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LITERATURE REVIEW
Before embarking on to the study of any area of interest it is essential to look
into the pertinent work previously done on it. Since it gives a fabulous insight about
the topic and gives way to mend away the lacunae left in the process of exploration of
the research study. It helps in finding out the new horizons of our field of research.
Therefore this chapter is devoted for an analysis of various literatures available on
different aspects of Trends and levels of Urbanization with respect to Environment in
India.
Urbanization is highly diverse phenomenon, manifesting itself in a multi-
functional space and no doubt drawn attention of scholars of several academic
disciplines such as Sociology, Statistics, Geography, Economics, Political Science, as
a result of which vast literature on this subject relating to different countries, states
and cities of the world are available. It is difficult to cite all the works here. The
measurement of level of urbanization simply involves the assessment of the
percentage of urban population in cities and towns of a specified criterion. However,
the process bringing about the concentration of population into cities and towns of
various sizes are not easy to summarize and quantify.
The literature on urbanization as a process and its spatial manifestation in
terms of levels of urbanization has been extremely varied and intensive. Studies on
the emerging trends of urbanization especially from environmental perspective are
sectoral and widely distributed. In India, though urbanization is a recent phenomenon,
is posing various problems as it is arising out of more tertiary or allied services than
the secondary sector itself. The conditions, which exist in few large urban centres of
the developing countries especially in connection with the on-going mechanism in
India, have been widely criticized. The process of urbanization in India was labelled
as “pseudo” as it was different from the urbanization occurred sequentially and
gradually. In India the process of population concentration in cities was not backed by
corresponding economic progress.
Similarly, the literature on environmental issues are immense, but dispersed
and often concentrated on very specific problems and sometimes highly technical in
20
nature. The literatures available on environmental economics are much less developed
and it is only in recent times that economists are involved in the analysis of
environmental problems. Furthermore, the extra-ordinary vastness of the topic
contributes the integration of technological and economic aspects of environmental
issues and it leads to the complexity of analysis. Here an attempt is made to review
the available literature on the topic concerning urbanization and related environmental
issues.
Bert F. Hoselitz (1962)1 in his article “The Role of Urbanization in
Economic Development; Some International Comparisons” summarises the
significant differences between European urbanization and Indian urbanization in the
following words “Compared with European cities during a corresponding period of
economic development, the cities of India, therefore show the following economic
features: Urban industry is less developed and characterised by a larger number of
small-scale and cottage type enterprises; the labour force, therefore, is made up of a
smaller portion of industrial workers and a larger portion of persons in miscellaneous,
usually menial, unskilled services; the urban labour market is fractionalised and
composed of mutually non-competing groups, thus impeding optimum allocation of
resources and preventing upward social mobility and relief in the amount of
unemployment. All these features make economic development more difficult in India
today than was the case in Europe in the 19th century”.
Louis Wirth (1964)2 in his book “Urbanism As a Way of Life” observed
that urbanism is a way of life of the people who lives in urban areas tend to be highly
mobile, there are weak bond between them, pace of life is faster, larger number of
people live in close proximity to one another without knowing each other personally.
Most contact between city dwellers are fleeting and partial rather than being satisfying
relationships in themselves.
Urbanism as a characteristic mode of the life may be defined by three
interrelated perspectives;
I. As a physical structure comprising a population base, a technology and an
ecological order.
21
II. As a system of social organisation involving a characteristic and a typical
pattern of social relationship.
III. As a set of attitudes and ideas and a constellation of personalities engaging in
typical forms of collective behaviours and subject to characteristic mechanism
of social control.
There is a great deal of confusion in the use of the term ‘urbanization’ and
‘urbanism’. Urbanization is not urbanism and it is generally misconceived. Urbanism
represents a particular way or style of life contrast with that of rural agriculturally
dominated communities while urbanization refers to the process whereby a
traditionally rural bond community wholly or partially moves to adopt different
patterns of living. According to him, urbanism is a way of life of urban places. He
defines it, “the complex of trails which makes up the characteristic mode of life in
cities and urbanization which denotes the development and extension of these factors.
G.K. Roy (1988)3 in his article “Economics of Urban Solid Waste
Management” analysed the social crisis arising out of energy and material shortage
and ecological imbalance is going to hit the developed and the developing nations of
the world in a big way. Of late, the attention of the city planners and the scientists has
rightly been focussed on the huge tonnages of solid waste generated by the urban folk,
which otherwise poses a serious threat to the habitat due to its improper and
unscientific disposal. On the other hand, hygienic solid waste management techniques
are often cost - intensive. Technological innovations with resource or energy winning
are economically - balanced propositions for urban solid waste management. In this
article, a socio - economic analysis of the traditional and the methods of urban solid
waste management has been presented. Strategies for economic solid waste
management in the Indian context have also been highlighted.
Donella Meadows et al (1992)4 in their book “Beyond the Limits” explained
the obvious causes of ecological degradation with the help of a formula known as
PAT formula. The formula denoted that I = P x A x T, where I is environmental
impact, P is population. A is material throughput associated with Affluence and T is
technology. The formula showed that environmental degradation is not the result of
increased population or increased accumulation or the introduction of less
22
environmentally benign technology. It is the product of all these variables, therefore
Improvements in any one of the variables has a beneficial environmental impact.
Ramachandran (1992)5 has a mixture of intention in his book on
“Urbanization and Urban System in India” . Firstly, he wishes to write on Indian
point of view in order to correct imbalances which arise from a western dominated
literature. Ramachandran writing is full of Indian statistics and application of urban
geographical principles to India’s history of urban development. Secondly, the author
has something of a mission calling for studies which address current urban problems
in India, including proliferation of slums, the inadequacy of city transport, inflated
land values, deficiencies in infrastructure and the unequal spatial distribution of urban
services.
