato 0(1) 0000000000(10)

- 00(2) 000000000000(12)

Xooshinee 0(1) 0(10 - 00(2) 0000(4)Siddiisa 0(1) 0(1) - 0000(4) 0(1)Xoorsoo 000(3) 0000(4) - 0(1) 00(2)Gaarambaa 00(2) 00(2) - 0(1) 0(1)

*Fodderisnotpurchased.**Sato(saato)-makestheanimalsstrongandhelpstopreventlivestockdiseases

118

**Xooshinee(toshine)-helpstofattenthelivestockandtogetmoremilkfromthelivestockthatfeeduponit.

ProportionalpilingofgrazingresourcesCharacteristics Hadawwe Angasso SannateGoodQuality 000000(6) 0000(4) 0000000000(10)GoodQuantity 0000000(7) 000(3) 0000000000(10)Closetohome 0000000000(10) 000000(6) 0000(10)Nocontroloveraccess

000000000000(12) 00000(5) 000(3)

Criticaldryseasongrazing

000000(6) 0000(4) 0000000000(10)

Protectedbuthavepermissiontograze

- - 00000000000000000000(20)

GOFA_KIM_03

RespondentDis75yearsold,waseducatedto3rdGradeandhastwowives,withchildren.Hehasfourlocalbreedcattle(twoofwhichareoxen),tensheep,1donkeyand6horses.Draughtanimalsareusedfor66daysoftheyear.Cowsaresoldatfouryearsold,andsheeparesoldat6monthsold.Hereceives2litresofmilkperdayfromlocalcows–allofwhichisconsumedathome.Manureisusedforfieldsorasfuel.Alocalheifercosts4000Birr,anadultfemale5000Birr,afemaleadultsheepcosts700Birr.Milkcanbesoldfor20Birrperlitre,andsheephidefor25Birr.Draughtpowercanberentedfor33Birr.

GoodwetseasongrazingisfoundatHadawe,MunjaaandtheSanettiPlateau.Thesearealsousedinthedry season. It takes about one and half hours to get the Sanetti Plateau, and 30 minutes to get toHadawe. Both he and family members take the livestock to grazing areas. Favoured grasses arexooshenee(toshine),xorosoo(toroso),garambaaandsaato.ThereareotherpasturesneartheTogonaandMichaRivers,butthesearenotsogoodforlivestock.TheTogonaRiverisforestedsothereislessfeedavailablethere,whilearoundMichaRiver

Mineral sourcesareHoraQixiixxaa (Qitita)andHoraMuxirqisoo (Muturqiso).Water isplentiful in thewet season, and accessible from the Togona andMicha Rivers in the dry season, around 30minutesaway.

Themostcommondiseasesfor livestockareTrypanosomosis, lungwormandblackleg.Heusedprivateveterinary clinics for treating illnesses.Hehasnever receivedany support fromgovernment livestockextensionservices.Hehasneverusedanygeneticimprovementtechnologies.

ThemainmarketsareinGobaandRobetowns,andhetakeshis livestocktherealongtheDolaMena-GobaRoad.

119

Table:LivestockproductionparametersType oflivestock

Age when sold(year)

Adultmales Milk

Cattle

Livestock numberper household(range/percentage)

Female(adult)

Male(adult)

Numberofdraughtanimals

Numberof daysdraught

Monthsbetweenbirths

Prolificacyrate

Durationoflactation(days)

Milking(liters/day)

Localbreed

4 4years 4years 2 66 12 1 210 2

Crossbreed

--- --- --- --- ---- ---- ---- ---- ----

Sheep 10 6months 6months --- ---- 6 1 ---- ----Goats --- --- -- --- ---- ---- ---- ---- ----Horse 4 2 2 --- ----- --- ----- --- ---

Table:Foodpurchasedandvalueofanimalproducts

Feed Valuationofanimalproducts Homeconsumption Marketed NotusedType oflivestock

% offoragepurchased

% meat(slaughter)

%milk

%hidesandskin

%organicmatter

%meat(liveanimal)

%milk

%organicmatter

%hidesandskin

%organicmatter

Cattle Localbreed

----- ----- 100 ----- 100 ----- ----- ---- ---- ----

Crossbreed

------ ----- ----- ------ ---- ------ ------

----- ----- -----

Sheep ------- 0.5 ----- ------- 100 100 -------

------ ------ ------

Goats ------- ----- ----- ------- ---- ------ -------

------- ------- -------

Table:Foragefeedcostandfarmgatepricesoflivestockproductsandliveanimals

Farmgateprice Feedcost

PriceofproductsType oflivestock

Heifer(sub-adult)

Adultfemale

Adultmale

Foragecost(kg)

Milk(L)

Hides& skin(piece)

Organicmatter(kg)

Draught(rent/day)

Cattle Localbreed

4000 5000 ---- ---- 20 ---- ---- 33

Crossbreed

---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ----- ---- ----

Sheep 600 700 ----- ----- ----- 25 ----- ----Goats ---- ----- ------ ------ ----- ----- ------ ----

120

Proportionalpilingoftypesoflivestockandindicators Adequategrazing

closetohomeAdequatewaterclosetohome

Doesnotneedextrafodder

Needslittlecare

Canbeusedforpullingplough

Cattle 0000(4) 000000(6) 0000(4) 000000(6) 00000000(8)Sheep 0000000000(10) 00000000(8) 000(3) 00(2) -Horse 0000(4) 000(3) 00000(5) 0000(4) 0000000000(10)Donkey 00(2) 000(3) 00000000(8) 00000000(8) 00(2)

Proportionalpilingofgrazing/fodderspeciesandindicators

Adequategrazingclosetohome

Plentifulsupplyallyearround

Notexpensive*

Palatable Hasmedicinalvalue

Marga 0000000(7) 0000(4) - 00000000(8) 0(1)Saato 0000(7) 00000000(8) - 000000(6) 0000000(7)Gaarambaa 00000(5) 00(2) - 0(1) 0(1)Xooshinee 000(3) 000(3) - 0000(4) 00000000(8)Ansha 0(1) 00(2) - 0(1) 0(1)Xoorsoo 00(2) 0(1) - 0(1) 00(2)

