Literacy and Reading Difficulties in Young Children

Partially adapted from LETRS, Language Essentials for Teachers of Reading and SpellingDevelopment of Young Children with Disabilities#872.514 (61)Carol Ann Heath

Why a National Priority? Students must be good readers to make it

in life.

Too many are not proficient (NAEP).

Up to 70% of children in high-poverty schools are “below basic,” especially children of color and Hispanic children.

This problem is preventable! If we start early, in pre-K and K–1. If we use research-based instruction.

Research Basis for LETRS Becoming a Nation of Readers

Anderson, Heibert, Scott, and Wilkinson (1985)

Report of the National Reading Panel NICHD, NIFL (2000)

Beginning to ReadM. Adams (1990)

Preventing Reading Difficulties in Young Children Snow, Burns, & Griffin (1998)

Every Child ReadingLearning First Alliance (1998; 2000)

Teach Ourselves Well, Teach the Children Well Teachers are not born knowing how to teach reading! We have to learn how.

Teaching reading is rocket science! (Which is why the American Federation of Teachers proposed a core curriculum for teachers.)

Reflection and introspection are insufficient. Fads have often misled us.

Student failure is unnecessary! All but 2–5% of students can learn to read well.

When We Know Our “Stuff” We can interpret assessments and group children for

instruction.

We can identify and teach students before they get into big trouble.

We can respond to children’s errors insightfully.

We can make better decisions about programs, methods, and priorities.

We can feel confident.

What is reading?

Reading is more than translating print into the spoken word (decoding).

Reading is getting meaning from print.

Reading and Literacy Reading is an essential function in current

society Directly linked to social and economic

advancement Must be able to read to ensure

understanding and to meet the demands of a complex and competitive society

Current issues of literacy are linked to higher demands for literacy, rather than a decline in absolute levels of literacy

Demands for higher literacy creating more grievous consequences for those who cannot read

Reading Literacy Determined by multiple factors:

Many factors that correlated with reading fail to explain it

Many experiences contribute to reading development without being prerequisite to it

There are many prerequisites, not by itself considered sufficient

Initial reading instruction requires that children: Use reading to obtain meaning from print Have frequent & intensive opportunities to read Be exposed to frequent, regular spelling-sound

relationships Learn about nature of the alphabetic writing

system Understand the structure of spoken words

Progress in Reading (reading English or any alphabetic language)

Depends on:* having a working relationship of how sounds are represented alphabetically* sufficient practice in reading to achieve fluency with different kinds of tests* control over procedures for monitoring comprehension* continued interest and motivation to read for a variety of purposes

Reading Skills Acquired in a relatively predictable way by

children with normal language skills Have had experiences in early childhood that

fostered motivation and provided exposures to literacy in use

Get information about he nature of print through opportunities to learn letters and recognize the internal structure of spoken words

Attend schools that provide effective reading instruction and opportunities to practice reading

Literacy Facts In 1998, the National Assessment of

Educational Progress (NAEP) tested 4th grade children nationwide for reading skills: Below basic- 38% Proficient- 31% Advanced- 7%(US Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics)

In 1998 there were ten million children between seven and eleven years of age who performed below the most basic level of reading achievement (Population Estimates Program, Population Division, US Census Bureau Washington, DC)

In 1998, students who reported watching 3 or fewer hours of television each day had higher average reading scores than students who reported watching more television

(US Department of Education, National Center for Educational Statistics)

National Institute of Health studies are finding that at least 95% of even the poorest readers can learn to read at grade level is they are given proper instruction in sound-letter relationships.

The average reader spent 6 minutes per day reading connected text. Children with reading problems spent about one minute per day. The amount of time students spent on worksheets did not relate to gains in reading achievement. What appeared to be most relevant was time spent reading connected print. Stahl, S. A., Duffy-Hester, A., et al. (1998). Everything you wanted to know about phonics (But were afraid to ask). Reading Research Quarterly 33(3), 338-356.

