Chapter 2

Literature Review

CHAPTER-2

LITERATURE REVIEW

In this chapter, the works done by the earlier investigators on sustainable Solid

waste management especially in urban areas of both developed and developing

Countries has been presented.

Adnan Qadir and Mansoor Imam (2006) reviewed the utilization of enormous

waste plastic bags, in bituminous mix for improved performance of roads. The

probable solution is effective recycling in addition to use in pavement structure so as

to come up with an ultimate safe disposal together with improvement in the

performance of pavement through better mix design. An aggregate material from

waste plastic bags referred to as Recycled Plastic Waste Aggregate (RPWA) is

developed which would partially replace the conventional material to improve desired

mechanical characteristics for a particular road mix. Preliminary investigations have

indicated that use of RPWA (1.2 – 3mm in size) in the surface and base mix design,

when utilized up to 2.5% by weight substitution has shown improved stability and

flow (Marshall test) having unit weight and bulk specific gravity falling within the

acceptable limits for light and heavy traffic loads. It is envisaged that use of RPWA in

the conventional asphalt hot mix design is likely to improve the pavement

performance with a sustainable solution for the disposal of plastic waste.

Adamantios Skordilis (2003) evaluating waste management alternatives by worth—

benefit—utility (WBU) analysis which allows consideration of environmental and

social parameters in addition to economic and technological parameters, using a

combination of statistical analysis methods, trends extrapolation and Delphi

techniques. The goal structure is built by groups of stakeholders representing a variety

of interests and priorities. The goal matrix is then checked for completeness and

compatibility and the goals are ranked according to a grading system. Then the

alternative MSW disposal methods are evaluated using WBU analysis. The method is

applied for the selection of the optimal MSW disposal method in the Greater Athens

Area (GAA). The analysis reveals sanitary landfill disposal to be slightly preferable to

mechanical sorting - recovery - composting, and both methods to be superior to

incineration.

Ali Touran, et al., (2004) developed an estimating system for construction and

demolition waste management describes a computerized estimating system that can be

used to quantify the generation of wood, gypsum drywall, roof asphalt shingles, and

carpet wastes from building-related new construction and demolition projects. The

system application requires appropriate housing statistic data which are typically

readily available. An interface is created between a GIS system and the estimating

tool that allows a recycling program developer to visualize the spatial distribution of

construction and demolition waste within the region of interest. In addition, a

methodology for estimating the waste generated from renovation/remodeling

activities is presented. A case study in which the estimating system was applied to

estimate the generation of construction and demolition wastes in Massachusetts is also

presented.

Alison Curtis, et al., (2009) derived sustainable waste management in Northern

Ireland home composting of “green garden waste” in Castlereagh, November 2009.

Castlereagh Borough Council (Castlereagh BC) borders with Belfast in the east of

Northern Ireland and serves a population of approximately 67,500. There are

approximately 28,500 properties in the borough and 80% of households lie within

urban areas. In 2007/8, Castlereagh BC had a household waste recycling and

composting rate of 37.69%. In 2007/8, 19,603 tones of household waste was land

filled this equates to 0.69 tones per household. The Council actively promotes Home

Composting of green garden waste as a method of waste reduction and has offered a

subsidized rate on the sale of Home Composters. In order to evaluate whether this

subsidization is justified, a survey was carried out on all householders that have

purchased a Home Composters. It was hoped that this survey would provide

information on whether householders who had purchased Home Composters from the

Council were actually using them, whilst also gauging whether householders are

aware of the relationship between composting and diversion from landfill. Some 96%

of respondents that purchased Home Composters are still using them. This is

extremely encouraging and demonstrates that they would appear to be satisfied with

their Home Composting experiences. Respondents (92%) stated that they noticed a

decrease in the amount of their waste being sent for landfill/composting through the

kerbside collections; this demonstrates that they are aware of the relationship between

Home Composting and diversion from landfill. Some 86% of householders feel that

they are using their Home Composter successfully and 93% of householders were

satisfied with the scheme. However, 17% of householders complained about

composter design and 16% found it difficult to use. Size, mobility and the unattached

lid were of main concern. The results will be used to drive enhanced campaigns for

the uptake of home composting of green garden waste.

Anjali Srivastava, et al., (2002) reviewed Odour Impact Evaluation of Municipal

Waste Composting Unit is becoming an acceptable technical solution for many city

municipalities in India. Though composting as an alternative of solid waste

management is being accepted readily, odour emission from compost piles and its

effect on population has been a major concern.

Annegrete Bruvoll (2001) Factors Influencing Solid Waste Generation and

Management insight into factors influencing waste generation and management

options forms an important background for waste policy planning. This paper

analyzes the effect of income, waste management fees and population density on the

overall amount of waste generated and of income, fees and recycling services on the

choice of waste management methods. The results show that economic incentives are

effective in influencing the selection between different waste management methods.

Landfill fees reduce the waste amounts land filled and increase recycling and

incineration. An increased weight in recycling in the states with the highest landfill

fees might undermine the effect of fees on waste generation. Thus, the total effect is

substituting recycling for land filling instead of source reduction.

Arcangeli L, et al., (1996) described detoxification of fly ashes from RDF

incineration plant in incineration has become more and more used for solid waste

treatment. This is mostly due to volume reduction and energy recovery.

Morrisey. A and Browne. J (2004) has evolved a decision modeling method for

waste management system that needs to be environmentally effective, economically

affordable and socially acceptable. It is shown that while most waste management

models consider economic and environmental aspects, very few consider social

aspects, with many concentrating on improving a decision support tool. A decision

making methodology called SWAP (Sustainable Waste Achievement Programme) is

verified and validated. The purpose of SWAP is to assist stakeholders make the best

decision possible given the circumstances, to determine the most acceptable set of

actions and to determine how success can be measured. SWAP is centered on the

involvement of all stakeholders in the decision making process from the beginning.

The main users of the methodology will be policy makers in the area of waste

management, in particular the local authorities. National departments of the

environment also have a strategic role to play in supporting the use of the

methodology at local authority level.

Binner S. Galeotti L, et al., (1997) have developed mass balance and heavy metals

distribution in Municipal Solid Waste. Incineration plants are recognized as a valid

and efficient technology to treat Municipal Solid Wastes (MSW), particularly when

they are part of integrated treatment plants. Waste incineration reduces the waste

volume and weight, thus saving space on the landfill; also the end products are

hygienized by transforming organic matter into water and carbon dioxide (CO2); it is

also possible to recover steam and/or energy. The main environmental impact in an

incineration plant is due to the residues of the process (solid, liquid and gaseous

emissions). Consequently waste incineration can gain public acceptance only if the

concentration of low volatile organic compounds and the elution stability of heavy

metals can be guaranteed.

Chillara Subbarao and Ambarish Ghosh (1997) developed fly ash at present an

enormous is being produced by thermal power plants throughout the world.