The scope and content of the book gives exposition and evaluation on the
general study of urbanization, the long 500 years of urbanization in India, and the
conventional geographers concerns with patterns of settlement. Ramachandran has
extensive discussions of criteria for defining urban places, the theory of systems
approaches to urban hierarchy in geographical space and the nature of city-region
relationships. He also deals with the policy of urbanization. India has an unequally
long and varied 5000 year history of invasions and successions of cultures and
peoples with their contrasting expression of urban development. Ramachandran is
ready to accept such things as green belts, planning to achieve constrained, sizes of
urban areas and so on.
C.K. Varshney (1993)6 in his book “Environmental Challenges”
commended that with increasing population and growing consumerism, the demand
for environmental resources outstrips the carrying capacity of the environment.
Moreover, the prolonged disregard to nature, cumulative impact of industrialization
and overuse of natural resources had resulted in severe backlash represented by global
warming, depletion of ozone layer, loss of biodiversity and economic disparities. Now
the environmental problems become transnational and transgenerational in character,
thereby requiring a transdisciplinary approach.
Usha P. Raghupathi (1993)7 in her book “Environmental Protection In
Developing Countries” classified the urban environmental problems and their
23
consequences into three spatial levels as (1) micro level environmental problems
related to the residence and immediate surrounding (2) micro level problems related
to the city and the region and (3) macro level problems related to countries and the
globe as a whole. Now the principal environmental concern of cities is not the
pollution by chemicals or by industrial wastes but by human discarded wastes. The
ground water or even the surface water is polluted by the discharge of solid wastes
into open dumps. So the problem of solid waste is very serious in rapidly growing
urban centres.
Amitabh Kundu (1994)8 published an article on “Pattern of Urbanization
with special reference to Small and Medium Towns in India” . According to him,
urban growth across the size categories presents some interesting features. Till the
nineties Class I cities in developed states grew at a faster rate as compared to small
and medium towns. Whereas in the less developed states, small and medium towns
grew at a similar or higher rate than that of Class I cities. This pattern changed in the
nineties. Many of the less developed states like Assam, Bihar, Himachal Pradesh,
Orissa and Rajasthan experienced high urban growth in their Class I cities as
compared to smaller towns. Cities with million plus population registered a higher
growth than the overall growth of all the Class I cities during 1981 -91 recorded 2.96
per cent growth while in 1991-2001 growth rate of 2.76 per cent was recorded. During
the same period, million plus cities grew at the rate of 3.25 per cent and 2.88 per cent
respectively.
Dileep Kumar (1995)9 in his dissertation “Solid waste disposal with special
reference to Thiruvananthapuram city” attempted to find out the composition and
sources of municipal solid waste in Thiruvananthapuram city. He concluded that the
major sources of municipal solid wastes in the city were the big 40 and small legal
and illegal markets, the slaughter houses, 20 government and 34 private hospitals,
1,000 hotels and 164,565 houses with 1,71,432 households. He estimated that the
quantity of MSW generated from the corporation area come to 264.5 tons per day and
on per capita basis it was 0.32 kg/day. He also recommended composting as the most
suitable disposal option for solid waste since 70 per cent of the wastes generated in
the city consisted of vegetable and putrescible matter.
24
Mahinder Chaudhry (1995)10 in his article “Global Population Growth,
Economic Development and Environmental Impact: Case-Study of India, 1991-
2001” discussed that both developed and developing economies face the challenge of
sustained economic development without environmental damage. Although sustained
economic growth is a necessary condition for eradication of poverty and wide-spread
increase in human welfare. Economic progress has, in general, potential adverse
environmental effects. Nature of environmental problems depends upon the level of
economic development, the nature of industrialization, the degree of urbanization and
the effectiveness of public policies. This article examines the impact of population
growth and economic development separately, but with reference to the conjectured
global warming between 1991 and 2001, with special reference to India.
Philip Amis (1995)11 in his paper entitled “Employment Creation or
Environmental Improvements: A Literature Review of Urban Poverty and
Policy in India” attempted to provides a general literature review on the question of
Indian urban poverty with the object of considering the importance of an employment
creation or environmental improvement approach to poverty alleviation. The aim of
this paper is to examine the nature of urban poverty in India and the policy response.
This paper also explores the policy responses aimed at creating employment and
increasing incomes as well as environmental improvement initiatives. The literature
clearly shows the importance of the labour market in terms of segments and
casualisation, gender and short run shocks in explaining the incidence of poverty.
However, the independent nature of environmental problems is also highlighted.
The author, on the basis of his analysis, has suggested that recent urban policy
developments have been dominated by two major reports: Firstly, the Planning
Commission’s Task Force (1983), which considered the question of urban
development from a management perspective and suggested methods to strengthen
urban local government. Secondly, the 1988 National Commission on Urbanization
(NCU) was an important study making numerous recommendations; the concern here
is with the Working Group on Urban Poverty. The main recommendations were the
continuation of area based schemes (like EIS) and emphasis on asset creation for the
urban poor through public employment schemes.
25
The Seventh Five Year Plan (1985-1990) saw the introduction of two
programmes specifically targeted on urban poverty. Firstly, the Urban Basic Services
(UBS) was designed to improve the access of low-income groups to basic services
and thus indirectly an attempt to increase productive employment. Secondly, the Self
Employment Programme for the Urban Poor (SETUP), which is a subsidised credit
scheme for income-earning assets, was introduced. Thus, the objective of this paper is
to consider these two approaches by reviewing the available Indian literature.