Four year old children who were read one alphabet book per day significantly improved in their awareness of phonemes- tiny letter sounds that make up words.

Stahl, S. A., Duffy-Hester, A., et al. (1998). Everything you wanted to know about phonics (But were afraid to ask). Reading Research Quarterly 33(3), 338-356.

Development Blocks Difficulty understanding and using the alphabetic

principle- the idea that written spellings systematically represent spoken words

Failure to transfer the comprehension skills of spoken language to reading and to acquire new strategies that may be specifically needed for reading

The absence or loss of an initial motivation to read or failure to develop a mature appreciation of the rewards of reading

1st - 3rd Grade Curricula Beginning readers need:

explicit instruction and practice that lead to an appreciation that spoken words are made up of smaller units of sounds,

familiarity with spelling-sound correspondences and common spelling conventions and their use in identifying printed words,

sight recognitions of frequent words, and independent reading, including reading aloud.

Children who have started to read independently (2nd grade and beyond) Should be encouraged to sound out and

confirm the identifies of visually unfamiliar words

Recognizing words primarily through attention to their letter-sound relationships.

The ability to obtain meaning from print depends on the development of word recognition accuracy and reading fluency Should be assessed regularly Permitted timely and effective instructional

response when difficulty or delay is apparent

Beginning in the earliest grades: Instruction should promote comprehension by

actively building linguistic and conceptual knowledge

Direct instruction should include comprehension strategies,such as: Summarizing the main idea, Predicting, Events and outcomes in upcoming text, Drawing inferences Monitoring for coherence and misunderstandings

Once letters are learned, children should be encouraged to: Write them Use them to begin writing words Use words to begin writing sentences

Beginning writing with invented spelling can be helpful for developing understanding of the identify and segmentation of speech sounds and sound-spelling relationships.

Conventionally correct spelling should be developed through focused instruction and practice

In early grades, time, materials, and resources should be provided: To support daily independent readings texts selected

to be of particular interest for the individual students and below the reader’s frustration level,

To support daily assisted or supported reading and rereading of texts that are slightly more difficult in wording or in linguistic, rhetorical, or conceptual structure to promote advances in capabilities

Five Areas of Reading Instruction Phonemic awareness Phonics Fluency Vocabulary Text comprehension

Phonemic Awareness The ability to notice, think about, and work

with the individual sounds in spoken words Phonemes are the smallest parts of sound

in a spoken word that make a difference in the word’s meaning

Children demonstrate phonemic awareness: Recognizing which words in a set of words

begin with the same sound Isolating and saying the first or last sound in

a word Combining or blending the separate sounds in

a word to say the word Breaking or segmenting a word into its

separate sounds

Phonological Awareness Five characteristics make a word easier or

more difficult: Size of the phonological unit # of phonemes in the word Phoneme position Phonological properties of words Phonological awareness challenges

Phonics Instruction Phonics instruction teaches children the

relationships between the letters (graphemes) of written language and the individual sounds (phonemes) of spoken language.

Goal is to help children learn and use the alphabetic principle- the understanding that there are systematic and predictable relationships between written letters and spoken sounds.

Fluency Instruction Fluency is the ability to read a text

accurately and quickly. Fluent readers read silently, recognize

words automatically, group words quickly to help them gain meaning; read aloud effortlessly and with expression

Provides the bridge between word recognition and comprehension

Vocabulary Instruction Vocabulary refers to the words we must

know to communicate effectively Vocabulary can be described as oral

vocabulary and reading vocabulary Oral vocabulary refers to words that we use

in speaking or recognize in listening Reading vocabulary refers to words we

recognize or use in print

Researchers identify 4 types: Listening vocabulary- the words we need

to know to understand what we hear Speaking vocabulary- the words we use

when we speak Reading vocabulary- the words we need to

know to understand what we read Writing vocabulary- the words we use in

writing

Text Comprehension Comprehension is the reason for reading Good readers are both purposeful and

active Instruction in comprehension can help

students understand what they read, remember what they read, and communicate with others about what they read

