Lise Meitner: A Life in Physics

ChapterOneGirlhoodinViennaAndeventodayIamfilledwithdeepgratitudefortheunusualgoodnessofmyparents,andtheextraordinarilystimulatingintellectualatmosphereinwhichmysistersandbrothersandIgrewup.

LiseMeitnerwasborninViennain1878,thethirdchildofHedwigandPhilippMeitner.ShewouldliveinViennatwentynineyears,andthenshewouldleave,notrealizinghowpermanently,tomakeherprofessionalhomeinBerlin.Partofherremainedsentimentally,irreversiblyViennese.Shegaveintoit,laughingatherselfeachtimeshepaidthespecialfeetomaintainherAustrianresidency."Naja,"shewouldshrug."Foolishnesscostsmoney."Andlaterstill,aftershefledGermanyforStockholm,aftereverymemberofherfamilywasgonefromVienna,afterthecommunityfromwhichshecamewaslostforever,eventhensheclungtoherAustrianpast,refusingtotakeSwedishcitizenshipuntilshecouldhaveboth.1HadshestayedlongerinVienna,shemightnot,perhaps,haveremainedsostronglybound.

OfLise'schildhoodwehavefewdetails.Evenherdateofbirthisnotentirelycertain.Inthebirthregister2ofVienna'sJewishcommunityitislistedas17November1878,butonallotherdocumentsitis7November,thedayLiseherselfobserved.Itmaybethatherparents,alreadyambivalentabouttheirJewishaffiliations,3somehowdelayedtherecord,orperhapsthediscrepancywasmerelyacaseofSchlamperei,thatwellknownimprecisionthatcontributedtoVienna'scharm.Neitherexplanationissatisfactory.Lise'snamealsochangedslightly,fromitsoriginalElise.InBerlinsuchthingsmighthavecausedaflurryofpaperworkinViennaitmadenodifference.

Likemanyoftheirgeneration,Lise'sparentswererecentarrivalsinthecapital,amovewhosesenseoffuturemayexplaintheirlackofattention

Copyright 1996. Uni

versity of California Press. All rights reserved. May not be reproduced in any form without permission from the publisher, except fair uses permitted under U.S. or applicable

copyright law.

EBSCO Publishing : eBook Collection (EBSCOhost) - printed on 5/7/2014 11:49 AM via FLORIDA STATE UNIVAN: 8685 ; Sime, Ruth Lewin.; Lise Meitner : A Life in PhysicsAccount: s5308004

toadetailedfamilyhistory.TheMeitnerstracedthemselvesbackonlyafewgenerations,4tothevillageofMeietheininMoravia,thefertileregionnorthofViennathatisnowpartoftheCzechRepublic.Towardtheendoftheeighteenthcentury,notlongbeforetheRightsofManbegandriftingtowardAustria,KaiserJosefIIinitiatedaseriesofreformsdesignedtoconsolidatepowerandsecuretheloyaltyofallhissubjects:hemadeGermantheofficiallanguageofgovernment,curtailedtheChurch,gavepeasantssomerelieffromserfdom,andgrantedJewstheirfirstverylimitedaccesstocivicemployment,militaryservice,andeducation.TheKaiser'stolerancedidnotextendtohisownenvironsfewerthantwohundredJewishfamilieswerepermittedtoliveinViennabuthecrackedtheghettowalls,sothatJewsfloodedtheschools,joinedthemilitary,andlookedtoGermanlanguageandcultureforitspromiseofemancipation,opportunity,andhumanism.5

AmongKaiserJosef'sadministrativereformswastherequirementofafamilyname.Lise'sgreatgreatgrandfathertookthenameMeietheiner,anindicationthatthefamilyhadlivedinthevillagealongtimethenameeventuallyshortenedtoMeitheiner,Meithner,Meitner.Thefamilylivedmodestly6ifsomeachievedspecialdistinction,itwasfortheircharacterandgooddeeds.Lise'sgreatgrandfather,itwastold,creptthroughthetownafterdarkeveryFridaynighttolayaloafofchallah,theSabbathbread,atthedoorofeverypoorJew.Hedidthisassecretlyaspossibleanddidnotpermitanyonetothankhim,buteveryoneknewitwastheworkofRebMeitner."Reb"didnotmean"rabbi"therewerenoneintheMeitnerfamilybutwasatraditionaltitleofrespect.