Stabilization of the fly ash is one of the promising methods to manage environmental

problems of fly ash disposal. The strength of the stabilized fly ash is also more than

that of the unstabilized fly ash. In this investigation an attempt has been made to study

the effect of stabilization on leachate characteristics of a stabilized low lime fly ash.

Fly ash was stabilized with lime (4%, 6%, and 10%) and compacted to Proctor

density. Specimens were cured for 7 days and 28 days. Hydraulic conductivity of the

stabilized material being low, the total amount of metals emanating from stabilized

material is low compared to that of unstabilized material.

Chi-Wai Hui, et al., (2002) developed an integrated plant for municipal solid waste

co-combustion in cement production presents a novel and highly integrated design of

cement and electricity production by co-combustion of municipal solid waste (MSW)

and fuel. By tightly integrating the three processes, energy generated from the co-

combustion can be effectively utilized for cement production and electricity

generation. This synergy also results in significant reduction in new pollutant

emissions. Solid wastes such as fly ash from the combustion can be used as feedstock

for cement production. The raw material of cement production such as lime (CaO)

works as an adsorbent for converting polluting gas such as SOx generated from the

combustion to components of cement such as calcium sulfate (CaSO4). Lime again is

good adsorbent for chloride to prevent it from being converted into dioxin during the

high temperature process. Using the heat generated from the combustion process,

wooden wastes sorted from MSW can be converted into active carbon that is an ideal

adsorbent for dioxin in the downstream air pollution control processes of the waste

gases. The large amount of lime used in cement production and the low-cost active

carbon cleanup the waste gases in the most economic and effective way. These three

processes are perfectly integrated reducing overall energy consumption and pollution.

Chukwu Ony (1999) has found in decomposition of organic wastes produces landfill

gas comprises of 50-55% methane and remaining carbon-di-oxide normally, with

proper design methane can improved to 88% and refinement can be done raising

concentration of CH4 to 99%. Landfill simulator was constructed and optimized to

obtain a landfill gas with concentration of better than 80% methane and operated as a

leachate recirculation system with a fixed bed anaerobic reactor. The system produced

a very high purity landfill gas removing CO2 moisture and other traces of organic

compounds, producing gas that meets the natural gas pipeline.

Crispin Wing field-Hayes, et al., (1997) developed appropriate technology for small

scale shallow landfill - the mid auchencarroch landfill research facility. In the

majority of developed countries landfill is by far the most common waste disposal

route for controlled waste. Transportation costs to major sites from rural and remote

communities are usually prohibitive, necessitating small scale shallow landfill sites.

David Birley, et al., (2007) presented the issue of UK managing municipal solid food

waste —a case study from Hackney, London, and The East London Community

Recycling Partnership (ELCRP) food waste scheme serves 3,014 dwellings per week

in the Borough of Hackney, London. Over the summer and autumn of 2006 it was

estimated that on average 439 dwellings set out material every week (14.55%)

diverting 1.1 tones of food waste into recycling per week. Further research indicates

that the 3,014 dwellings produce an average of 11.73 tones of food waste per week.

The ELCRP scheme is currently diverting about 10% of the food waste generated,

into a recycling (composting) scheme. Participation rate (dwellings taking part once in

a four week period) is estimated at about 24%. About 17% of dwellings served are

regular participants (taking part two or more times in a four week period). Very

significant performance improvements are required for the scheme to achieve recently

set Hackney targets. Estimated that on average 3.89 kg of food waste is generated per

dwelling per week by the 3 014 households served by the ELCRP scheme. If this

estimate is correct, the best performing scheme reported in the recent WRAP study

would still divert only 26% of food waste into recycling suggesting that there is a

need for food waste schemes to implement systematic and imaginative campaigns to

improve public participation

Douglas A Opseth and Kim D Barlishen (1996) have developed Greenhouse Gas

Emissions at a Semi-Arid Landfill Site in which two semi arid landfills were

investigated for landfill gas emissions. Several methods were used to characterize the

gas emissions: a flame ionization detector, a flux chamber, shallow gas wells, and the

US EPA landfill gas model. The results of the landfill gas investigation showed high

spatial variations over the surface of the landfill with emissions being concentrated at

the slopes. Waste samples retrieved from the landfill suggest below optimal

conditions for decomposition.

Douglas J. Lober (1996) have informed the process and outcomes of recycling in the

united states National Municipal Solid Waste Recycling Symposium in which One is

that no national legislated or voluntary definition of recycling exists despite being

crucial for developing waste management policy. The United States is currently

recycling 20 percent of the nation's MSW or 42 million tons per year of the 200

million tons of MSW generated. More than two thirds of all recycling tonnage can be

classified as being from four waste items: yard trimmings, corrugated boxes,

newspapers, and glass containers. The average U.S recycling rate goal by state is 39

percent. Few states are close to reaching these goals. Over the next five years, given

current markets and economics and infrastructure capabilities, the symposium

consensus was that a national recycling rate of 33 percent to 38 percent is obtainable.

Recycling of yard trimmings has the greatest potential to contribute to the increase in

recycling. Federal government involvement in recycling is likely to be in data

collection, cost accounting, market development, and determining the relationship of

recycling relative to other waste management strategies and to other environmental

problems such as global warming. These findings are a useful starting point to

advance further discussions of municipal solid waste recycling policy.

Edward A. McBean, et al., (2007) found constraints and opportunities influencing

recycling rates in some developing countries 95% of municipalities in a number of

developing countries do not have source separation recycling programs, and diversion

from the solid waste stream varies between 3% and 5% in these municipalities.

Diversion is being achieved primarily by waste pickers at the landfill site working

face. While conditions at the landfill sites are difficult, waste pickers’ income from

the sale of recyclable material is between 1.6 and 6 times the minimum wage. The

waste pickers' income could double as a result of oil price increase trends.

Diversion practices currently observed in developing countries, an increase in

diversion rates to 10% of the solid waste stream may be feasible.

Eyal Rotenberg and Yaacov Mamane (1998) Mathematical Model to Estimate

Emissions of Volatile Organic Compounds from Municipal Landfills a mathematical

model describing the emissions of Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs) from

municipal landfills is described. The model assumes that the gas movement from a

landfill to the atmosphere is described by molecular diffusion. The gases are emitted

upward and are removed at once from the top layer. The model includes a generation

term: the production of Voss caused by degradation processes. The VOCs

concentrations at the interface of waste and soil layers are given by Henry's law, adn

the movement of pollutants is described using time dependant differential diffusion

equation that is solved analytically. Two cases were considered: uncovered waste

layer site, and waste that is covered with a solid layer. The input parameters for the

model equations were taken from the published literature. The main results obtained

from this model are as follows:

a. the emission rates are proportional to gas production in the waste layer

b. For a waste layer covered with solid the emission rates of VOCs are remarkably

slower for the first years of operation

Francesco Di Maria and Stefano Saetta(2004) examined life cycle assessment for

municipal solid waste management improvements—the case of a 100.000 inhabitant

Italian town in which the evaluation of environmental performances of solid urban

waste management systems, very important issue to achieve a sustainable

development. Recycling and reusing a large fraction of waste products yields

environmental benefits that can be widely enhanced by adopting energy recovery

systems for the remaining waste fraction. Recovering energy from solid urban waste

means reducing both fossil fuels consumption and landfill needs. Furthermore,

exhaust gases from combustion process can be efficiently cleaned by adopting a

modern scrubbing system. Instead, large fraction of the solid exhaust part of the

combustion process can be considered quite inert. This implies that the energy

recovery process, when possible, is one of the best ways to reduce the environmental

impact of waste disposal. In this work, a real case, relative to an Italian city of

100.000 inhabitants, has been examined. Improvements, consisting of electrical power

production from the wastes organic fraction anaerobic treatment, to the actual

situations have been suggested. An LCA analysis has been performed to evaluate the

environmental impact of the actual situation and of the improved one. Environmental

benefits, strictly linked to the energy production increase, have been pointed out.