Anantha Duraiappah (1996)12 in his paper “Poverty and Environmental
Degradation: a Literature Review and Analysis” examined that there is much
controversy surrounding the poverty-environmental degradation nexus. The
predominant school of thought argues that poverty is a major cause of environmental
degradation and if policy makers want to address the environmental issues, then they
must first address the poverty problem. Another school of thought argues that this
causal link is too simplistic and the nexus is governed by a complex web of factors. In
this paper, a formal structure for analysing the complex web of factors is formulated
and used to review the existing literature on the links between poverty and the
degradation of four natural resource sectors. The analysis highlights the institutional
and market failures which encourage unsustainable activities, which in turn forces
some income groups into poverty. Another important factor is the role of conflicts
between different agents (income groups) in the poverty-environmental degradation
nexus. The analysis also highlighted the presence of feedback loops between
environmental degradation and poverty.
Ellen Brennan (1999)13 in her project on “Population, Urbanization,
Environment, and Security: A Summary of the Issues” advocates that one of the
most striking features of world population growth is the rising predominance of the
developing world. Currently, 81 million persons are added annually to the world’s
population (95 percent of them in developing countries). The second striking feature
is related to urban growth. Although the growth of world urban population has been
slower than projected twenty years ago, it has nevertheless been unprecedented. In
1950, less than 30 per cent of the world’s population were urban dwellers. Between
1995 and 2030, the world’s urban population is projected to double-from 2.6 to 5.1
billion, by which time three-fifths of the world’s population will be living in urban
26
areas (United Nations 1998b). As in the case of total population, there will be a
significant redistribution of world urban population between the developed and the
developing regions. Currently, 59 million new urban dwellers are added annually (89
percent in developing countries). By 2025-2030, 76 million will be added annually
(98 percent in developing countries).
Further she observed that to understand the critical linkages between
urbanization, public health and habitat, the environment, population growth, and
international security, this article highlights the trends in urban growth, particularly in
the developing world, and their potential to affect the international community. Issues
addressed include migration to the urban centres, the immediate environmental and
health impacts of urban pollution on developing country cities, and the link between
the crime and security.
John Bellamy foster (1999)14 in his book “The Vulnerable Planet: A Short
Economic History of the Environment” traced out the impact of development on
planet as changes in four key areas via, population, energy, industrialization and
urbanization. In his opinion environmental degradation is not the result of increased
population, or increased accumulation or the introduction of less environmentally
benign technology. It is the product of all these factors. Therefore improvements in
any one of these variables can have a beneficial environmental impact and vice versa.
Susan E. Chaplin (1999)15 in her paper entitled “Cities, sewers and poverty:
India's politics of sanitation” discusses the political circumstances which help
explain why the insanitary living conditions of such a large section of India’s urban
population have been ignored, and contrasts these with the circumstances which
explain successful sanitary reform in Britain in the second half of the 19th century. In
India, there is little middle class pressure for sanitary reform, in part because of the
ability of the middle classes to monopolise what basic urban services the state
provides, in part because modern medicine and civil engineering have lowered the
health risks that they might face from the sanitation-related diseases that lower
income groups suffer. In addition, the ‘threat from below’ including organized trade
union pressure was more influential in mid 19th century Britain than in India today.
The paper ends by reflecting on what factors might change this.
27
M. V. Nadkarni (2000)16 in his paper entitled “Poverty, Environment,
Development: A Many-Patterned Nexus” analysed that the tremendous complexity
and diversity of India have to be reckoned with when studying the nexus between
poverty, environment and development. The rates of growth of the country's GNP
have jumped from below 3 per cent up to the 1980s to above 5 per cent during the
1990s. But this jump has not been enough to make a substantial impact on poverty.
The incidence of poverty has declined significantly over the last three decades, but
still every third Indian is below the poverty line. Direct, target-oriented programmes
alone are not enough to deal with this problem and the stepping up of economic
development is considered a more effective strategy for eliminating poverty. Besides,
the direct programmes will have continued on a larger scale. But they need more
resources, which can be generated only through higher growth rates.
Yohei Harashima (2000)17 in his research note “Environmental
Governance in Selected Asian Developing Countries” argued that the core issue of
environmental governance is the way societies deal with environmental problems. It
concerns interactions among formal and informal institutions and actors within
society that influence how environmental problems are identified and framed. The
purpose of this note is to review and survey the current state of environmental
governance in Asian developing countries in a comparative manner, with special
reference to case studies of China, Thailand and India, the most influential countries
in each sub-region of Asia. This note reveals that, although many positive trends have
been found recently in environmental governance of Asian countries, their
environmental governance systems have not yet developed satisfactorily at the
national level.
Darshini Mahadevia (2001)18 in her paper entitled “Sustainable urban
development in India: an inclusive perspective” said that the mainstream debate on
urban development looks either at urban development or sustainable cities, and tends
to miss out on people-centred approaches to development. The former addresses the
issues of economic growth, whereas the latter that of environmental problems, to the
exclusion of development concerns of the poor. The new perspective of Sustainable
Cities in the South is an ‘inclusive approach’, which puts the vision of the poor and
marginalised sectors at the centre and includes all the dimensions of development in a
28
holistic and synergetic manner. The paper presents such a vision of sustainable cities
in India and describes activities aimed at reaching this vision.
Amitabh Kundu (2003)19 published an “Impact of Neo-Liberal Paradigm
on Urban Dynamics in India”. According to him, there has been change in the
pattern of urban growth. The urban growth rate from 1951 to 1991 was generally high
in relatively less developed states like Bihar, Madhya Pradesh, Orissa, Rajasthan and
U.P. The relatively better developed states like Punjab, Tamil Nadu and West Bengal
experienced low urban growth. The developed states like Gujarat, Haryana and
Maharashtra recorded high or medium growth. There was a significant departure of
this pattern in nineties from the earlier decades as the developed states registered
urban growth above the national average while the less developed states experienced
growth either below or equal to the Country’s growth rate. Thus, Urbanization during
the nineties is characterized by concentration of population in developed regions or
large cities.