*Fodderisnotpurchased.3.3.Proportionalpilingofgrazingresources

Characteristics Sannate Hadawwe MunjaaGoodQuality 000000000000(12) 000(3) 00000(5)GoodQuantity 0000000000(10) 0000(4) 000000(6)Closetohome 0000(4) 000000000000(12) 0000(4)Nocontroloveraccess 000(3) 00000000(8) 00000(5)Criticaldryseasongrazing

00000000(8) 0000(4) 00000000(8)

Protectedbuthavepermissiontograze

0000000000(10) 0000(4) 000000(6)

GOHI_KIM_01

RespondentEis55yearsold,educatedto7thGrade,withonewifeandoneson.Hehassixcattle(threelocal three cross-breed), ten sheep, five goat and six equines. He is considered ‘better off’ in thecommunity.Threeofhislivestockarelocaldraughtanimalsthatworkforaround120daysperyear.Hegets2litresofmilkfromlocalcows,and7litresfromcross-breeds–allmilkisforhomeconsumption.Localcattlearesoldat4-5years,andcross-breedsat1.5-2years.Sheeparesoldaround6months–80%ofwhicharesold,and20%usedforhomeconsumption.Alocalbreedheifersellsfor3000Birr,andanadultmaleorfemalesellsfor6000Birr.Across-breedheifersellsfor8000Birrandadultfemalesellsfor14,000,andmale11,000.Sheepsellfor800,goats600Birr.Ahidesellsfor20Birr.

Good wet season pasture is found in Awash area. In addition he gives his livestock crop residues,collectedanddriedfromhisfield.GooddryseasonpastureisfoundinBusharearea,acommongrazing

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areausedbymostofHilassakebele.Ittakeshimfourhourstowalkhere.Thereisalsosomewoodlandgrazingavailableintheseareastoo.

In Bushare area and around the River Magida however, livestock commonly catch diseases qufa (adisease that causes coughing) and rajo (lungworm). Sometimes there is verbal conflictwith livestockownersinBerbereworeda,whenmovinghis livestocktoBushare.Allgrazingisopenaccessforvillagemembers.

Livestock are watered at the Magida River about fifteen minutes away, and the Tarura (about fourhours)andBushareSprings. Sourcesofminerals/saltareHoraAmbareandHoraMuturqiso,andHayaKosso(lick).

He sometimes encounters problems of feed shortage, particularly betweenDecember – April. Duringthis time livestock rely on stubble of crops and crop residues, whilst also trying to access grazing atAwashlocality.Healsofeedssuchasfagulo,furushkaandsaltbartohislivestock;andcropresiduesandadditionalconcentratesespeciallytooxenandmilkingcows.

Veterinaryhealthservicesareinadequate.Livestockareinfectedwithsuchdiseasesastrypsanomoses,lacrimationandlungworm.Hetakeshis livestocktoveterinaryclinicssuchasMisraClinicbuttheyarepoorly stocked.He has not usedAI, but has used bull services. Livestockmarkets are found in Robe,SalqaandAlemgena.Livestockmarketroutestothesehavebeenusedfordecadeswithoutchange.Hedoesnotsellanylivestockproducts.

Table:LivestockproductionparametersType oflivestock

Agewhensold(year) Adultmales Milk

Cattle

Livestocknumberper household(range/percentage)

Female(adult)

Male(adult)

Numberofdraughtanimals

Numberof daysdraught

Monthsbetweenbirths

Prolificacyrate Duratio

n oflactation(days)

Milking(liters/day)

Localbreed 3 4years 5years 3 120 18 1 180 2Crossbreed 3 1½years 2years --- --- 12 1 --- 7Sheep 10 5months 7months ---- ---- 6 1 ---- ----Goats 5 4months 4months ---- ---- 4 2 ---- ----Horse 2 ---- ---- ---- ---- 2years 1 ---- ----Donkey 2 ---- ---- ---- ---- 2years 1 ---- ----

Table:Foodpurchasedandvalueofanimalproducts Feed Valuationofanimalproducts Homeconsumption Marketed NotusedTypeoflivestock %of forage

purchased% meat(slaughter)

%milk

%organicmatter

%meat(liveanimal)

%milk

%organicmatter

%hidsandskin

%organicmatter

Cattle Localbreed --- --- 100 --- --- --- --- --- ---Crossbreed --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- ---Sheep --- 20 --- --- 80 --- 100 --- ---Goats --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- ---

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Table:ForagefeedcostandfarmgatepricesoflivestockproductsandliveanimalsFarmgateprice Feedcost PriceofproductsType of

livestock Heifer(sub-adult)

Adultfemale

Adultmale

Foragecost(kg)

Milk(L) Hides &skin(piece)

Organicmatter(kg)

Draught(rent/day)

Cattle Localbreed 3000 6000 6000 ---- ---- ---- ---- ----Crossbreed 8000 14000 11000 ---- ---- ---- ---- ----Sheep 500 800 800 ---- ---- 20 ---- ----Goats 450 600 700 ---- ---- ---- ---- ----Horse 750 --- --- --- --- ---- --- ---

Proportionalpilingoftypesoflivestockandindicators

Adequate

grazingclosetohome

Adequatewater

closetohome

Doesnotneed

extrafodder

Needslittle

care

Canbeusedforpullingplough

Cattle 00(2) 00(2) 0000(4) 0000(4) 00000000000000000000(20)

Sheep 00000(5) 000000(6) 00(2) 00(2)

Goat 00000(5) 000000(6) 00(2) 00(2)

Horse 0000(4) 0000(4) 000000(6) 000000(6)

Donkey 0000(4) 00(2) 000000(6) 000000(6)

Proportionalpilingofgrazing/fodderspeciesandindicators Adequate

grazingclosetohome

Plentifulsupplyallyearround

Notexpensive*

Palatable Hasmedicinalvalue

Marga(grass) 0000(4) 000(3) 000(3) 00000(5)Sinaara(oats) 00000(5) 00000(5) 000000(6) 000000(6)Boqqoolloo(maizestalk) 00000(5) 0000(4) 000000(6) 00000(5)Hafteemidhaanii(cropresidue)

000000(6) 00000000(8) 00000(5) 0000(4)

*Fodderisnotpurchased

Proportionalpilingofgrazingresources

ChaffaaMagida(grassaround

bankofMagidariver)

Naannooqaarmaa

(cropstubbles)

Awaash(grazing

area)

Busharee

(grazingarea)

GoodQuality 0000(4) 00000000(8) 000000(6) 00(2)

GoodQuantity 0000(4) 00000000(8) 000000(6) 00(2)

Closetohome 00000000(8) 000000(6) 0000(4) 00(2)

Nocontroloveracces - - - -

Protectedbuthavepermissiontograze

0000(4) 00000000(8) 000000(6) 00(2)

GOHI_KIM_02

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RespondentFis48yearsold,educatedto7thGrade,andhassevenmembersinhisfamily.Theowns2localcattle,2horsesand16chickensandthusiswithinthepoorcategory.