Aguilar F. J. and González .P (2002) experimented agricultural use of compost from

municipal solid waste—effects on soil physical properties studies the effects produced

on some soil physical properties by a new soil management system in rained olive

groves. This is made in an experimental plot located in Córdoba (South Spain). This

consisted of a periodic application, in principle approximately every three years, of

organic matter in the form of compost from municipal solid waste (MSW) and its

incorporation by means of ploughing on the topsoil (horizon of 0-5 cm). The

objective was to recycle the organic matter contained in MSW, maintaining the

advantages with respect to erosion reduction and water conservation in the soil

produced by a non-tillage bare soil management system in Mediterranean olive

groves. At the same time tried to rectify the serious problems of the formation of a

laminar crust on the topsoil. This system's comparison with other management

systems, such as conventional tillage or non-tillage with bare soil, has shown a greater

infiltration and availability of water for trees due to a decline in the bulk density and

an increase of saturated hydraulic conductivity and macro porosity. The stabilization

of the topsoil horizon, by means of the system proposed, permits this situation to

continue for at least two or three years, unlike what occurs in conventional tillage or

minimum tillage, in which, in most cases, the effects of tillage are provisional

Fernando F. Junqueira, et al., (2007) has made a study on the influence of water

infiltration of water in the geotechnical, geochemical and biological behavior of urban

solid waste in tropical weather in Brazil. Climatic conditions such as high

precipitation rates play an important role in the degradation of urban solid waste as

well as influence the quantity and quality of the leach ate generated. Taking into

account the significant contamination potential of waste effluent, a large number of

developing countries are situated in the southern hemisphere under the influence of

tropical weather. In developing countries, the waste generated in some large cities is

dumped in open areas, lacking appropriate engineering infrastructure significantly

increases the risks of contamination, affecting both the environment and the

surrounding population. This paper presents the results of a five year research

program carried out at a solid waste landfill in Brasilia, Brazil. Field experimental

cells to monitor the geotechnical, geochemical and biological behavior of urban solid

waste. Variations in the internal waste temperatures, settlement rates, influence of

oxygen diffusion through the waste, presence of aerobic and anaerobic bacteria, and

variations in the quality and quantity of leach ate generated were studied.

d’Antonio .G. et al., (2002) developed an integrated system for solid waste

management to the Campania Regional Administration (Italy) and divided the region

into two territorial areas. For each decisional model it is applied so as to define the

composition and the amount of solid waste flows to be collected and diverted to the

treatment plants. Six different scenarios are considered, corresponding to the

successive phases of Regional Programme implementation. An optimization

algorithm for the solution of the decisional model is used to spread the waste

components among the envisaged plants with or without source-separated collection,

while imposing four objectives for minimum material recovery.

Blight G.E. and M bande. C.M (1996) presented problems of waste management in

developing countries due to inadequacies of solid waste management in developing

countries, and developing areas of countries with mixed economies. The reasons for

waste collection and sanitary disposal and the technology of land filling is well-

understood and accepted in developed countries, and workable regulations are now in

place in most developed lands. Solid waste disposal in developing countries is still

largely uncontrolled and large quantities of waste go uncollected. There is a need to

recognize the difficulties experienced in managing waste in developing areas and to

understand the reasons for those difficulties.

Gabriel R. Kassenga (1999) studied on Potential and Constraints of Composting as a

Market Solid Wastes Disposal Option for Dar-Es-Salam Tanzania is based on the

results of a study on assessment of the potential and constraints of composting as a

disposal method for market solid wastes in Dar Es Salam. The assessment was done

on the basis of the acceptability and marketing of compost, carbon/nitrogen ratio (C/N

ratio) and composition of market reuse. Results of the study on composition and

carbon nitrogen content have shown that market wastes are rich in vegetable and

putrescible matter (41.56 - 75.89 % by weight) however their C/N ratio (18.41-26.1)

may not be very favorable for good composting. The study also revealed that

vegetable growers (the main potential users of compost) were generally not in favor

of refuse derived compost. According to the study fears of undermining customer’s

confidence because of using refuse derived compost in vegetable growing and the

availability of alternative and less expensive soil conditioners and fertilizers aware

found to be the main reasons for ejecting the compost, according to the interviewed

vegetable growers.

Haluk Akgun and Robert B. Wallace, (1996) identified leakage detection in lined

systems found that the objective of any lining system is containment. In case of

double lining systems, the ability to preserve this containment even when leakage

occurs through the top liner is available.

Park H.I. and Lee S.R (1997) presented long-term settlement behavior of landfills

with refuse decomposition. Long-term settlement of landfills is one of the important

items in the design of protection systems such as caps and leach ate collection systems

as well as in the technical consideration o feasible redevelopment of a landfill site for

building foundations and pavement. Long-term settlement mechanisms cannot be

merely dealt with by classical Soil Mechanics concepts, since they are considerably

dependent upon the biological decomposition of refuse which distinguishes it from

typical soil behavior and presents a mathematical model that considers the

decomposition process of biodegradable refuse from a geotechnical point of view and

suggests the overall compressibility behavior of refuse, including the decomposition

effect.

Ian Miller, et al., (2009) explored the determinants of Municipal Solid Waste

generation and recycling in western New York communities’ accurate determination

of waste quantities is essential for effective municipal solid waste management. This

paper creates several statistical models that can be applied to predict residential

municipal solid waste quantities. Using municipal solid waste data sourced from 38

towns and villages that were canvassed as part of the NorthEast Southtowns Regional

Solid Waste Management Plan, several multiple regression based models were

estimated that explored the determinants of annual municipal solid waste generated,

recyclables, and compost (yard waste) tonnages. The first group of equations was

based on panel and census data for the year 2000. Climate, demographic, socio-

economic, cost and distance variables were evaluated as independent variables. For

the largest town in the region (Amherst), a multiple regression based time series

model was estimated that covered nine years and monthly seasons including several

major storm events. The models can be used for prediction and planning purposes by

solid waste managers, agencies and planners, and for comparison to other regions and

countries.