Metacognition Defined as “thinking about thinking” Strategies to think about and have control over

reading Involves comprehension monitoring

Identify where the difficulty occurs Identify what the difficult is Restate the difficult sentence or passage in their own

words Look back through the text Look forward in the text for information that might help

them to resolve the difficulty

The developmental course of literacy: Birth to Three Year Olds

Recognize specific books by cover Pretends to read books Understands that books are handled in a certain way Enters into book sharing routine with caregivers Vocalizes in crib, rhyming, word play Labels objects in books Looks at pictures Listens to stories Requests adult to read Purposeful scribbling

Three-four year olds Knows alphabet letters are print; knows 10 Recognizes print in stories Understands text forms & functions Uses new vocabulary and constructions Shows an interest in books and reading Connects info to life experiences Questions & comments on books Displays reading attempts

Kindergarten Knows the parts of book and functions Begins to tract print Reads familiar texts emergently Recognizes and names uppercase/lowercase letters Learns one-to-one sound correspondences Some sight words Retells, reenacts stories Can same book titles & authors Correctly answers questions about stories read aloud Writes names and some words

First Grade Transition from emergent to real reading Reads1st grade text aloud with accuracy and comprehension Decodes one syllable words Recognizes common, irregularly spelled words Creates written texts Reads simple written instructions Discusses how, why, what-if Qs. Answers written comprehension Qs Spells 3-4 letter words Uses invented spelling Uses basic punctuation

Second Grade Reads & comprehends 2nd grade fiction and nonfiction Decodes multi-syllable words ]reads many irregularly spelled words Reads voluntarily Rereads when meaning is not clear Interprets diagrams, charts, & graphs Connects info across nonfiction selections Represents the complete sounds when spelling Discusses ways to clarify writing Attends to spelling, mechanics, & presentation

Third Grade Reads aloud with fluency & comprehension Reads 3rd grade material with ease Reads chapter books independently Creative responses to texts Points to specific words Summarizes major points, fiction/nonfiction Identifies underlying themes Distinguishes cause & effect Infers word meanings, roots, prefixes, suffixes Uses all aspects of the writing process; edits, revises

Intervening- Important features Duration of the intervention- generally occurring

on a daily basis for the duration of the school year Amount of instructional time- more time in

reading and writing Array of activities that consist of

reading/rereading of continuous text; some forms of word study; specific strategies for decoding

Writing in a systematic manner

Materials used should be: Predictable Patterned Sequenced from easy to more difficult Phonological Interesting

Programs of intervention should involve carefully planned assessments that monitor the response of each child to the intervention

What Causes Reading Difficulty?

Written Language Is Harder to Learn Than Spoken Language Reading is a relatively new human capability,

invented only a few thousand years ago; we’re not “wired” for it as we are for oral language.

25% of the adult population of the U.S. has not learned to read (yet).

A child learns to speak at age one; reading is learned beginning at age five or six, and takes several years.

Written Language Differs From Oral

Speech sounds Vocabulary Sentence structure Errors Paragraphs Overall structure (discourse) Available context

Types of Writing Systems

Logographic: uses symbols to directly represent concepts (Chinese radicals)

Syllabic: uses symbols for vowel-consonant or consonant-vowel combinations (Cherokee)

Alphabetic: uses letters for single speech sounds, has consonant and vowel letters (English, Russian, Greek)

PICTOGRAPHIC

LOGOGRAPHIC(Chinese characters)

SYLLABIC(Cherokee)

ALPHABETIC

Types of Writing SystemsTypes of Writing Systems

Sound-BasedSound-Based

shallow(Finnish)

deep(English)

Meaning-BasedMeaning-Based

Spanish Is a “Shallow” Alphabetic System

Gracias por seleccionar una de nuestras impresoras.