Preferencesoflivestock

During thewet season Respondent F grazes his cattle on his own land, enclosed, and his horses arereleasedintograzingareasaroundhisholdingandonthebanksoftheRiversMagidaandTogona.ThisiscommonlyknownaschafaMagida.Thegrazingisnotgoodhereasitexposesthelivestocktodisease–alsoinBuserearea.Hehasaproblemgettingtohiskalobecausethewayisgettingblocked–currentlyhe isusing the road to thekalo by theagreementof thepeopleusing the landalong theway.OtherareasvisitedinthewetseasonareEjersa(fiveminutes)andEdoArda(PlaceofArda).Thereisalsosomewoodlandgrazing.Duringthedryseasonhegrazeshislivestockonhislandholdingconsumingstubbleof crops and other crop residues, and sometimes visits areas called Kejelcha and Boyida (around 30minutesaway).Allthefamilyhelpwithlivestockgrazing.

HetakesthelivestocktoHoraMuturqisoforminerals.HislivestockiswateredataSpringcalledEberabothduringthewetanddryseason–around15minutesaway.EveryoneisexpectedtokeeptheSpringclean–andifnot,thentheyarepunishedbyothers.

Respondent F also sowsmaize and oats, in order to use the stems, leaves and seeds for feeding thelivestock.Theresiduescollectedfromthelandareusedmainlyforhishorses.

Withinthreeyearshehaslostsixoxentodisease.Hetookhislivestocktotheveterinaryclinicassoonastheyshowedsignsofdisease,but theywerenotcured. HehasnotusedAIhimselfbut isawarethatsuchservicesareavailableinthekebele.TheclosestmarketisRobeandChafeDonsa,whicharesituatedinSinanaworeda.

Therehasbeencropcultivationinkebele,andasaresulthenowtakesadifferent longerroutetothegrazingareatakingdoublethetime–now1hour.TheroutetoEberahasbeencompletelyblockednowduetocropexpansion.

Table:LivestockproductionparametersType oflivestock

Age when sold(year)

Adultmales Milk

Cattle

Livestock numberper household(range/percentage)

Female(adult)

Male(adult)

Numberofdraughtanimals

Numberof daysdraught

Monthsbetweenbirths

Prolificacyrate

Durationoflactation(days)

Milking(liters/day)

Localbreed 2 4yeras 4years 12 1 365 2Crossbreed -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --Sheep --- --- --- -- -- --- --- --- ---Goats -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --Horse 2 4 4 -- -- ---- --- -- --

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Table:Foodpurchasedandvalueofanimalproducts Feed Valuationofanimalproducts Homeconsumption Marketed NotusedType oflivestock

% offoragepurchased

% meat(slaughter)

%milk

Hides& skin(piece)

%organicmatter

%meat(liveanimal)

%milk

%organicmatter

%hidsandskin

%organicmatter

Cattle Localbreed

---- ---- 100 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ----

Crossbreed

---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ----

Sheep ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ----Goats --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- ---

Table:ForagefeedcostandfarmgatepricesoflivestockproductsandliveanimalsFarmgateprice(inBirr) Feed

costPriceofproductsType of

livestockHeifer(sub-adult)

Adultfemale

Adultmale

Foragecost(kg)

Milk(L) Hides &skin(piece)

Organicmatter(kg)

Draught(rent/day)

Cattle Localbreed 400 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ----Crossbreed

---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ----

Sheep ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ----Goats ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ----Horse --- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ----

Proportionalpillingoftypesoflivestockandindicators(outoftwentystone)Typesoflivestock

Adequategrazingclosetohome

Adequatewateringclosetohome

Doesnotneedextrafodder

Needalittleveterinaryservice

Canbeusedforpulling/ploughing

cow 00000000(8) 0000000000000(13)

00000(5) 0000000000000000(16)

-

horse 000000000000(12)

0000000(7) 000000000000000(15)

0000(4) 00000000000000000000(20)

Proportionalpillingofgrazing/fodderspeciesandindicators(outoftwentystone)Typesoffodderspp

Adequategrazing/browserclosetohome

Plenty/fullsupplyallyearround/

Notexpensive palatability Asmedicinalquality

Maize 000000(6) 00(2) 0(1) 00000000000(11)

00000000(8)

Grass 0000000(7) 000000000000(12)

000000(6) 000(3) 000000(6)

Oat 00(2) 000(3) 0(1) 0000(4) 0000(4)Stubbles/straw 00000(5) 000(3) 000000000000(12) 00(2) 00(2)

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Proportionalpillingofgrazingresource(outoftwentystone)

GrazingareaCharacteristicsEjerso Arda Hambaqa Safara

Goodquality 000(3) 00000000(8) 00000(5) 0000(4)Goodquantity 00(2) 000000000000(12) 000(3) 000(3)Closetohome 000(3) 000(3) 00(2) 000000000000(12)Nocontroloveraccess 0000(4) 000000000000(12) 000(3) 0(1)Protectedbuthavepermission -- -- -- --Criticaldryseasongrazing 0000(4) 0(1) 000(3) 000000000000(12)GOAS_KIM_01

RespondentK,aged75yearsmalewitheducationstatus3rdgrade,with8familymembers.Heowns8cattle;nosheep;nogoat;1horse;nomule;nodonkey

RespondentK takeshis livestock togoodwetseasonpasturemainlygrazingareasaroundandon theriverbankofTogonaandfeedoncropresidueandstraw/stalkthatremainafterharvest.Hisgooddryseason pasture areas include places in and around state farm, grazing areas around andon the riverbankofTogonaandstubblesofcropsinfarmlandafterharvesttimeisover.TherearenoanywetanddryseasonspasturethatarenotgoodforgrazingforRespondentK’s livestockinthearea.Thereisnounsuitablegrazingareaandnowoodlandgrazingarea.