Agunwamba J.C, et al., (2003) have studied made a least cost management of solid

waste collection in Onitsha, a heavy commercial city in Eastern Nigeria. This study is

aimed at least cost solid waste collection in Onitsha through mixed integer

programming. Actual transportation cost was estimated based on 1999 salaries and

fuel prices. Optimum cost of collection via transfer stations to two disposal sites were

compared with the existing situation of having no transfer station and only one

disposal site. Post-optimality analysis was performed for several scenarios,

investigating the sensitivities of the optimal cost to varying capacities of the transfer

stations, investments and operating cost of the transfer stations, generation rates, and

unit collection costs via transfer stations were each operated at a capacity of 300 tons

per day. The introduction of transfer stations resulted in (38.9%) savings per day in

the collection cost per day.

Hettiaratchi J.P, et al., (1998) presented a Methodology To Estimate The Carbon

Off-Set Potential Of Composting Bio-Degradable Municipal Solid Waste (BMSW),

Methane (CH4) emissions from landfills accepting Biodegradable Municipal Solid

Waste (BMSW) is a growing global concern as Ch4 is potent greenhouse gas with 21

times more global warming potential than carbon dioxide (CO2) over a 100 year time

horizon. Diverting BMSW from landfills to a composting facility could produce

substantial short-term global warming benefits. Although composting does not

produce CH4 the process of composting and the application of finished compost on

land produce large quantities of CO2.Therefore to assess the global warming benefits

of composting, methods are required to estimate the net Green House Gas (GHG)

emission reduction achieved by implementing composting instead of landfilling. The

model incorporates a Life Cycle Approach although all activates related to the

competing waste management alternatives are considered, only the ones emitting

significant GHGs are included in the model. The COP model estiamtes a net benefit

of about 1.2 million tonnes of carbon equivalents(Toes) or about 60% net TOCE

reductions by composting 215,000 tones of MSw and 22,500 dry tones of digested

bio-solids annually over 30 years, instead of landfill MSW and direct application of

bio-solids on land.

J.W.F. Morris, et al., (2006) investigated about the comparison of approaches to

characterize the unit weight of MSW in landfills. An evaluation of the unit weight of

in-place waste at municipal solid waste landfill based on multiple field techniques is

presented. The composition and moisture content of the waste, as well as the presence

of standing liquid were also investigated. The field investigations consisted of spectral

analysis of surface wave’s surveys, large-diameter bucket auger test borings,

collection of bulk waste samples for waste classification and laboratory analysis,

small-diameter rotary auger test borings, cone penetrometer test soundings with pore

pressure dissipation measurements, and groundwater level measurement in gas wells.

Data from existing institute instrumentation and historical site records and surveys

were also used to estimate waste unit weight. Overall, the large diameter borings were

considered to provide the best data for evaluating waste unit weight. Values for waste

unit weight and trends of unit weight with depth published in literature were used to

complement and critically evaluate findings from this investigation.

Jasem M. Alhumoud, (2002) reviewed the Solid Waste Management in Kuwait by

data analisation. The results show a rapid increase in the total amount of municipal

solid wastes and significant changes in their composition. These are related to the

increased population in Kuwait and the lavish spending. The total solid waste

generation has reached 1.4 kg per capita per day. Vehicles for waste collection

include rear-loading compactors, non-compacting trucks, and container hauling

trucks, open tippers, and side loaders. Refuse analysis indicated a high percentage of

food and paper/cardboard products. The total amount of industrial solid waste in

Kuwait was about 1.24 tones in 1997. Also, the total amount of pharmaceutical wastes

was about 25.2 tones in the same year. Factors affecting the important management

issues in the operation of Kuwait’s solid waste management system are discussed.

Jean G. Chatila and Sharbil Abishdid (2003) described by experimental

investigation the turning solid waste incineration ashes into a usable material in

concrete construction which is environmentally safe method without creating a

nuisance. In addition, there is a possibility to increase the compressive strength of

concrete, reduce landfill volumes, and protect the public from environmental and

health impacts of poor waste management. Based on the current applications and

proportions, the flexural strength of concrete was affected. The variation of strength

ranged between an increase of 12% and a decrease of 50% depending on the

proportions, gradation, and source of ashes added.

Jeffrey Rogers, et al., (2002) surveyed about the Municipal Solid Waste garbage

collectors including supervisors both public and private companies about health and

safety aspects of their jobs by anonymous questionnaire in Florida. Work practices,

injuries, illnesses, and working environment reported by 251 responding collectors

were analyzed. Results of the survey included reportedly high rates of lacerations,

contusions, strain/sprains, and illness. In particular, 75% of the collectors surveyed

reported having been injured in the past 12 months, consistent with findings of

previous analyses of Florida Worker’s Compensation data and facility accident logs,

as well as the Danish MSW literature. Worker responses regarding reasons for

injuries and illnesses were used to develop recommendations for reducing risks to

MSW workers. Recommendations focus on management and supervision of workers,

communication among route workers, public education regarding risks to collectors

from local vehicular traffic and improper disposal, and the design of safety

equipment.

Joseph Laquatra, and Mark Pierce M.S (2004) have developed managing waste at

the residential construction reports on a research project that focused on waste

production, management, and reduction potential to a residential construction site in

Upstate New York. A waste generation audit was conducted of all waste materials

that were generated during the construction of a new, 1,900 square feet bi-level single

family detached home.

Joanne K. Lyas, et al., (2004) surveyed about the provision of feedback to promote

householders’ use of a kerbside recycling scheme—a social dilemma perspective as

English local authorities develop strategies to deal with the growing volumes of

municipal waste created in their districts, householder participation in recycling

initiatives is becoming increasingly important. Taking a social dilemma perspective,

this paper adopts an individual (psychological) strategy as a means of enhancing

curbside recycling use in the London Borough of Havering. Three groups of

householders received motivational messages on recycling performance with a

different bias: critical, neutral or encouraging, whilst a further group acted as a

control. Although differences in recycling behavior prior to and following

intervention were not statistically significant for any treatment group, average use of

the scheme was found to decrease post-leaflet in all cases, but less so for those in the

‘encouraging’ message group. Responses to a questionnaire survey indicated that

householder attitudes did not vary significantly between treatment groups. The study

shows that an individual (psychological) approach alone is not sufficient to enhance

householder recycling behavior in Havering over the short term. Future promotional

strategies are suggested that combine both the individual and the collective approach

to motivate and encourage recycling participation.