G.V. Joshi and Norbert Lobo (2003)20 in their book “Rural Urban
Migration and Rural Unemployment in India” studied that human beings migrate
because they are living beings with experiences and aspirations. There is no dispute
regarding the fact that rural-to-urban migration is a component of population change.
Its impact is felt in the region where both ‘push’ and ‘pull’ factors operate with
varying intensity. We can visualise the possibility of positive effects of rural-to-urban
migration overtaking negative effects in a specific regional context.
Rural unemployment is one of the burning problems that India has been
facing. Its severity has increased in the period following the new economic reforms.
To think more about it is to think more about Indian rural problems in general and
rural-to-urban migration in particular.
This interesting study highlights the variations in the extent of rural-to-urban
migration at the national, state and district levels. Besides, it discusses at length the
extent of rural unemployment in India and changes in it over the years.
Barney Cohen (2004)21 in his paper entitled “Urban Growth in Developing
Countries: A Review of Current Trends and a Caution Regarding Existing
Forecasts” said that the purpose of this paper is to clarify the nature of the on-going
29
urban transition in developing countries, the quality of the available data, and the
uncertainty of existing urban forecasts. Although the recently released United
Nations’ publication World Urbanization Prospects is an invaluable resource for
those interested in studying urban change, the data in the report are somewhat
deceptive in their apparent completeness and beyond the narrow confines of technical
demography there is a great deal of misunderstanding and misreporting about what
these data mean and how they should be interpreted.
Emma Mawdsley (2004)22 in her article “India’s Middle Classes and the
Environment” has estimated that the focus of most analyses of environmental
struggles and discourses in colonial and postcolonial India is on rural and forest areas,
and on subalterns versus elites. Recently, however, there has been increased interest
in urban environmental issues, and, to some extent, in India’s (variously defined)
‘middle classes’. This article reviews a range of literatures - environmental, social-
cultural and political - in order to draw out themes and arguments concerning the
relationships between India’s middle classes and the complex meanings and
materiality’s of the environment. Three issues are explored in detail: civic
indifference and the public sphere; environmental activism; and Hinduism and
ecological thinking. The article emphasises the importance of recognising diversity
and dynamism within the middle classes in relation to the environment. It argues the
need to develop situated understandings of what constitutes ‘the environment’
amongst different middle class groups; and underlines the ways in which
environmental issues reflect and are often emblematic of wider social and political
debates.
Sivaramakrishnan and B.N. Singh (2004)23 in their study “Urbanization”
said that migration is not the principal or dominant factor in urban growth. During the
period 1981-91, natural increase accounted 60 per cent of urban growth, migration
accounted for 21.20 per cent and reclassification of new towns accounted for 18.80
per cent. The figures for the past 3 decades show that nearly 60 per cent of the total
migratory movement has been from rural to rural. However, in the case of some large
cities, for certain period of time, migration was a major factor. For instance, between
1981 and 1991, migration increased in the case of Mumbai, Delhi and Hyderabad, but
as a component of city’s growth, its share declined. However, in the case of
30
Bangalore, the proportion increased slightly. It is therefore worthy of note that the
common notion that migration largely fuels urban growth is only partial correct.
Sudarsanam Padam and Sanjay Kumar Singh (2004)24 in their paper
“Urbanization and urban transport in India: the search for a policy” has
analysed that urban population in India has increased significantly from 62 million in
1951 to 285 million in 2001 and is estimated to be around 540 million by the year
2021. In terms of percentage of total population, the urban population has gone up
from 17 per cent in 1951 to 29 per cent in 2001 and is expected to increase up to
around 37 per cent by the year 2021. Consequently, the number and size of cities have
also increased significantly. Although circumstances differ considerably across cities
in India, certain basic trends which determine transport demand (such as substantial
increase in urban population, household incomes, and industrial and commercial
activities) are the same. These changes have placed heavy demands on urban transport
systems, demand that many Indian cities have been unable to meet.
The author, on the basis of his study suggested that for example, while the
scale of urban change is unprecedented and the nature and direction of urban change
is more dependent on the global economy than ever before, many aspects of the
traditional distinction between urban and rural are becoming redundant. This paper
provides a broad overview of the available evidence on patterns and trends in urban
growth in developing countries, highlighting regional differences where appropriate.
The paper also examines the quality of past urban population projections and finds
that there has been considerable diversity in their quality by geographic region, level
of development, and size of country.
The present paper also discussed about the impact of urbanization on
environment and quality of life. The provision of infrastructural facilities required to
support such large concentration of population is lagging far behind the pace of
urbanization. As a consequence, the urban environment, particularly in large cities, is
deteriorating very rapidly. All cities have severe shortage of water supply, sewerage,
developed land, housing, transportation and other facilities. The level, quality and
distribution of services have been very poor. Several cities have indicated large
segments of urban population don’t have access to drinking water, sanitation, basic
31
health services and education. These deficiencies have serious health impacts
particularly affecting the urban poor.
This paper attempts to highlight the need for a cogent urban transport policy
without which there will be ad hoc interventions. Such interventions, apart from not
adding up to a comprehensive approach, will result in greater confusion. Furthermore,
it emphasises that if there is no worthwhile public transport, it will still need to be
reinvented to promote a better quality of life. The need of the hour is formulation of
an urban transport strategy that is both pragmatic and holistic in its approach.