Areas where there is incidence of animal diseases in the area are grazing areas around and on theriverbankofTogonaandplacesinandaroundstatefarm.Thelivestockdiseasesinthesegrazingareasusuallyoccur inthemonthofMayinparticular.Therearenograzingareaswhereaccess ispreventedforhis livestcok.Currentlythere isnotanyaccesstomineralwatersources (bothhoraandhaya); thearea that was haya has been overtaken by crop cultivation activities. The major water source forwateringhislivestockisTogonaRiver.

There is no area of conflict with regard to grazing. But there is an area that is demarcated for park“whichiscalledMelesPark”andfoundaroundandonthebankofTogonaRiver,whichisnotallowedforgrazing:thisisaveryrecentphenomenon.

RespondentKgoestothesameplacesasmentionedintheFGD.HefaceslivestockfeedshortagebothinwetanddryseasonsoftheyearincludingwetseasonmonthsofMarch,April,May,JuneandJuly;andalsointhedryseasonsofthemonthsofSeptember,October,November,andDecember.Hedoesnotfeed his livestock by cutting grass or other plants. However, he and his family members sometimescollect fodder to feedtheir livestock.Healso feedshis livestockwithadditionalconcentratesof feedssuchasfurushkaandfagulowhichheobtainsthroughpurchase.Hefeedshislivestockwithfodderandadditional concentrates from themonths ofMayup toAugust and in the localwet season and fromSeptemberuptoDecemberinthedryseasonofthearea.

WithregardtoveterinaryandanimalhealthserviceshesendshislivestocktoveterinaryclinicssituatedinRobetownandShallolocalitywhentheybecomesick.Hesometimespurchasesthemedicinehimselfand provides it to his livestock when he observes sign of sickness. He has not used any livestocktechnologicalimprovementsuchasAIandsynchronizationyet;butheusuallyusesbullservices.

ThemainmarketingrouteistowardsRobetown,aroutethatisbecomingnarrowerandnarrowerduetoexpansionofcropcultivationacrosstheroute.Hesellsonly liveanimalswhenheneedsthemoney

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for his personal and family affairs; when they become old and when some of the female animalsbecomeinfertile/unproductiveduetoreasonshedoesnotknow.

Table:Livestockproductionparameters

Type oflivestock

Age when sold(year)

Adultmales Milk

Cattle

Livestock numberper household(range/percentage)

Female(adult)

Male(adult)

Numberofdraughtanimals

Numberof daysdraught

Monthsbetweenbirths

Prolificacyrate

Durationoflactation(days)

Milking(liters/day)

Localbreed

4 3years 3years 2 120 18months 1 180 1

Crossbreed

4 3years 3years 2 80 -- 1 --- ---

Sheep --- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ----Goats -- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ----Horse 1 ----- ----- ----- ----- ----- ----- ----- -----

Table:Foodpurchasedandvalueofanimalproducts

Feed Valuationofanimalproducts

Homeconsumption Marketed Notused

Type oflivestock

% offoragepurchased

% meat(slaughter)

%milk

%organicmatter

% meat(liveanimal)

%milk

%organicmatter

%hidsandskin

%organicmatter

Cattle Localbreed

---- 5 100 ---- 50 ---- ---- ---- 100

Crossbreed

--- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- ---

Sheep ---- ---- --- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ----Goats ---- --- --- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ----

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Table:Foragefeedcostandfarmgatepricesoflivestockproductsandliveanimals

Farmgateprice Feedcost

PriceofproductsType oflivestock

Heifer(sub-adult)

Adultfemale

Adultmale

Foragecost(kg)

Milk(L)

Hides& skin(piece)

Organicmatter(kg)

Draught(rent/day)

Cattle

Localbreed

2500 7000 8000 ----- ----- ----- ----- -----

Crossbreed

7000 12000 13000 ----- ----- ----- ----- -----

Sheep ---- ---- ---- ----- ----- ----- ----- -----

Goats ---- ---- ---- ----- ----- ----- ----- -----

ProportionalpilingoftypesoflivestockandindicatorsTypeof

Livestcok

Adequategrazing

closetohome

Adequate

waterclosetohome

Doesnotneed

extrafodder

Needslittlecare Canbeused

forpullingplough

Cattle 000000000000000(15)

0000000000(10)

000000(6) 00000(5) 0000000000(10)

Horse 00000(5) 0000000000

(10)

00000000000000

(14)

000000000000000

(15)

0000000000

(10)

Proportionalpilingofgrazing/fodderspeciesandindicatorsFeedType

Adequategrazingclosetohome

Plentifulsupplyallyearround

Notexpensive Palatable Hasmedicinalvalue

Marga(Grass)

000000(6) 00000(5) 00000(5) 0000000000000(13)

000000000000000(15)

Hafteemidhaanii(CropResidue)

00000000000000(14)

000000000000000(15)

000000000000000(15)

0000000(7) 00000(5)

128

ProportionalpilingofgrazingresourcesCharacteristicsofgrazjngresources

Togona(aroundandonthebanksofTogonariver)

Qonnamootummaa(inandaroundstatefarm-afterharvesttime)

GoodQuality 0000(4) 0000000000000000(16)GoodQuantity 0000(4) 0000000000000000(16)Closetohome 0000000000000000(16) 0000(4)Nocontroloveracces - -Protectedbuthavepermissiontograze

- -

GOAS_KIM_02

RespondentLis57years,educatedto4thgrade,andhas8familymembers.Hehas9cattle;17sheep;nogoats;2horses;nomule;and4donkeys.