Jun Yin, et al., (1998) has studied on the Efficiency and Mechanism of Excess

Sludge by Aerobic Digestion Treatment of excess sludge of different concentrations

at temperature 300 C. The sludge was originated from a composite waste treatment

station of a motor industry. Dynamic analysis was also presented. The results

indicated that volatile suspended solids (VSS) removal of 52.65~64.71% could be

obtained under the condition of the initial sludge Mixed Liquor Suspended Solids

(MLSS) concentration at a range of 10197~20229mg/L. Both VSS removal amount

and degradation rate constant (Kd) increased with increasing sludge concentration. On

the contrary VSS removal rate decreased with increasing the sludge concentration

L.Di.Palma, et al., (1999) have experimented in the city of Rome in Italy about

Anaerobic Co-Digestion of Sewage Sludge And Municipal Solid Waste from market

was collected by means of separate collection systems. The experimental results

obtained through the use of suspended biomass anaerobic reactors make it possible to

measure certain parameters characterizing the process of bioconversion. The results

show effective production of biogas and manure.

Maria Ljunggren Soderman and Johan Sundberg (2004) studied about the waste

management planning in a Swedish region to increase the knowledge and

understanding of engineering models in real waste management planning. Such

knowledge is central for ensuring that models developed can be efficiently applied in

real-world situations. In this study, significant development of a systems engineering

model based on a decision basis that the region could use for strategic waste

management planning. In addition, the study provided insights for developing a

systems engineering model for waste management at the national level. An epilogue

based on interviews of representatives from the four municipalities illuminates what

has happened in the region since the study was completed. The interviews revealed

that the study was used as input to, and influenced, the decision-making process. The

study is an example of how a systems engineering model can assist in real decision-

making and be useful in practical waste management.

Mahmood A Abdelnaser Omran, et al., (2006) comparative study of the attitude of

households toward recycling of solid wastes in Malaysia and Vietnam — case studies

of Penang, Malaysia and ho chi minh, vie TNAM in which Recycling of solid wastes

is now recognized as the “most environmentally sound” strategy for dealing with

MSW following only the preventive strategy of source reduction and reuse. The main

objective of the paper was, to gain information about attitude of households toward

recycling of solid wastes in Malaysia and Vietnam. The research involves

administration of 600 survey questionnaires to households in Penang, and in Ho Chi

Minh City, of which 409 for Penang and 373 responses of Ho Chi Minh City

respectively were returned and analyzed. The result indicated that, if recycling is to be

adequately developed as an effective alternative to landfill disposal, public

participation must be increased. The campaign focused too much emphasis on getting

households to bring their recyclables to recycling centers. From this study is that

household’s attitude can be improved if adequate recycling facilities are provided.

These facilities must be strategically located and within easy reach so that the

households are not unnecessarily inconvenienced or discouraged to bring their

recyclables. The Malaysia and Vietnam solid wastes recycling programme were found

to be conflicting, lacking in direction and funding. Clear goals and more awareness

need to be established.

El-Fadel. M and Abou Najm. M (2002) has studied Economic and Environmental

Optimization of Integrated Solid Waste Systems increased environmental concerns

and the emphasis on material and energy recovery are gradually changing the

orientation of MSW management and planning. In this context, the application of

optimization techniques has been introduced to design the least cost solid waste

management systems, considering the variety of management processes (recycling,

composting, anaerobic digestion, incineration, and land filling), and the existence of

uncertainties associated with the number of system components and their

interrelations. This study presents a model that was developed and applied to serve as

a solid waste decision support system for MSW management taking into account both

socio-economic and environmental considerations. The model accounts for solid

waste generation rates, composition, collection, treatment, disposal as well as

potential environmental impacts of various MSW management techniques. The model

follows a linear programming formulation with the framework of dynamic

optimization. The model can serve as a tool to evaluate various MSW management

alternatives and obtain the optimal combination of technologies for the handling,

treatment and disposal of MSW in an economic and environmentally sustainable way.

Marion Humer and Peter Lechner (2001) studied about the Microbial Methane

Oxidation For The Reduction Of Landfill Gas with about 40 to 60 Mt of methane

emitted each year worldwide, landfills are an important global source of this

greenhouse gas. These emissions are especially caused by inadequate gas extraction

facilities, missing gas collection systems at old dump sites and landfills or

unauthorized open dumping. A low cost alternative method or an additional measure

to the conventional degasification systems is the application of the natural potential of

microbial methane oxidation in landfills in suitable cover layers. By creating optimal

ambient conditions for metamorphic bacteria in cover layers, it is possible to foster

the microbial activity and to attain very high oxidation rates. The results derived from

laboratory experiments as well as first experiences from a large-scale field

investigation show that waste composts are suitable carrier substrates for

metamorphic bacteria. Methane oxidation rates in compost were clearly higher than in

natural soils. Even at a methane supply of about 200 - 350 l CH4 m-²d-1 in the

laboratory experiments all methane could be oxidized in the compost material.

M.T. Datar, et al., (1997) studied about vermicomposting-a technological option for

solid waste management in Vermicomposting technique for agricultural solid waste

treatment uses earthworm species which need soil as habitat. However little work has

been done for its application in community solid waste management. In the present

studies an exotic species of earthworm - Eudrilus Eugeniae (African Night Crawler) -

was used in treatment of organic part of community solid waste (produced from

populous city of Madras, India). The species does not need soil substratum, thereby

reducing reactor volumes to around 60%. Bench scale reactor studies were performed

on the organic solid waste, under controlled optimum environmental conditions

(temperature: 20C - 30C, moisture content: 48 - 52%), with variable vermi-loading

(4.5 - 10.5 kg/m3). Characteristics of solid waste and process progress were

monitored through conventional and additional parameters (BOD, COD). Studies

yield kinetic rate constants of vermicomposting process (with respect to BOD/COD),

useful for rational approach to vermicomposting reactor design.

Marianne L. MacDonald (1996) summarized about the solid waste management

models: a state of the art review in which many models have been created over the

last few decades to assist in developing more efficient solid waste management

programs. These models vary in their intent, assumptions, and solution procedures.

However, they all have the ability to provide significant insights into the design of

solid waste activities. A summary of models developed in the last 15 years is

presented along with model characteristics and a discussion of their details. This

review focuses on models whose computational structures have been published or

formally presented.

Mutasem El-Fadel and Hana Al-Rashed (1998) have experimented on the

biodegradation of organic matter in MSW landfills increases the void ratio and

weakens the structural strength of the refuse within a landfill leading to a substantial

loss of volume and settlement. Development of completed landfill sites which is

highly desirable particularly in land-limited locations is invariably hindered by these

settlements. Estimating long term landfill settlements becomes an integral part

towards final site closure and ultimate usage. The rate and magnitude of these

settlements depend primarily on refuse composition and operational-management

practices which affect bio-degradation and stabilization processes. Field scale

experiments were conducted to measure refuse settlements rates under different

operational management practices including leachate recirculation, addition of water,

buffer and microbial seed. The effect of these practices on settlement rates and

magnitudes is evaluated. The field test data are used to calibrate mathematical models

that are traditionally used in soil consolidation. The models can be applied to simulate

landfill settlement rates and correlate these rates to refuse biodegradation and

stabilization processes within landfills.