Hidefumi Imura, et al (2005)25 in their paper entitled “Urban
Environmental Issues and Trends in Asia—An Overview” observed an overview
of the linkages between population growth, urbanization, economic development, and
environmental issues in Asian cities. Focusing on the areas of transport planning and
air pollution, solid waste management, and water supply and sanitation, it looks at the
major environmental issues faced by cities in the region, at the challenges confronting
city administrators, and at some of the ways that they are responding. From the
perspective of the environmental Kuznet's curve hypothesis, the authors argue that
with appropriate policies, it should be possible for governments to continue to pursue
economic growth while reducing environmental impacts.
Om Prakash Mathur (2005)26 in his book “Globalisation and Urban
Development” studied effects and implications of globalisation and liberalisation on
India’s urban system. According to him, the implication of India’s post-1991
liberalisation and globalisation on the national urban system, not only resulted in
rapid economic growth but affected cities in different ways, primarily by the growth
of Foreign Direct Investment (FDI). The urban population distribution in India
reflects the absence of primacy. In fact, the million plus cities grew more slowly in
the 1990’s in an era of lower population growth. The macro-economic reforms and
globalisation have forced many policy changes at the city level, private sector
involvement in infrastructure development and management, allowing city access to
capital markets and setting up Central Government Funding Programme to promote
urban structural change. The scale of FDI is low compared with other Asian
Countries; the direct impacts were geographically concentrated in six larger cities.
32
Globalisation hasn’t accelerated urban growth, only a few economic sectors have been
impacted and most obvious changes have been in the built environment (example,
new buildings) and spatial structure.
Sancheeta Ghosh (2005)27 in her paper entitled “Concern of Environmental
Degradation in India’s Planning –A Review” analyses that India’s environmental
problems are gaining global significance because of the rapid and aggressive speed of
urbanization and lack of infrastructure. Increasing urbanization, industrialization and
transportation, the second cousins of economic development put tremendous pressure
on natural resources and therefore there is a pressing need to strike a balance between
developmental planning and urgency to safeguard the environment. India is the first
country, which has provided for the protection and improvement for the environment
in its constitution. The author in her paper, therefore, made an attempt to throw light
on the trends in India’s planning for the reduction of environmental degradation. Data
have been used from the Planning Commission Report of Government of India, from
first five-year plan up to tenth five-year plan.
The study focused on two dimensions, such as outlays of plans in different
sector of environment taken by the government and total expenditure of the outlays.
Report shows that there is an increasing importance in planning and policies
throughout the plan periods. Though in first few five year plans there were no such
concrete policies to reduce the degradation. But from the footsteps of 6th five-year
plan, environmental degradation coming into focuses in India’s planning and policies.
Siddharth Agarwal Shivani Taneja (2005)28 in their article “All Slums are
Not Equal: Child Health Conditions Among the Urban Poor” observed that
Increasing urbanization has resulted in a faster growth of slum population. Various
agencies, especially those in developing countries are finding it difficult to respond to
this situation effectively. Disparities among slums exist owing to various factors. This
has led to varying degrees of health burden on the slum children. Child health
conditions in slums with inadequate services are worse in comparison to relatively
better served slums. Identification, mapping and assessment of all slums are important
for locating the hitherto missed out slums and focusing on the neediest slums. In view
of the differential vulnerabilities across slums, an urban child health program should
33
build context appropriate and community-need-responsive approaches to improve
children’s health in the slums.
Sivaramakrishnan, Amitabh, Kundu and B.N. Singh (2005)29 in their book
“Handbook of Urbanization in India: An Analysis of Trends and Process”
studied the urbanization; their trends and process. They studied urban settlements by
comparative method. In this book, for the first time comprehensive analysis of
urbanization trends in India was done using 2001 census data. It looks at definitional
problems in the identification of urban settlements for comparative analysis. The
realistic quantification of migration, its share of urban growth in large cities, the role
of small and medium towns, and growth of large urban agglomerations are also
considered.
They studied 17 major states across India; the study takes into account
regional dimensions both at state and district level as well as urban population growth
across states. Micro level perspectives are included by bringing district level analysis
of two developed states- Maharashtra and Punjab and two relatively backward states-
Rajasthan and Bihar. The study analysis shows:
• The extent, patterns and trends as well as socio-economic and spatial
characteristics of urbanization.
• Interdependencies between urbanization and available infrastructural facilities.
• Trends of rural-urban migration and its relationship with employment
situation.
• Globalisation and lopsided urban growth.
Sutapa Maiti and Praween K. Agrawal (2005)30 in their paper entitled
“Environmental Degradation in the Context of Growing Urbanization: A Focus
on the Metropolitan Cities of India” examined that the study concentrate on some
of the important environmental problems caused by over population growth and rapid
urbanization process in the metropolitan cities of India. Total urban population in
India has increased more than ten times surpassing India’s total population growth,
which has increased less than five times during 1901 to 2001. Also, there was about
three-fold increase in the percentage of total urban population in Class-I city followed
34
by almost a fifty-fold increase in the total population in the million plus cities in India
from 1901 to 2001. Despite several Government housing policies, 41 per cent of the
total slum population of India is residing in million plus city alone. A three-fold
increase in the number of motor vehicles has been found in India in the last decade. In
all the four metro cities SPM was found highest along with the problem of solid
wastes. The noise pollution was noticed more than the prescribed standard in all the
four metro cities. Five and more person residing in a room was faced by more than
one fourth population of Mumbai followed by a little less than one fifth population of
Kolkata and about 10 per cent population of Delhi and Chennai both. Also there is an
acute shortage of piped drinking water in these metro cities. India’s urban future is
grave.
Therefore there is an urgent need to tackle the urban environmental problem in
a rational manner giving attention to the need for improving urban strategies.