GoodwetseasonpastureisfoundonthebankofMagidaRiver,whilehisgooddryseasongrazingisaplacecalledSheydaba.Alternativewetseasonpastureisinandaroundthestatefarm.Hehasnoaccesstoanywoodlandgrazingpastureforhislivestock.Thereisanincidenceoflivestockdiseasesingrazingareasinandaroundstatefarm.ThisfarmissituatedinareasadjacenttoAshutakebele.Therearenograzingareaswhereaccesstolivestockispreventedinthekebele.Theareawherethehayaisfoundhasalsobeenoverwhelmedbyexpansionofcropcultivation;andcurrentlyit isnotfunctional.Thereisnohora.ThemainwatersourcesforwateringlivestockareTogonaandMagidaRiversbothofwhichflowinandadjacenttoAshutakebele.

There is no area of conflict with regard to grazing. But there is an area that is demarcated for park“whichiscalledMelesPark”andfoundaroundandonthebankofTogonaRiver,whichisnotallowedforgrazing.Thisisaveryrecentphenomenon.

Respondent L considers himself to be a sedentary farmer who does not practice migration with hislivestock.Infactthereisnoalternativeforgrazingoflivestockatdifferenttimes,duetothewayoflife(settledfarming)andscarcityofadequategrazinglandsinthekebele.

Shortageoffeedforlivestockoccursinboththewetanddryseasonsoftheyear.FeedshortageusuallyoccursinthemonthsofMarch,April,May,JuneandJuly.Duringtheremainingmonthsoftheyeartheproblem of feed shortage is not acute, since the livestockmainly feed up on crop residues and cropstubbles and stalks of crops which remaind in the field after harvest time. He also cuts grass andaccumulatesitandfeedhislivestockintimeofshortageoffeed.Inadditionalheprovideshislivestockwithmaizeandoatsseedstoaugment livestockfeedsupply.StrawandhayarecollectedbothbyhimandhisfamilymembersandmainlyfeedhislivestockwiththesefoddersinthemonthsofJanuaryandFeruaryinparticular.Afterthefoddersarecut,hesaidwecoolect,tiethemwithrope,andacuumulatein a separate storage that ismeant for fodder accumulation.Aftermixing the fodderswith fagulo hefeedshis livestock.Healsofeedshis livestockwithadditionalconcentratesof feedsuchasfaguloandfurushka.

Duetodiseasessuchasblacklegandinternalparasiteshisanimalssometimesbecomesick.Hetakeshislivestock for treatment to Misra veterinary clinic, which is located in Hilasa kebele. He sometimespurchasesthemedicinehimselfandprovidesittohislivestockwhenheobservescertainsignofsickness

129

up on his animals. He does not use livestock production improvement technologies such as AI andsynchronization.Butheusesbullservices.

ThemainmarketrouteistoRobetown.Hetakeshislivestocktomarketwhentheybecomeold,whenitbecomesunproductive/unabletogivebirthtoacalf,andattimeswhenheneedsmoneyforhisownpurposesorhis familyaffairs.Noother livestockproductsandbyproductsare sold.There isnomuchchangewithregardtolivestockroute.However,theexistingmarketrouteisbecomingnarrowerduetoexpansionofcropcultivationacrosstheroute.

Table:Livestockproductionparameters

Type oflivestock

Age when sold(year)

Adultmales Milk

Cattle

Livestock numberper household(range/percentage)

Female(adult)

Male(adult)

Numberofdraughtanimals

Numberof daysdraught

Monthsbetweenbirths

Prolificacyrate

Durationoflactation(days)

Milking(liters/day)

Localbreed

9 5years 4years 4 105 19months 1 180 2

Crossbreed

---- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --

Sheep 18 --- --- --- --- --- 2 --- ---Goats --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- ---Horse 2 --- --- --- --- --- ---- --- ---

Table:Foodpurchasedandvalueofanimalproducts

Feed Valuationofanimalproducts Homeconsumption Marketed NotusedType oflivestock

% offoragepurchased

% meat(slaughter)

%milk

%hidsandskin

%organicmatter

%meat(liveanimal)

%milk

%organicmatter

%hidsandskin

%organicmatter

Cattle Localbreed --- --- 100 --- 100 ---- --- --- --- ---Crossbreed ---- --- ---- ---- ---- --- ---- ---- ---- ----Sheep ---- 20 ---- ---- ---- 80 ---- ---- ---- ----Goats ---- --- ---- ---- ---- --- ---- ---- ---- ----

130

Table:Foragefeedcostandfarmgatepricesoflivestockproductsandliveanimals

Farmgateprice Feedcost

PriceofproductsType oflivestock

Heifer(sub-adult)

Adultfemale

Adultmale

Foragecost(kg)

Milk(L) Hides &skin(piece)

Organicmatter(kg)

Draught(rent/day)

Cattle Localbreed ----- ----- ----- 1800 ----- ----- ----- -----Crossbreed

----- ----- ----- ---- ----- ----- ----- -----

Sheep ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ----Goats ---- ---- ---- ----- ---- ---- ---- ----Horse ---- ---- ---- --- ---- ----- ----- ----

Proportionalpilingoftypesoflivestockandindicators

Typeoflivestock

Adequategrazingclosetohome

Adequatewatercloseto

home

Doesnotneedextrafodder

Needslittlecare Canbeusedforpullingplough

Cattle 00000(5) 000000(6) 00000000(8) 000000(6) 000000000000000(15)

Sheep 000000000000(12) 00000000(8) 0000000000(10) 0000(4) -

Equine 000(3) 000000(6) 00(2) 0000000000(10) 00000(5)

Proportionalpilingofgrazing/fodderspeciesandindicators

Typeoffeed

Adequategrazingclosetohome

Plentifulsupplyallyearround

Notexpensive

Palatable Hasmedicinalvalue

Marga(grass) 00000(5) 0000(4) 00000000(8) 000000(6)Hafteemidhaanii(cropresidues)

00000(5) 0000000000(10) 00(2) 00(2)

Boqqoolloo(maize) 00000(5) 0000(4) 000000(6) 0000(4)Sinaara(oats) 00000(5) 00(2) 0000(4) 00000000(8)

131

Proportionalpilingofgrazingresources

Characteristicsofgrazjngresources

Qaarmaanaannoogandaa(stubblesandstalksinfarmlandafterharvest)

Qonnamootummaa(inandaroundstatefarm-afterharvesttime)