Spanish generally uses a system of one letter for each sound, so it is more toward the “shallow” or “transparent” end of the orthographic continuum.

English Is a “Deep” Alphabetic System

We spell by sound and by meaning:

wanted, hummed, pitched(/ed/, /d/, /t/)

cómpress, compression

medic, medicine, medicinal

The Alphabet Is a Great Invention

‘Twas brillig, and the slithy toves Did gyre and gimble in the wabe;All mimsy were the borogoves, and the mome raths outgrabe.

—Lewis Carroll, “Jabberwocky” Through the looking glass and what Alice found there

Exercise #4 As you do this exercise on learning to read,

notice your reactions. We will talk about them when the exercise is over.

Cut out the cards and get ready to participate.

Proficient Reading Depends On: Phonological awareness.

Using phonics to decode accurately.

Recognizing words automatically.

Knowing what most words mean.

Constructing meaning; connecting the text with prior knowledge.

Monitoring comprehension and repairing miscomprehension if necessary.

Areas of the Brain

Skilled Reading

“ . . . skilled readers identify words quickly with little help from context. It is readers of lower skill who rely on context to support word identification.”

—Rayner, Foorman, Perfetti, Pesetsky, & Seidenberg, Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 2001

The Visual System

Reading problems are seldom caused by deficiencies in the visual processing system alone.

(visual perception, eye movements, light sensitivity, scanning, depth perception, or focusing ability)

These problems exist but are independent of reading processes.

Four Processing Systems

background informationsentence context

vocabulary

Context Processor

Orthographic Processor

Phonological Processor

Meaning Processor

writing outputspeech output reading input

speechsound system

letter memoryphonics

Brain: Functional Neuroanatomy Each processing system operates in a

distinct region of the left brain.

Rapid communication among regions is essential.

Reading problems can originate in one or several systems.

All systems must be educated.

The Phonological Processor

Processes the speech sound system.

We must teach:

Identification, comparison, and manipulationof sounds

Pronunciation of sounds and words

Memory for sounds and words

Links between sounds, spellings, and meanings

The Orthographic ProcessorProcesses letters, letter patterns, and whole words. We must teach:

Recognition and formation of letters

Association of letters with sounds

Attention to letter sequences and patterns

Fluent recognition of whole words

Recall of letters for spelling

The Meaning ProcessorWe store word meanings in relation to: Other words Categories and concepts Examples of word use in context The sounds, spelling, and syllables Meaningful parts

We must teach vocabulary with attention to all these areas.

The Context ProcessorInterprets words we have heard, named, or partially identified, with reference to:

Language Experience Knowledge of the concepts

We teach the background that children need to interpret what they read.

Context Is the Back-Up System

“That idea provided the segue between the introduction and the body of the speech.”

(related words: sequel, sequence)

First, we name words; then, we interpret them and remember them. Using context comes after trying to sound out or name the word!

Decoding X ComprehensionCorrelations between the decoding and comprehension components of reading:

1st grade .89 5th grade .70

2nd grade .83 6th grade .69

3rd grade .77 7th grade .69

4th grade .73 8th grade .63 —Connecticut Longitudinal Study

Yale University

Stages of Reading Development

Prereading; pre-alphabetic (0) Initial reading or alphabetic

decoding (1)Early phoneticLater phonetic

Confirmation and fluency (2) Reading to learn (3)

Pre-Alphabetic (0) Children try to remember some words by

incidental visual characteristics. yellow, elephant, kangaroo

Children treat words as pictograms and make a direct association to meaning. Crest=toothpaste

Children think the length of word is equivalent to meaning. snake is a longer word than caterpillar

Decoding: Early Phonetic (1)

Identify first consonant in word; need to learn to segment all sounds.

Rely on letter names to get the sounds, especially for spelling; need to learn sounds and letter names, and the difference.