Dewaram A. Nagdeve (2006)31 in his paper entitled “Population, Poverty
and Environment in India” examined the relationship of population to the
environment and with growing population, poverty and urbanization, the environment
is degrading. The study reveals that the country's population growth is imposing an
increasing burden on the country's limited and continually degrading natural resource
base. The natural resources are under increasing strain, even though the majority of
people survive at subsistence level. Population pressure on arable land contributes to
the land degradation. The increasing population numbers and growing affluence have
already resulted in rapid growth of energy production and consumption in India. The
environmental effects like ground water and surface water contamination; air
pollution and global warming are of growing concern owing to increasing
consumption levels.
Globalisation, liberalisation, privatisation are addressing negative process for
urbanization in India. Policy relates to urban planning where city planning will consist
of operational, developmental and restorative planning.
Peter Newman (2006)32 in his paper entitled “The environmental impact of
cities” has analysed that cities are growing inexorably; causing many to think that
inevitably their environmental impact will worsen. In this paper, three approaches to
35
understanding the environmental impact of cities are analysed, namely population
impact, Ecological Footprint and sustainability assessment. Although the population
impact model provides some perspective on local impact, and the Ecological
Footprint model on global impact, only the sustainability assessment approach allows
us to see the positive benefits of urban growth and provides policy options that can
help cities reduce their local and global impact while improving their liveability and
opportunity, which continue to drive their growth. This approach is then applied in the
city of Sydney.
Pranati Datta (2006)33 in his article “Urbanization in India” analyzes
urbanization as an index of transformation from traditional rural economies to modern
industrial one. It is a long term process. This article endeavours to illuminate the
process of urbanization in India over a century with emphasis on level, tempo of
urbanization and urban morphology using Indian Census data during 1901-2001. At
the moment, India is among the countries of low level of urbanization. Number of
urban agglomeration town has grown from 1872 in 1901 to 5161 in 2001. Number of
population residing in urban areas has increased from 2.58 crore in 1901 to 28.53
crore in 2001. Only 28 per cent of population was living in urban areas as per 2001
Census. On the contrary the concentration of population in medium and small towns
either fluctuated or declined. The number of urban centres from rural population size
categories to Class I cities have resulted top heavy structure of urban population in
India. India’s urbanization is often termed as over urbanization or pseudo-
urbanization. The big cities attained in ordinate large population size leading to virtual
collapse in the urban services and followed by basic problems in the field of housing,
slum, water, infrastructure, quality of life etc. urbanization is a product of
demographic explosion and poverty induced rural-urban migration. It is occurring due
to rural push but not due to urban pull.
The author from his analysis has suggested that the relationship between
population growth, resource depletion and environmental degradation has been a
matter of debate for decades. The argument has been between those who view
population numbers as the main culprit in increasing pressure on the environment and
those who place more blame on economic development, non-sustainable agricultural
and industrial practices, and excessive and wasteful consumption. In fact, both
36
population growth and non-sustainable development are cause for concern in India.
Though the relationship is complex, population size and growth tend to expand and
accelerate these human impacts on the environment. What is more concern, the
number of population rise will increase to such an extent in future that it will cause
overall scarcity for resources.
But at the same time, the author has voiced her concern that poverty and other
forms of social disadvantage translate into poorer health status and outcomes for the
urban poor. There is a need for comprehensive policy for primary healthcare for urban
areas, which take into account the special concerns of the poor. Such a policy would
aim, first, to address the absolute deprivation of basic necessities- food, housing,
water supply and sanitation that the urban poor experience. Second, there is a need to
create an adequate and functional network of free services that are non-discriminatory
and reach out to all section of the population. Finally, an urban health policy would
need to address the problem of social inequality in a pro active manner.
Further, the author suggested that housing is an activity that is typically labour
intensive and, therefore, fits in well with the pattern of development envisaged for
India. The provision of shelter is a basic need which must be met. Housing
construction also creates much-needed employment for the unskilled and, therefore,
income for the relatively poor. Urban and housing policies have been witnessing a
continuous change since the launching of the First Five Year Plan in 1951, and
particularly so since 1991.
Neha Madhiwalla (2007)34 in her article “Healthcare in Urban Slums in
India” has analysed that the growth of cities has always been accompanied by the
growth of slums. The industrial revolution in Western Europe led to the migration of
people to slums in cities which created new conditions of ill health due to
overcrowding, poor housing and unsanitary environment, coupled with poverty.
While public health crisis were not unknown in earlier times, the institutions of family
and church were primarily responsible for care and relief.
Rishi Muni Dwivedi (2007)35 in his book “Urban Development and
Housing in India - 1947 to 2007” has said that urbanization is a natural consequence
of economic changes that take place as a country develops. At the same time,
37
urbanization helps to contribute to the growth process at large. This is manifest in the
increasing contribution of urban sector to national income. The positive role of
urbanization is often over-shadowed by the evident deterioration in the physical
environment and quality of life in the urban areas caused by widening gap between
demand and supply of essential services and infrastructure. The challenge of
reorienting the urbanization process, thus, lies in overcoming the infrastructural
deficiencies and taking the best advantage of economic momentum inherent in
urbanization. The broad objective of urbanization policy should be to secure balanced
development between large, medium-sized and small industries, and between rural
and urban areas.
Siddharth Agarwal, et al (2007)36 in their paper “Urbanization, Urban
Poverty and Health of the Urban Poor: Status, Challenges and the Way
Forward” have suggested that one of the dominant concerns of the present age is the
improving the living conditions of the rapidly increasing population living in cities.