GoodQuality 000000000000(12) 00000000(8)

GoodQuantity 000000(6) 00000000000000(14)

Closetohome 000000000000000(15) 00000(5)

Nocontroloveracces ----- ------

Protectedbuthave

permissiontograze

---- -----

Critacaldryseasongrazing 00000000(8) 000000000000(12)

GOAS_KIM_03RespondentMis45yearsold,educatedto3rdgrade,with10familymembers.Hiswifeisaged42,educatedto3rdgrade.Hehasonecowandoneox,butnootherlivestock.Theyareinthedestitutecategory.Goodwet seasonpastures are Edo and Sheydadba areas,with less good grazingon thebanksof theMagida River as there is a plant that affects livestock health. Relatively good dry season grazing areareasaroundandinthegovernmentseedfarmenterpriseandonthebanksofMagidaRiver.Thereisnoaccesstowoodlands.ThegrazingareaaroundMagidaRiverisprotected,sinceithadbeengiventosmallenterprisesbythegovernment.Mineralsourcesarenotavailable inthearea.BeforetenyearstherewasmineralsourcearoundMagida river (which is called haya Magida), but currently it has been overwhelmed by cropcultivation.DuringbothwetanddryseasonsthemainsourceofwaterforlivestockwateringareTogonaandMagidarivers.Withonlytwocattle,thereisnoneedtomovetofindfeedandwaterforhisanimals.Allmembersofhis family participate in herding and watering of their cattle, especially his children have moreinvolvement. Grazing land which is found in areas where small scale enterprise occupies the land isprotectedandrequirespermissionandpaymenttouseforlivestockgrazinginit.Themajorwatersources forwateringhis livestockareMagidaandTogonarivers.Childrenaremainlyinvolvedinwateringofofthelivestock.Thetimetakentoreachbothoftheseriversisonehoureach.Thereisnoanycontrol,conflict,permissionandpaymentforwateringlivestock.HerbswhichareusedforlivestockarealsofoundaroundgovernmentseedfarmenterpriseandaroundSheydabaarea.They face shortages of livestock feed in the months of April, May, September and October. Feedavailability for his livestock happens in themonths of December, January, February andMarch. Themajor feeds forhis livestock includecropresidues (mainlywheatandbarely straws),oats,maize,andnatural grass among others. Household head and the children usually collect crop residues for thelivestock.Ittakesaboutoneweektocollectcropresidues.Hecollectsthefoddersandstoresinastoringhousewhichismeantfortheaccumulationofthecropresidues.Inthiswaythefodderisprotectedfrombeingspoiledspeciallybyrainandcanbeeasilymanaged.Hetakesoutthefodderfromthestoreand

132

feedshislivestockwithit.Frushkaisasupplementaryfeedforhislivestock.Hepurchasesonequintaloffrushkapermonth.ThepriceofonquintaloffrushkaisBirr450atthetimeofthestudy.He told the study team livestockdiseases likemangemites, anthrax andblackleg affectedhis animalsandhisoxwassicklastyearandcouldnotrecover.Asaresulthelosthisox.Heusuallyusestraditionalwayoftreatinghisanimalswhentheybecomesick. Hehasneverusedgovernmentveterinaryclinics.He used AI service only once but unfortunately his cow did conceive. He is willing to use improvedlivestockproductiontechnologies,butithasbecomeunaffordableforhim.Themainmarket areas are Robe town and ChafeDonsa area, and there is no any change ofmarketroutes.Hesellshislivestockwhenhefacesfinancialproblems.Mostoftheanimalproductssuchasmilkandbutterareconsumedinthehousehold.Table:Livestockproductionparameters

Type oflivestock

Age when sold(year)

Adultmales Milk

Cattle

Livestock numberper household(range/percentage)

Female(adult)

Male(adult)

Numberofdraughtanimals

Numberof daysdraught

Monthsbetweenbirths

Prolificacyrate

Durationoflactation(days)

Milking(liters/day)

Localbreed 2 2 2 1 100 1.8 1 300 1.5Crossbreed --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- ---Sheep ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ----Goats --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- ---

Table:Foodpurchasedandvalueofanimalproducts

Feed Valuationofanimalproducts Homeconsumption Marketed NotusedType oflivestock

%of foragepurchased

% meat(slaughter)

%milk

%hidesandskin

%organicmatter

%meat(liveanimal)

%milk

%organicmatter

%hidesandskin

%organicmatter

Cattle Localbreed 50 3 100 --- --- --- --- --- --- ---Crossbreed --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- ---Sheep ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ----Goats --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- ---

133

Table:Foragefeedcostandfarmgatepricesoflivestockproductsandliveanimals

Farmgateprice(inBirr) Feedcost Priceofproducts(inBirr)Type oflivestock Heifer(sub-

adult)Adultfemale

Adultmale

Foragecost(kg)

Milk(L) Hides &skin(piece)

Organicmatter(kg)

Draught(rent/day)

Cattle Localbreed --- 8000 7000 450 20 --- --- ---Crossbreed ---- ----- ------ ------ ------ ---- ---- ----Sheep ----- ----- ------ ------ ------ ----- ----- -----Goats --- ----- ------ ------ ------ --- --- ---

Table:Proportionalpillingoftypesoflivestockandindicators(outoftwentystone)Typeoflivestock

Adequategrazingclosetohome

Adequatewateringclosetohome

Doesnotneedextrafodder

Needalittleveterinaryservice

Canbeusedforpulling/ploughing

Cattle Cow 0000000000(

10)0000000000(10)

0000000000000(13)

000000(6) --

Ox 0000000000(10)

0000000000(10)

0000000(7) 00000000000000(14)

00000000000000000000(20)

Table:Proportionalpillingofgrazing/fodderspeciesandindicators(outoftwentystone)Typesoffodderspp

Adequategrazing/browserclosetohome

Plentyfullsupplyallyearround

Notexpensive palatability Asmedicinalquality

Grass 00(2) 00(2) 000(3) 0000000000(10)

0000000000(10)

Oats(sinar) 0(1) 0(1) -- 000(3) 000(3)Maize 0000(4) 000(3) 0(1) 000(3) 0000(4)Cropresidues 000000000000

(12)0000000000000(13)