RebMeitner'ssonMoriz,Lise'sgrandfather,marriedCharlotteKohnLowy,awidowwithtwosmallboyswhohadinheritedaninn,someproperty,andaguesthouseinthetownofWsechowitz.Hergranddaughterswouldrememberherasbeautiful,welldressed,andascheerfulasshewasselfdisciplined."Thehousemightburndown,"itwassaid,"andgrandmothersingsthereischolerainthevillage,andstillgrandmothersings!"MorizandCharlotte'sson,Philipp,wasblondandblueeyedlikehismotherlikehisgrandfather,RebMeitner,hewouldlaterbeknownforhisintegrityandkindness.In1873hemarriedpetite,darkeyedHedwigSkovran,whosegrandfatherhademigratedfromRussiatoSlovakiatoescapetheongoingpersecutionofJews.

Copyright 1996. Uni


copyright law.


PhilippandHedwigMeitnergrewupwithAustria'stransitionfromlatefeudalismtoarecognizablymodernsociety.Theliberalrevolutionsof1848werecrushedinAustria,butthestruggleforindividualfreedomsandnationalautonomywenton.IndustrializationcametoViennaandwithit,agreatinternalmigrationfromthroughouttheempire.In1858,themedievalfortificationsringingtheoldinnercityweretorndownintheirplacecametheimposingRingstrasse,grandnewpublicbuildings,andaparliamentwithlittlerealpowerwhoseLiberalmajoritypressedforamodernsecularstateandconstitutionalgovernment.Atatimewhentheoldorderwasfailingandtheverynotionofempirewasthreatenedbynationalistdissensions,theHahsburgmonarchywashumiliatedbyastringofunwisemilitaryventuresanddiplomaticblunders.By1867,KaiserFranzJosefsavedwhathecouldbydividingtheempireandlettingHungarygo.Hegrantedhispeopleanumberofconstitutionallaws:nationalandreligioustoleration,alaissezfaireeconomy,animpartialjudiciary,greaterindividualfreedomsofeducation,belief,speech,andpress.ForJews,thismeantfullcivicequality,includingaccesstoprofessionsfromwhichtheyhadpreviouslybeenbarred.7PhilippMeitnerwasamongthefirstgroupofJewishmenwhowerefreetostudylawandbeadmittedtoitspractice.

Inthetwentyyearsfromrevolutiontoconstitution(sothesayingwent),Austriahadbeendraggedintothenineteenthcentury.BythetimeLiseMeitnerwasbornin1878,imperialViennawasmostlytheater,setwithpalacesofimpossibleopulenceandaKaiser,thepopularandlonglivedFranzJosef.Ithardlymatteredanymore.ThenewViennawasburstingwithlifeofitsown,sprawlingintothecountryside,itspopulationdoublinganddoublingagainwithaninfluxsoconstantthatforgenerationsmostViennesewouldbebornsomewhereelse:overwhelminglyCatholicwithsomeJewsandvirtuallynoProtestants,mostlyGermanspeakingwithlargecontingentsofCzechs,Hungarians,Italians,Poles,Croats,Ukrainians,andotherswhoretainedtheirlanguagesandnationalidentitiesinnewspapersandethnicassociations.Tomanyofthenewarrivals,Viennawasaplaceofmarginalworkandmuchunemployment,watershortages,andsummercholera,withcongestionsoseverethateventhewealthylivedinapartmentsandtheverypoorsharedbedsandsleptinshifts.ThemostheterogeneouscityinEurope,itwasamongthemostcrowdedandun

Copyright 1996. Uni


copyright law.


sanitaryithadthehighestrateofsuicide.Stillpeoplecame:conditionsintheprovinceswerenotbetter.Viennaatleastpromisedimprovementandpleasure:musicofeverysort,operaandtheater,newspapersbythedozens,arenowneduniversity,famousphysiciansandscientists,goodfood,vineyardsattheedgeoftown,andbluehillsshimmeringhazilyinthedistance.IftheDanubeseemedmuddyorthewaltzoverrated,Viennawasbeguilingnonetheless,drawingfromeverystreamofEuropeanculture,layeredwithhistoryandbeautyeverynewcomercouldaspiretomakehisown.Theintellectualfermentwasverygreat.Bytheendofthecentury,ViennahadgivenbirthtoViktorAdler'sdemocraticsocialismandTheodorHerzl'sZionismitwasthehomeSigmundFreudlovedtohateandthepoliticalbaseforKarlLueger,thecity'slongtimemayor,whoseheadymixofpopulismandantiSemitismdrewtheraptattentionoftheyoungAdolfHitler.Ifthenineteenthcenturycamelatetothissociety,thetwentietharrivedearly.8