For the first time in human history beginning 2007, more than half of the world’s
population will live in cities. Estimates by the United Nations suggest that the world’s
urban population has been increasing at a rate of 1.8 per cent annually and will soon
outpace the overall world population growth rate of 1 per cent. Nearly 48 per cent of
the world’s population lives in urban areas and the prime locus of this spurt in city
dwellers are the developing countries such as India.
This paper analyses the association between urban poverty and health of the
urban poor in India. The health situation among the urban poor is described on the
basis of the analysis of the NFHS-2 data by economic status. The paper also outlines
some of the challenges in improving health outcomes of the urban poor and the
potential operational solutions to address such challenges.
Chetan Vaidya (2009)37 in his paper entitled “Urban Issues, Reforms and
Way Forward In India” has examined that India has to improve its urban areas to
achieve objectives of economic development. However, urban governance and
management of the services is far from satisfactory. In this context, the Government
has launched a reform-linked urban investment program, JNNURM. The paper has
analysed urban trends, projected population, service delivery, institutional
38
arrangements, municipal finances, innovative financing, etc. It has also described
status of JNNURM. As per population projection for 2026, level of urbanization
would be different in various states. India’s future urban strategy should recognize
these differences and plan accordingly. India’s future strategy should focus on: (a)
Inter-government transfers with built-in incentives to improve performance; (b)
Capacity building of ULBs; (c) Investments on asset creation as well as management;
(d) Integrate urban transport with land use planning; (e) Integrate various urban
development and related programs at local, state and national levels; (f) Strengthen
urban institutions and clarify roles of different organizations; and (g) Second
generation of urban reforms should further focus on regulation, innovative financing
and PPP, and climate change initiatives; (h) Different approach of supporting reform-
linked investments needed for different states based on level of urbanization. It has
recommended constitutional amendments as well administrative actions to improve
India’s urban areas.
H.A.C. Prasad and J.S. Kochher (2009)38 in their paper entitled “Climate
Change and India- Some Major Issues and Policy Implications” attempted to
explores Global warming, an important aspect of climate change is primarily a
consequence of accumulation of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. This paper
examines the genesis of Climate Change which has been referred to as the defining
human development issue of our generation. Also studied is the impact of this
problem in the global as well as Indian context. India is not immune from the impact
of global warming and climate change. The paper also highlighted major international
developments related to Climate Change including the UN Framework Convention on
Climate Change(UNFCCC ), 1992 and Kyoto Protocol are described along with
significant meetings like those at Bali and Bangkok and outcomes at these
international exchanges.
The author, on the basis of their analysis, suggested that it is important for us
to stick to the principle of common but differentiated responsibility in our
negotiations and to take forward the concept of equalising per capita emissions of
countries proposed by the Prime Minister of India. At the same time, we should be
tactfully showcasing our efforts to conserve use of fossil fuels and reducing GHG
emissions. We should clearly show that India cannot be clubbed with three big
39
polluters including China. While all possible mitigation and adaptation measures
should be considered by us, there is also a need to see that the climate change issue is
not overplayed as cautioned by UNDP.
Partha Mukhopadhyay and Aromar Revi (2009)39 in there paper entitled
“Keeping India’s Economic Engine Going: Climate Change and the
Urbanization Question” have attempted to examine that, urbanization in India is
both a necessary input and an inevitable consequence of growth. However, we must
accept that the existing urbanization models are unsustainable at the Indian scale and
there is no available alternative trajectory. The international climate change
negotiations can be seen as an opportunity to create an environment that will help in
the discovery of a more sustainable urbanization. This paper explores a limited set of
emergent issues that will have to be considered as India develops its domestic
approach to urbanization, while negotiating its international position on climate
change.
Further, this paper is structured into three broad sections: (a) the feedback
loops from urbanization to climate change and vice versa, (b) actions needed at
multiple levels to influence these processes, and (c) the implications of these for
India’s negotiating position on climate change.
R.B. Bhagat and Soumya Mohanty (2009)40 in their paper “Emerging
Pattern of Urbanization and the Contribution of Migration in Urban Growth in
India” examined that as India has embarked upon economic reforms during the
1990s, published data from the 2001 Census provides an opportunity to study the
country’s urbanization process with reference to regional inequality and to the
contribution of the components of urban growth, namely, natural increase, emergence
of new towns, and the net contribution of rural to urban migration. India has more
than 4000 cities and towns, which comprise 28 per cent of India’s population of 1028
million as enumerated in 2001. However, about two-fifths of India’s urban population
live in only 35 metropolitan cities. The rate of urban population growth slowed down
during the 1990s despite the increased rate of rural to urban migration due to a
significant decline in natural increase in urban areas. This has led to an observable
slowdown in the pace of India’s urbanization.
40
U.S. De and V.K. Soni (2009)41 in their paper entitled “Climate Change,
Urbanization - What citizens can do” highlights that anthropogenic Climate Change
of post industrial era is expected impact on all sectors of the society and needs
strategic steps to reduce it. Mitigation efforts include global effort leading to
curtailing the emission of green house gases. Adaptation measures on the other hand
complement the mitigation measures by reducing the impact of global warming.
Historically, mitigation has received more media attention due to its global canvas;
while the adaptation measures have remained in the back ground.
In this paper, authors have presented certain simple concepts which can be
undertaken at the people's level to combat the impacts of Climate Change. In the field
of mitigation, people can help reduce emission by reducing their consumption and
demand for energy through use of:
(i). Energy efficient gadgets.
(ii). Eco friendly transport such as cycle for short distances and bus or car pool for
longer distance travel.
(iii). Local products of food and clothing, thus avoiding energy expended in
transportation.
(iv). Schools can encourage travel to and from by school buses rather than by
individual transport.