000000000000000(15)

00(2) 00(2)

Frushka 0(1) 0(1) -- 00(2) 0(1)

Table:Proportionalpillingofgrazingresource(outoftwentystone)GrazingareaCharacteristicsTogonariverbank Magidareverbank Arda

Goodquality 0000(4) 0000000000(10) 000000(6)Goodquantity 000000(6) 0000000000(10) 0000(4)Closetohome 00000(5) 00000(5) 0000000000

(10)Nocontroloveraccess 00000(5) 00000(5) 0000000000

(10)Protectedbuthavepermission 0000000(7) 0000000000000(13) ---Criticaldryseasongrazing 0000000(7) 0000000000000(13) ---

134

HBSW_KIM_01

RespondentGis50yearsold,educatedtoGrade4,withonewifeandtenchildren.Hiswifeis38yearsold,educatedtoGrade2.Theyhave5cattle(including2draughtanimals),15hivesand2chickens(i.e.poor).Cowsproducetwolitresperday.AlocalheiferisproducedbyBirr2000,anadultfemalewillsellforBirr4000,anoxforBirr7000.

Preferredlivestock

Types oflivestock

Adequategrazingclosetohome

Adequatewateringclosetohome

Does not needextrafodder

Need a littleveterinaryservice

Can be used forpulling/ploughing

Cow !! !!!! !!!!!!

!!! 0

Ox !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!

Wet season grazing is atWerba, Dagona, Lakkuu andWaamichana. Dry season grazing is at Dagona,Callicho,AlemganaandGuurii.BrowsingisfoundintheforestsincludingsitesArabee,Matagomaa,andGagamaa.Browseisalsofoundinthelowlands–inAaraa,HirqeeandDhigrii.

The livestockmovestotheForest inthedryseason.Aftertwomonthsthe livestockmovesoutoftheForestandstaysaroundthehomesteadforatleastthreeweeks.Duringthisperiodthelivestockisfedwithcropresidues,leavesandsweetpotatoes,leavesofsugarcaneandthosewhocanafforditwillfeedsugarcanetotheirlivestockuntiltheyaremovedtothelowlands.

Preferredfoddertypes

Typesoffodderspp Adequategrazing/browserclosetohome

Plentyfullsupplyallyearround

Notexpensive

palatability As medicinalquality

Grass !!! ! !!!! !!!!!!

Browse ! !!!!!!

! !

Maizeleaves !!!! !! !!!!!

!!!

Teffstraw !!!! ! !!! !!Sweetpotato !!!!

!!!! !!! !!!!

!

Preferredgrazingsources

Grazingarea

Warabbaa Dagonaa Melkaarba CallichooGoodquality !! !!!! !!!!

!!!!!!!!!!

Goodquantity ! ! !!!!!!

!!!!!!!!!!!!

Closetohome !!!!!

!!!!!!!!!

!!! !!!!

Nocontroloveraccess !!!!!!!

!!!! !!! !!!!!!

Protectedbuthavepermission

Criticaldryseasongrazing !!! !!!!!!

! !!!!!!!!!!

135

SoduWelmalissurroundedbyriversthatflowfromtheForest.Waterisavailablethroughouttheyearinboththedryandwetseasongrazingareas.

MinerallicksarefoundatMelkaArbakebeleincluding:HayaUrdee,HayaGurraachaa,HayaDiimaa,andHaya Bitaachaa; and in Sodu kebele includingHaya Jigichaa andHaya Bishan Adii (though access hasbeendenieddue to crop cultivation in the area).Mineral springs also exist in SoduWelmal includingHoraBusooftuu,HoraHabiree,HoraWerseessaa(Shawee)andHoraDhoqqee.

Lionshavebeenknown toattack the livestock in the Forestduring thedry season– familymembersmovewiththelivestockandwatchthem.

LivestockaresoldinAngetu,MelkaArbaandDeloMenamarkets.DeloMenais8hoursaway,buttheprice ismore thanwhat is receivedatAngetuandMelkaArbaclose to thevillage.RespondentGhasseenthatthesettlersbringinimprovedlivestockandintensivelymanagelivestock,buthehasnotheardaboutanyextensionservicesorprovisionofimprovedbreedsfromthegovernment.

HBMA_KIM_01

RespondentH is66yearsold,hehasnoeducation.Hehastenchildrenandonewife (?).Heowns14cattle(twoofwhichareoxenthatworkfiftydaysdraughtperyear),5goats,and1donkey.Hehas2haof landforgrowingcropsincludingteff,haricotbeanandsesame.Lactatingcowsgiveabout1litreofmilkperdayusedforhomeconsumption.Localbreedheiferssellfor2000Birr,anadultfemalefor4000Birr,andanoxfor6000male.Goatssellfor600-800Birr.

Preferredlivestocktypes(outof20xstones)

Typesoflivestock Adequate grazingclosetohome

Adequatewatering close tohome

Does not needextrafodder

Need a littleveterinaryservice

Can be used forpulling/ploughing

Cow 5 7 3 3 0Ox 7 6 5 5 20Goat 3 4 6 5 0Donkey 2 3 6 7 0

DuringthedryseasonhemoveshislivestocktoaplacedcalledCamarinearHoraGuratiiintheHarenaForest.HealsovisitsHaraDhoqee(mineralsprings)everytwoweeks.HewillstayintheForestfortwomonthswithhislivestock.Healsomanageswildcoffeeduringhisstay.Healsopracticesbeekeepingbutthegovernmentstopsthemusingfirewhencollectingthehoney.

OncethewetseasonstartshetakeshisanimalstoMelkaAmanawheregetalsoaccessesminerallicks.Hehasmarriagetiestothisareasoisgivenfavourtograzethere.

Whenhislivestockgetsickhebuysdrugsandtreatsthemhimself.Ifthelivestockarebadlyillthenhewill take them to Angetu orMelk Amana veterinary clinics. The service provided in the clinics is notsatisfactory.