M. El-Fadel and M. Abou Najm (2002) studied about the Economic and

Environmental Optimization of Integrated Solid Waste Systems Increased

environmental concerns and the emphasis on material and energy recovery are

gradually changing the orientation of MSW management and planning. In this

context, the application of optimization techniques has been introduced to design the

least cost solid waste management systems, considering the variety of management

processes (recycling, composting, anaerobic digestion, incineration, and land filling),

and the existence of uncertainties associated with the number of system components

and their interrelations. This study presents a model that was developed and applied to

serve as a solid waste decision support system for MSW management taking into

account both socio-economic and environmental considerations. The model accounts

for solid waste generation rates, composition, collection, treatment, disposal as well as

potential environmental impacts of various MSW management techniques. The model

follows a linear programming formulation with the framework of dynamic

optimization. The model can serve as a tool to evaluate various MSW management

alternatives and obtain the optimal combination of technologies for the handling,

treatment and disposal of MSW in an economic and environmentally sustainable way.

El Fadel .M (2011) found about the Simulating Temperature Variations in Landfills

Gas generation within solid waste landfills occurs as a result of biodegradation of

organic matter in the landfill. Biodegradation processes in a landfill are exothermic

and highly dependant on microbial growth in that environment. The heat generated

during exothermic reaction's increases landfill temperatures. Temperature is an

important factor controlling their own internal temperature. Therefore predicting and

controlling the temperature variation within a landfill are essential to ensure normal

gas generation of recovery and enhance stabilization processes. This is to estimate the

temperature distribution resulting from the heat release during organic waste

decomposition in layered solid waste landfills. The heat source within the landfill is

estimated based on the amount of heat generated during the biodegradation processes.

Temperature profiles are obtained by solving the heat flow equation within the

landfill. The resulting model is coupled with a gas generation and transport

component.

Hamzawi . N, et al., (1999) Review of Applications of High Solids Anaerobic

Digestion to Solid Waste Management while composting is viewed as a major

contributor to achieving solid waste reduction goals for residential and commercial

waste, it is recognized that traditional aerobic composting presents challenges which

must be overcome if large scale composting is to be accepted in large urban

communities. These challenges include requirements for a large amount of land, long

gestation periods for handling, digestion an during and solutions for numerous process

control issues (eg leachate entering groundwater noise and dust odors and sensitivity

to climatic conditions.

Anaerobic digesting in contrast to aerobic composting does not require air and still

generates a product that has approximately the same solid amendment value per unit

weight as that produced in aerobic process. While the anaerobic process may not

generate the same quantity of heat this can be offset by the production of methane gas.

The potential for energy recovery in anaerobic processes has been promoted as a

solution to energy problems in many industries in addition to producing greater

amounts of humic materials than those generated by aerobic composting processes. In

recent decades several developments have occurred which have greatly increased the

energy efficiency and attractiveness of anaerobic waste treatment processes. Research

groups throughout the world have developed anaerobic reactors to treat wastes in an

efficient economical and environmentally acceptable way.

Parcel .O, et al., (1997) studied about the physical-chemical components of the

municipal solid waste of the city of Cordoba on special and seasonal variability in

Municipal Solid Waste (MSW) production in Cordoba. The objective is to improve

the design and operation of the collection and treatment system by understanding the

variations in percentages of each fraction which will finally reach the treatment plant.

All of this is necessary for the design of the plant and commercialization of the

products recovered.

Paola Cipriani, et al., (1998) Solid Waste Gasification: Energy Recovery from

Polyethylene Biomass. A fluidized bed reactor was used to study the gas composition

of solid waste steam gasification. Two different mixtures were prepared to investigate

the effect of polyethylene on the biomass gasification and on the produced gas

composition. Four different gasification temperatures ranging from 750 to 920 0C

were used in order to obtain a gas composition rich in hydrogen.

Prof. Dimitrios G. Goulias and Prof.Ilan Juran (1998) studied about the use of

Recycled Plastic Resins in Infrastructure Construction Materials in City and State

agencies are faced with the problem of disposing of a significant volume of waste

materials. While in the past incineration and burial have been the common methods of

disposing of plastics,rubber,glass,ash and other products of a Municipal Solid Waste

(MSW),the environmental concerns, the increasing cost of landfills, and the

recognition of the salvage avalue of these products promotes the drastic reduction of

landfilled material. For example the City of New York is planning to drastically

increase the recycling of waste from 12% to 42% of MSW by the year 2000. The

infrastructure construction materials provide a significant market potential for

recycling plastic resins. The infrastructure industry has been investigating the use of

recycled plastic resins for improving material quality and durability for a long time.

Today, there are several examples of construction materials and products containing

recycled plastic resins, such as pavement joint sealnats, polymers modified asphalt

and concrete, roofing materials, geotextiles, traffice cones and others. This paper

describes the research to practice cases known today in the use of recycledresins in

infrastructure construction materials. Recycled plastic resins are routinely used for

producing polymer modified highway and building materials and traffic control

devices. Society need for safe and economical disposal of discarded plastic resins.

The infrastructure communities need for better, long lasting and cost effective

materials, significant research and effort is being directed in identifying new uses and

applications for these resins.

Paul S. Phillips, et al., (2005) researched about the implications for evidence based

policy formulation in developing economies. The reform of the UK Landfill Tax

Credit Scheme, in November 2002, enabled funding to be available for a more

strategic approach to sustainable waste management in England. In response to

recommendations made by the Strategy Unit (England), in Waste not Want not

(November 2002), a new programme was announced that would be delivered by the

Department for the Environment, Food and Rural Affairs (Defra). The Waste

Implementation Programme (WIP) has a number of strands, a central one being a

Waste Research Team (WRT) that oversees the implementation of the programme;

this is advised by the Wastes and Resources Research Advisory Group (WRRAG)

that is charged with developing the research strategy for England (2004-2007). The

present European Drivers are central to the planning of WRRAG as they impact upon

every aspect of present policy in the UK. To develop an effective strategy, WRRAG

has consulted widely with a range of key players and organizations and has produced

a strategy with 8 key themes. This will be directly supported by some £15 million

Central Government funds but will synergies with a whole raft of alternative funding

sources. The development of a sustainable waste management research strategy for

England has a number of key lessons for developing economies where policy may

still be based upon historic practice rather than the accurate scientific information that

is required. The UK strategy emphasizes the need for central funding to create

dynamic new partnerships to inform the research agenda and to deliver best practice.

This has been empathized repeatedly as a requirement for developing economies.

Such new alliances can impact strongly upon quality of life and enable the most

appropriate waste management technologies to be selected as evidence based

institutions emerge. Only through structured partnership is it possible to develop

strategies that deal with issues ranging from industrial waste to MSW in small towns

and most importantly, the formulation of the correct goals and perspectives

Alam. R, et al., (2006) studied about the Solid waste management in Katmandu,

capital city of Nepal among the multitude of environmental problem existing in the

urbanizing cities of developing countries, solid waste has become one of the most

prominent in the recent years, not only because of the increase in the amount, but

chiefly because of the lack of an efficient system for its management. And Katmandu

city is not an exceptional. This paper discusses Katmandu’s existing municipal solid

waste management, its analyses, municipal solid waste production trends, and other

related topics like conservancy wings, organizational and financial aspect to address

the actual existing practice. Prediction of solid waste generation was done for an

efficient waste management program and infrastructures that would be needed for the

purpose.