YEL = will WOH = watch

Confuse similar words such as horse and house, lake and like; need to decode the whole word, left to right, with sound-symbol links.

Decoding: Early Phonetic (1)

Can sound out regular one-syllable words; can increase speed of whole word recognition once decoding is accurate.

Phoneme awareness is well established.

Phonetic spelling is a fine art!

Confirmation and Fluency (2)

Can read more easily, attending to meaning. Need to increase speed to about 120 w.p.m. by end of grade three.

Print chunks are recognized automatically, such as -ing, -est, high frequency words, and syllable patterns.

Need to read widely! Series books terrific. Emphasize daily reading.

Reading to Learn (3)Build vocabulary, several thousand words per

year.

Teach advanced word decoding.

Emphasize varied texts, expository text.

Preview and guide silent and oral reading.

Emphasize self-monitoring, strategy use.

Be sure children are up to speed.

Components of Reading Instruction(from Put Reading First)

Comprehension of connected text

Vocabulary (word meanings)

Fluency

Phonics, decoding, spelling,word recognition

Phoneme awareness and letter knowledge

Subtypes of Reading DisabilityOverlapping but separate conditions:

Phonologicalweakness

Slow namingspeed (RAN)

Languagecomprehension

K–2 Symptoms Late learning to talk, slow vocabulary growth Inconsistent memory for words, lists,

and directions Mispronunciation of words and names Poor letter-sound recall Trouble segmenting and blending

speech sounds Slow to learn the alphabet letter names

or forms

Grades 3–4 Symptoms

Reads too slowly, word by word

Misreads the same words over and over

Can’t spell common words, certain speech sound sequences, or common syllable patterns

Grades 5–8 Symptoms Continues to be a slow reader Vocabulary is not growing at

expected rate Spells phonetically, misspells

common words Miscomprehends complex sentences, figures

of speech, subtle inferences Has trouble learning foreign languages Writing is sparse and disorganized

What is a reading disability?

Reading disabilities are neurological disorders and occur when an individual's reading achievement is markedly below the level expected given the person's intelligence, age, and educational opportunities.

This disorder is not due to a physical disability, such as a visual problem. Instead, it is a problem in how the brain processes the information as the individual is reading.

Some common signs of a reading disability are:

Problems with understanding what is read Lack of awareness of phonemes (or sounds) that make up

words, often including a difficulty with blending sounds to make words

Difficulty with spelling correctly (may even spell the same words differently within the same document)

Difficulty with the sequence (or order) of letters in words Trouble rhyming words Difficulty with pronouncing words (may reverse sounds) Delay in speaking as compared to most peers Delay in learning the alphabet, numbers, days of the week,

months, colors, shapes, and other basic information Difficulty understanding the subtleties of language (such as

jokes or slang)

What is dyslexia?

Dyslexia is a learning disability in the area of reading. It is included in the category of "Learning Disabilities" in the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA).

A person with dyslexia is someone with average to above average intelligence whose problem in reading is not the result of emotional problems, lack of motivation, poor teaching, mental retardation or vision or hearing deficits.

The term dyslexia, however, is defined in different ways. While reading is the basic problem, people include different aspects of reading and related problems in their definitions.

What causes dyslexia? The basic cause of dyslexia is not known, however, much

research is being done to determine the problems underlying dyslexia.

Research indicates that, in many cases, dyslexia is inherited and may occur in several members of a family.

Studies are being done to determine whether there are slight differences in the brains of people with dyslexia.

Recent research indicates that many children having difficulty learning early reading skills (decoding) also have problems hearing individual sounds in words, analyzing whole words into parts, and blending sounds into words (phonological processing).

Final Summary Exercise What insights about learning to read may

be new for you at this point?

What concepts were the most unfamiliar?

Did this module contradict any of yourprior beliefs?

What aspect of reading instruction do you want to know more about?