136

Preferredfodderandfeedtypes(outof20xstones)

Typesoffodder Adequate

grazing/browserclosetohome

Plenty fullsupplyallyearround

Notexpensive palatability As medicinalquality

Grass 9 10 10 14Cropresidue 4 3 3 2Straw 2 2 2 1Fodder 5 5 5 3

Preferredgrazingresources(outof20xstones)

GrazingareaCharacteristicsBerak Forest MelkaArba

Goodquality 10 6 4Goodquantity 12 5 3Closetohome 4 6 10Nocontroloveraccess 12 6 2Protectedbuthavepermission - - -Criticaldryseasongrazing 2 12 5

HBMA_KIM_02

RespondentJis48yearsold,educatedto6thgrade,hastwowivesandtenchildren(fiveofwhomgotoschoolinMelkaArba).Hehas3haoffarmland.Heisconsideredtofallinthe‘rich’category.Oneofhiswives,aged35,residesinMelkaArbatownwithsixchildren,andwhooftenvisitsthesecondwifewhoresidesintheprincipalgrazingareacalledKuchuwhichtakesabouthalfadayonfoot.Thesecondwifeis28yearsoldwithfourchildrenresidesinthewetseasongrazingarea,Kuchu,wherethelivestockstayforaround2monthswhilstthereiswaterinsurfaceponds.Thereisaminerallickheretoo.

Although he is considered to be ‘rich’ he reported that he has only ten cattle, thirty goats and twodonkeys.Bothofhishousesarewellbuiltwithseveralroomsandtinroof.

Preferredtypesoflivestock

Types oflivestock

Adequategrazing close tohome

Adequatewateringclosetohome

Does not needextrafodder

Need a littleveterinaryservice

Can be used forpulling/ploughing

Cattle !!!! !!!! !!!! !!!! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!

Goat !!!!!!!!

!!!!!!!!

!!!!!!!!!!

!!!!!!

Donkey !!!!!!!!

!!!!!!!!

!!!!!!

!!!!!!!!!!

137

Findinggrazingandbrowsehasbecomemoredifficultinrecentyears,sohesoldhiscamelsandinsteadboughttwomotorbikes,whichheusestoprovidetransportservices.Hesaidthatifhadhadthechoicehewouldhavepreferredtokeepshislivestockbuthewasforcedtodosobecausethegrazingareahasbeentakenoverbycropcultivation.Hehimselfhasthreehectaresoffarmland.

Thedryseasongrazingarea is found inChalicho (Callicho)andhetakeshis livestockthere foraroundthreemonths.TenyearsagohewenttoChalichothroughAngetu,withthelivestockspendingat least45 days on the outskirsts of the forest especially around Hora Tako (Xaaqoo). However, due toagriculturalencroachment inthisareahehashadtochangetheroute,andasaresult it takesdoublethetime(2days)togetthere.

Thebufferzonebetweenthedryandwetseasongrazingareashasbeentakenbytheresettledfarmersfrom Hararghe. This zone/area is now completely under chat/quat and other crop cultivation. It isdifficult tostop inthisareaatallwith livestockandthisputsandaddedburdenonweakanimalsandcalves. Coffee plantations are fenced further preventing livestock movement. He said: “The grazingspaceweseethisyear;wedonotseenextyear….Changesfromfarmencroachmentisbecomingfasterthesedays.”

HoraDhoke(Dhoqee) isnearhisgrazingsiteofChalicho.Hetakeshis livestocktoHoraDhoqeeeveryweek if the livestockgrazeverywell.Hetoldus that if livestockgetsgood feed, theycanbetakentomineral springseveryweekbut if the feed is less, livestockare takenevery15daysorevena longerinterval.Takingtocattletothehora/mineralspringisrelatedtogoodfeeding. HecanalsoaccesstheWelmalRiver,whichisnearthegrazingsite.

Preferredfoddertypes

Typesoffodder Adequategrazing/browser closetohome

Plenty fullsupply all yearround

Notexpensive palatability As medicinalquality

Grass !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!

!!!!!!!!!!!

!!!!!!!!!!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!

Dhgiri !!! !!!!! !!!!!!

!!! !!!

Haroressa !! !!!! !!!! !! !!Preferredgrazingareas Qunatity Quality NoChallengeChallico/Callicho !!!!! !!!!! !!!!!Quucuu !!!!!

!!!!!!!!!!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!

138

139

DMER_KIM_01

RespondentA(DMER_KIM_01)iscategorisedasrichbythecommunity.Educatedto6thGrade,hehastwowives(oneaged32andoneaged20yearsold)andfivechildrenwholiveinthesamecompound.Heowns20cattle,20goatsand2donkeys.Alllivestockarelocalbreeds.Cattlearesoldbetweenagesof6-8,andshoatsbetween3-4years.Fourofthecattlearedraughtanimals–usedforabout30daysoftheyear.Lactatingcowsproduceabout1litreperday.

Hecollects30+quintalsofwildcoffeeperyear,andproduces50+quintalsofbarleyfromfivehectaresofland.Heisveryactiveandinvolvedinlivestockrearing,cultivationofcoffeeandcrops.Heisanactivemembersofthecommunity.

DuringthewetseasonRespondentAtakeshislivestocktoHaraGolbainBerakandstaysthereforoneand halfmonths since the surfacewater there cannot sustain his livestock longer than this. He thenproceedstoQeremsaforanothermonthdespite itbeing invadedbythornybushes(jirime).Nolongercanhetakehis livestocktoHaraSaidaandDhugichasincethe landhasbeengivento investors.AftertwoandahalfmonthshestartsmovingbacktoErbastoppinginNanegaDheerakebele,Gogowegrazingarea for two to threeweekson theway.Thenheproceedsdirectly to thedry seasongrazingareaofAwajiroandstaysthereforaroundtwomonths.DuringthistimehislivestockarewateredattheMulkaRiver. The grazing and water is good at this site. Crop residues are used to supplement feeding asrequired,andweakorlactatinganimalskeptnearthehouseholdareoftenfedcutgrassesandleaves.

140

RespondentAhighlightedthatheusedtohavelargenumbersof livestockbeforetherewereallthesechanges in (lossesof) thegrazing land.He isdissatisfiedwith cropcultivationas this requiresa lotoflabour, is susceptible to unpredictable weather changes, and requires skills that he and the largercommunitydonothave.Heistryingtoadapttothenewsituation,butseeshimselfgettingpoorerandpoorerovertime.