Silvio Delvasto, et al., (1998) have developed that Lightweight Masonry blocks were

produced from industrial residues of polystyrene and bricks from alumina profile

chips and a kind of silica which is fine leftover of the production of aggregate for

concrete (FAC).The concrete designs were mainly related to comply with the ASTM

requirements about compressive strength, density and water absorption. Normal

curing was used for a polystyrene added concrete(PAC) and high pressure steam

curing for a cellular concrete(ACC) prepared by incorporation of wasted aluminum

chips and FAC.The best result gotten was 5.0 MPa(709 psi) reported by the PAC

when the apparent density was 1450 kg/m3 The ACC specimens showed a maximum

strength of 2.6 MPa(362psi).The water absorption ranged from 1.9 to 30.6 %.The

results of this study indicated that tried industrial waste remaining could be suitable to

produce lightweight masonry blocks for non-load bearing applications with weather

protective coatings.

Shoou-Yuh Chang and Zhi Li (1997) have studied by using a computer utilizing a

modeling-to-generate-alternatives (MGA) approach for generating solid waste

management (SWM) alternatives.. The goal of this study is to create a computer

program for the preliminary design of SWM systems. The program can be used to

determine the least cost treatment and disposal system for a given SWM problem, and

generate a set of alternatives that are widely 'different' with respect to treatment

processes. Therefore, a wide range of technical alternatives and possible effects can

be analyzed. A Bounded Implicit Enumeration (BIE) technique is first applied to

produce a set of SWM systems within a specified cost constraint. The Pair wise

Difference (PWD) approach is then used to rank the alternatives and screen out

designs which employ similar treatment processes. The information and cost data

collected on SWM processes, disposal methods, and costs for City of Greensboro, NC

are compiled and used to demonstrate how the model can be used in practice.

Shoou-Yuh Chang and Shazia Nishat (2005) have developed an integrated solid

waste management for the city of Greensboro, NC: with a linear programming model

and proved that Land filling is necessary for municipal solid waste disposal but every

landfill has its own finite capacity. The most common approach to extending the life

of landfills is to introduce recycling, composting, and incineration into the solid waste

disposal system. Cost minimization is one of the major considerations in planning a

solid waste management and disposal system. Collection, processing, operation and

maintenance, and monitoring and regulatory costs for each alternative are included.

The model successfully identifies the least cost solution. Separate analyses are carried

out to evaluate the effect of recycling and incineration. Results show that incineration

requires an additional $35.5 million, but extends the landfill life by 4.5 years (2009 to

2013). This translates into revenue of $12.22 million and the net additional cost of

$23.3 million. Incineration with energy sales will reduce costs considerably.

Expanding the City’s current recycling and composting programs adds two years to

the landfill life and saves a total of $7.8 million and $11 million, respectively. The

model results indicate that it is practical and beneficial to implement incineration, and

increase recycling and composting programs, even though incineration increases

costs.

Samorn Muttamara, et al., (1994) presented about the solid waste recycling,

disposal and management in recycling should be integrated with other solid waste

management options to abate degradation in urban environment. This can be achieved

through promotion of economically efficient and environmentally sound practices in

managing municipal waste. Recycling can be promoted by encouraging separation at

source. The best way of waste separation at source can be stimulated by financial

incentives, legislation and rising of environmental awareness. In Bangkok, 90% of the

solid waste is disposed of by open dumping. Around each disposal site, there are a

number of Small Scale Recycling Shops (SSR) where collected materials are sold by

the collection crews and the scavengers. The quantity of materials delivered to each of

these SSR shops by the collection crews ranges from 1 to 6 tons per day. The total

daily tonnage of recyclable materials collected by waste pickers was estimated at

286.03 tons; about 5% of the garbage collected by the city (TAMS PIRNIE, 1989)

and is increased to 9.6% (TSAI CHIN, 1993). Open dumping has been found to create

environmental problems because of air pollution, bad smell, presence of insects and

rodents which are injurious to health, and potential contamination of ground water.

The levels of BOD and SS of the leachate and khlong water in On-Nooch disposal site

exceeded the standard value of 20 and 60 mg/L BOD and SS, respectively. Dissolved

oxygen was found to be very low, about 0.88 to 1.90 mg/L. Khlong water also

contains high Mn content of 0.12 - 1.39 mg/L compared with the standard value of 0.3

mg/L. Furthermore, the existing ambient air quality in On-Nooch revealed that the

highest level of methane and carbon dioxide was 13.07 mg/m3 and 1758.33 mg/m3 (8

hr ave.), respectively at night time collected on top of the refuse mountain. These

gases may cause explosion or fire if not exhausted properly to air. It is recommended

therefore, that open dumping should be converted to a sanitary landfill with proper

environmental protection measures in order to minimize environmental pollution. It is

also proposed that the government, if possible, should adopt the waste-to-energy

treatment system.

Shoou-Yuh Chang and Yi Wang (2009) developed about the Landfill leachate may

percolate soils and contaminate groundwater and thus becomes harmful to human

health and environment. Many research projects have been conducted to control the

leachate generation and simulate the leachate flow, such as the Water Balance Method

(WBM) and the Flow Investigation of Landfill Leachate (FILL) model. Other than

conventional estimation approaches, the quantity of leachate can also be obtained by

forecasting. In this paper, an artificial neural networks (ANNs) model was presented

for the prediction of the leachate flow rate in a municipal solid waste (MSW) landfill

site.

The model was developed by a number of design steps, which include data

collection, model training, model testing and model validating. As a result of model

development, this model was designed with an appropriate architecture for good

accuracy and fast convergence. The necessary landfill design data needed to calculate

the quantity of leachate were obtained from the US EPA’s Hydrologic Evaluation of

Landfill Performance (HELP) model, which is a versatile and accepted landfill design

and modeling program. Four soil characteristic parameters, which are porosity, field

capacity, wilting point and saturated hydraulic conductivity, in addition to the

thickness of refuse layer were varied to generate the corresponding leachate flow

rates. Using these pairs of data, the ANNs model was “trained” to produce a desired

input and output relationship by a back-propagation (BP) algorithm. With the above

configurations, the proposed ANNs model was illustrated to be efficient and accurate

in the prediction of leachate flow rates with various data sets.

Randall.T Curlee and Sujit Das (1998) discussed about the Viability Of Recycling

Plastic By Tertiary Processes is an alternative to secondary recycling (i.e.

mechanical recycling), quaternary recycling (i.e. incineration with heat recovery) and

disposal by land fling. A life cycle approach which addresses both financial and

environmental costs and benefits is adopted to compare the alternatives. The

discussion focusses not only on the full costs and benefits of the competing

approaches but also the perspectives of the parties that incur these costs and benefits.