Urbanization is linked with development and has been quite rapid in recent
years. While urban areas cover only 3 per cent of the global land, it gives shelter to
nearly 26 per cent of the global population. The phenomenal increase in the
population during the last fifty years has led to rapid industrialization and high rate of
urbanization which have created tremendous pressure on natural resources like land,
air and water. The urban population has increased three and half times, from 62.4
million in 1951 to 217.6 million in 1991 and it again increased to 286 million in 2001.
A typical case is that during last 180 years, the urban area in the city of Pune has
grown from a mere 5 Sq. Km to 700 Sq. Km. from 1901 to 2001. The urban
population has grown from 1.64 lakhs to 42 lakhs. Bangalore, Hyderabad and other
growing towns tell the same story.
41
The authors, on the basis of their study have suggested that such unplanned
growth leads to widespread damage to existing ecosystem, deforestation and loss of
agriculture land, apart from its effect on climate and environment. Tall concrete
buildings cement roads and tarmac change the albedo of the urban areas and reduce
the free flow of air. 'Heat island' is an urban effect, which is felt in all major cities in
India. A study for Bangalore shows significant rise in minimum temperature during
recent decades. Likewise the city of Pune shows these signatures also. Urban planning
and decongesting the major urban centers by diversifying industries and other
activities is needed to make urban climate more agreeable and safe for human
settlement. More green cover, lakes and well spread parks are needed to make
growing cities a more comfortable place to live. Action is needed now before it
becomes too late to repair the damage to climate and environment due to urbanization.
Citizens can play a crucial role in reducing the impacts of climate change and
urbanization.
Martin Medina (2010)42 in his study “Solid Wastes, Poverty and the
Environment in Developing Country Cities: Challenges and Opportunities”
observed that many cities in Africa, Asia, and Latin America face serious problems
managing their wastes. Two of the major problems are the insufficient collection and
inappropriate final disposal of wastes. Despite spending increasing resources, many
cities – particularly in Africa and Asia – collect less than half of the waste generated.
Most wastes are disposed of in open dumps, deposited on vacant land, or burned by
residents in their backyards. Insufficient collection and inadequate disposal generate
significant pollution problems and risks to human health and the environment. Over
one billion people living in low income communities and slums lack appropriate
waste management services. Given the rapid population growth and urbanization in
many cities, the management of wastes tends to further deteriorate. Thus, this paper
examines the challenges and opportunities in this regard.
Vijai Kumar Agarwal (2010) 43 in his article “Ethics and Environment” has
examined the issue of environment from the ethical point of view. Environment and
climate change are one of the biggest challenges facing humanity. Ethics can be
defined as a set of standards that society places on itself which helps guide actions,
options and behaviour. The Author suggests that environmental problems raise
42
fundamental questions of ethics and philosophy. Problems need not be examined only
from a ‘technical solution’ point of view. He examines in depth the sustainability of
physical prosperity without moral values and brings out how spiritual values are the
prime requirements for sustaining moral values.
The Author further suggests that problem solving in an increasingly
interdependent world needs a collective approach of self regulation through ethical
actions not only between the citizens but also between the various nations.
R.B. Bhagat (2011)44 in his article “Emerging Pattern of Urbanization in
India” examined that the declining trend in the urban population growth rate
observed during the 1980s and 1990s was reversed at the national level, and the level
of urbanization increased faster during 2001-2011. The urban population grew from
286 million in 2001 to 377 million in 2011 – an increment of 91 million, which is
larger than the rural population increment of 90.5 million for the first time since
independence. A substantial increase in the urban population is due to a net rural-
urban classification and rural-to-urban migration. A huge number of new towns
emerged during the last decade, contributing significantly to the speeding up of
urbanization. On the other hand, although the contribution of the natural increase in
urban growth has declined in terms of proportions, its share in absolute numbers
(about 40 million) continues to be huge due to the large base of the urban population.
This has implications not only for providing urban infrastructure and civic amenities,
but also for reproductive and child health services in urban areas.
Siddharth Agarwal (2011)45 in his paper “The state of urban health in
India; comparing the poorest quartile to the rest of the urban population in
selected states and cities” observed that India has the world’s second largest urban
population (after China). This study shows the large disparities within urban
population in health-related indicators. It shows the disparities for child and maternal
health, provision for health care and housing conditions between the poorest quartile
and the rest of the urban population for India and for several of its most populous
states. In the poorest quartile of India’s urban population, only 40 per cent of 12 to 23
month-old children were completely immunized in 2004—2005, 54 per cent of under-
43
five year-olds were stunted, 82 per cent did not have access to piped water at home
and 53 per cent were not using a sanitary flush or pit toilet.
He observed the large disparities in eight cities between the poorest population
(the population in the city that is within the poorest quartile for India’s urban areas),
the population living in settlements classified as “slums” and the non-slum
population. He also highlights the poor performance in some health-related indicators
for the population that is not part of the poorest quartile in several states- for instance
in under-five mortality rates, in the proportion of stunted children and in the
proportion of households with no piped water supply to their home.
The above mentioned review of major works done on urbanization, especially
with reference to environment shows that most of the studies are either period specific
or region specific or deals with particular problems of environment; studies with
economic framework are very limited. Therefore a meaningful study of the levels and
trends of urbanization within environmental frame work would be highly useful for
policy purposes. Thus the above brief account of the existing literature on the subject
of the present study shows, though a vast literature on various aspects of urbanization
and environment is available, no comprehensive work has been done to assess the
levels of urbanization and its economic impact by sub-classifying the period in to pre
and post reform. The present study also includes the economic aspects such as
poverty, population explosion, health and also environmental degradation in the form
of Solid/liquid/Gaseous generations. Thus, the study under concern is a pioneer work
to find out not only the levels and trends of urbanization but also its environmental
implications on the society or nation.
44
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