The limited information currently available suggests that depolymerization is not a

particularly attractive approach from a financial perspective. Current secondary

recycling technologies that utilize clean PET and HDPE appear to be superior in this

regard. In addition, depolymerization processes do not appear to hold significant

environmental advantages over currently available secondary processes. Although

data on the environmental implications of deploymerization and secondary processes

targeted at clean waste (i.e depolymerizations closes competitor) are limited there is

no strong evidence that depolymerization results in lower overall emissions or

damages. This position is supported by the fact that both secondary recycling and

depolymerization displace virgin resins. From an energy balance perspective, tertiary

recycling appears to hold no particular advantage, finally tertiary recycling currently

holds no advantage over secondary recycling in terms of conservation of materials-

once again because tertiary and secondary recycling of lcean, single resin waste

streams both displace virgin polymers. And there is no evidence to suggest that

additional secondary recycling of clean plastic waste is limited by potential market

size.

Theodore I. Onyeche (2004) has proved that Energy production is improved due to

sludge homogenization and reduces sludge quantity is a residue/product from

wastewater treatment plants and contains most of the contaminants released during

man's activities. The management of sewage sludge is one of the major challenges in

the wastewater treatment industry and one of the most important economic and

environmental issues. These have resulted in an increasing interest in processes

allowing the reduction in sludge and improvement in biogas production during the

anaerobic digestion process. This work shows the first exploitation of valuable energy

from stabilized sludge with subsequent mass reduction at technical scale after using a

specially modified high-pressure homogeniser led to the success. Results showed that

about 30% more energy (i.e. methane gas) could be obtained from concentrated and

disrupted sludge. The energy produced was higher than that invested during

disruption and digestion processes. About 23% sludge reduction was also observed

with no increase in chemical oxygen demand which confirms the earlier laboratory

results. This new process can produce extra energy for local electric supply, for

heating the digester while the sludge reduction provides savings for the plant

operators depending on the size, type and location of the plant. Concentration of

sludge causes reduction in investment cost on digester in addition to reduction in

operational time for sludge dewatering.

Timothy G. Townsend and Lamar Miller .W(1997) proposed about the landfill gas

extraction from leachate collection systems an issue concerned in the implementation

and success of a landfill gas (LFG) recovery system is the ability to collect gas prior

to landfill closure. A large percentage of the LFG generated may be produced during

the time when waste is actively deposited. Proposed federal regulations will soon

require many landfills to install LFG recovery systems, sometimes necessitating gas

collection while the landfill is operational. Traditional LFG collection systems

(vertical wells) are generally constructed and operated after the final layer of waste

has been placed.

Tomonori Ishigaki, et al., (2003) has studied an application of bioventing to waste

landfill for improving waste settlement and leachate quality—with a lab-scale model.

A pilot-scale aerobic landfill reactor in which a bioventing technique was applied is

proposed and investigated in this study in order to obtain detailed information on the

stabilization of aerobic landfill. The application of bioventing successfully

transformed the condition of the waste landfill from anaerobic to aerobic, and it

stimulated indigenous aerobic bacteria and enhanced the aerobic degradation of

waste. The necessity of the control of the moisture content of the waste in the aerobic

landfills to stimulate aerobic bacterial activity was also suggested. The aerobic waste

degradation enhanced the waste settlement and effectively improved qualities of the

leachate and the LFG. The enhancement of waste landfill stabilization could greatly

shorten the period that is required for landfill management. Furthermore, toxicity

assay of leachate revealed that aerobic landfill could greatly reduce the risks of waste

land filling. These results suggested that aerobic landfill operation

Thomas E.O. Odhiambo, et al., (1998) studied about the solid waste management

options for a developing mega city — Nairobi. Waste generation, both domestic and

industrial, continues to increase world-wide in tandem with growth in consumption.

In developed countries, per capita waste generation increased nearly three-fold over

the last two decades, reaching a level five to six times higher than that in developing

countries. With increases in populations and living standards, waste generation in

developing countries is also increasing rapidly, and may double in volume in the

current decade. If current trends to continue, the world may see a five-fold increase in

waste generation by the year 2025. A high proportion of the waste could be recycled

by the urban poor generating income for themselves and protecting the environment.

There is a need to develop an integrated approach where the public, private and

community sectors work together to develop local solutions promoting sustainable

solid waste management hence sustainable development in a typical developing

country like Kenya.

Toochukwu Chibueze Ogwueleka (2003) evaluated Solid waste management in

Nsukka which was divided into four sanitation zones based on the population density

for sampling. Plastic bags were distributed to shops, hostels, market and 20

households in each zone for collection of waste on daily basis. The survey lasted for

40 days. The wastes were weighted and sorted into components of food and

putrescible, plastics, paper, textile, glass, metals and others. The waste showed high

percentage of biodegradable materials. And when compared with waste from

developing countries and developed countries, the analysis showed that the

composition of waste in any country is dependent on the economic status of the

country the waste generation rate and the average density of waste were estimated at

0.49 kg/capita/day and 268kg/m3 respectively. The unit waste management cost of

$1.93 per ton was estimated from addition of annual collection cost and annual

disposal cost and the sum divided by annual waste tonnage. The study reveals that

collection cost has formed a large component of the solid waste management in

developing economy.

Wilton Silva Lopes, et al., (2003) performance of anaerobic reactors in the bio

stabilization of organic solid wastes was to study the process of biostabilization of the

putrescible organic fraction of urban solid waste through utilization of bovine rumen

as inoculum. The work was carried out in Environmental Sanitation Laboratory, CCT,

UEPB, Campina Grande, Northeast of Brazil at 550 m above sea level, in four

anaerobic batch reactors with a capacity of 50 L each, during a monitoring period of

365 days. The proportion between urban solid waste and inoculum in the substratum

fed to the reactors A, B, C and D was 100/0, 95/5, 90/10 and 85/15, respectively. The

anaerobic biostabilization constants of the substratum obtained were as follows:

reactor A= 1.758 x 10-3 day-1, B= 1.857 x 10-3 day-1, C = 2.221 x 10-3 day-1 and D =

3.168 x 10-3 day-1. It was also verified that the mass decrease (%) of applied

substratum was: reactor A = 13, B = 18, C = 26 and D = 36. Based on the data

obtained, the viability of utilization of bovine rumen as inoculum in anaerobic

biostabilization process of urban solid waste could be verified. This is due to the value

of the biostabilization constant, which presented strong correlation with the

percentage of inoculum used.

Most of developing countries have to struggle with the problem of efficient

solid waste management due to increasing waste generation rate, high collection cost

and lack of financial resources. In some cities wastes are dumped indiscriminately and

littered on the streets

From the above literature review, it has been found that scanty attention has

been paid on solid waste generation rates and statistical modeling on solid waste

management. Hence in this work, an attempt has been made to forecast the solid

waste generation rates using statistical modeling, which is useful for the planning of

solid waste management.