WhenPhilippMeitnerenteredthelegalprofessionintheearly1870s,itwaspossiblenotonlytopracticelawbuttohaveahandinthecreationofanewpoliticalorder.ThenewconstitutioncalledforsweepingreformsofAustria'sentirelegalsystem,andinVienna,afteryearsofneglectbyCrownandChurch,theLiberalcitycouncilbuiltanamplewatersupplyandprovidedfloodcontrolandimprovedpublichealth,hospitals,andschools.9Itwasatimewhenprogressseemedthenaturalorderofthings,eachdecadeanoticeableimprovementontheonebefore.Asanattorney,"freethinker,"andhumanist,PhilippMeitnerwascommittedtotheLiberalidealsofreasonandcivicprogress,sympathetictotheSocialDemocraticgoalsofjusticeandindividualimprovement.HeimmersedhimselfinVienna'spoliticallife.Althoughheneversoughtelectiveoffice,heandHedwigmadetheirhomeagatheringplaceforinterestingpeoplelegislators,writers,chessplayers,lawyers.Thechildrenstayedupandlistened.Yearslater,whenLisewasaskedaboutherchildhood,sherememberedmostofall"theunusualgoodnessofmyparents,andtheextraordinarilystimulatingintellectualatmosphereinwhichmybrothersandsistersandIgrewup."10

DuringLise'schildhoodthefamilylivedintheseconddistrict,knownasLeopoldstadt,justnorthacrosstheDanubecanalfromtheoldcity.Originallyaghetto,thecommunitywasnamedforLeopoldI,whoexpelledVienna'sJewsinthe1600s,thengrudginglypermittedthemtoreturn.For

Copyright 1996. Uni


copyright law.


thenexttwocenturies,thenumberofJewsinthecapitalremainedsmall,butinthe1860s,whenresidencerestrictionswereabolishedandJewsfromthroughouttheempireconvergedonVienna,Leopoldstadtgrew.11Crowdedandrundowninsomeareas,itwaspleasant,evensomewhatprosperous,inothers.

Lisewasborninthefamilyapartmentat27KaiserJosefstrasse,12atreelinedavenuethattraversedLeopoldstadtfromacommercialdistrictatoneendtothePrater,Vienna'shugepark,attheother.ThereonaSundaythefamilycouldenjoyamusementsandcafs,woodedpathsandopenfields,andevenonoccasionglimpsetheKaiserridingby.OnthewholeLeopoldstadtwasacomfortableplacetoraiseafamily.ThefirstthreeMeitnerchildren,Gisela,Auguste(Gusti),andLise,werebornonlyayearapart,followednotquitesorapidlybyfivemore:Moriz(Fritz),Carola(Lola),anotherboy,Frida,andfinallyWalter,thebabybrotherLiseadored,whowasbornin1891.13Thelargefamilycouldaffordfewluxuries,butPhilippMeitner'slawpracticedidprovidethemiddleclassessentials:books,afewsummerweeksinthemountains,andvirtuallyanecessityinViennamusiclessons.14Gustiwasthefamily'smosttalentedmusician,achildprodigywhobecameacomposerandpianistofconcertrank.15Liseplayedthepianotooallherlifemusicwouldbeapassionforher,asnecessaryasfood.Butshewasespeciallycuriousaboutmathematicsandscience,aneightyearoldwhokeptamathbookunderherpillowandwouldaskaboutthecolorsofanoilslickandrememberwhatshewastoldaboutthinfilmsandtheinterferenceeffectsofreflectedlight.16Inthisfamilychildrenwereseenandheardandexpectedtothinkforthemselves.Once,whenLisewasstillveryyoung,hergrandmotherwarnedhernevertosewontheSabbath,ortheheavenswouldcometumblingdown.Lisewasdoingsomeembroideryatthetimeanddecidedtomakeatest.Placingherneedleontheembroidery,shestuckjustthetipofitinandglancedanxiouslyatthesky,tookastitch,waitedagain,andthen,satisfiedthattherewouldbenoobjectionsfromabove,contentedlywentonwithherwork.17Alongwithbooks,summerhikes,andmusic,acertainrationalskepticismwasaconstantofLise'schildhoodyears.

Judaismwasnotoneofthoseconstants.InLeopoldstadttheMeitnerchildrenlivedamongJews,inaneighborhooddottedwithsynagoguesandshuls,fullyawarethattheytoowereofJewishorigin.AndyetitisclearthatthefamilydistanceditselffromitsJewishpast.OneofLise'snephews,

Copyright 1996. Uni


copyright law.


Gusti'sson,OttoRobertFrisch,wouldlaterhavethefirmimpressionthathismotherandalltheMeitnerchildrenhadbeenbaptizedandraisedasProtestants.18Infact,thiswasnotso:thechildrenwereallregisteredwiththeJewishcommunityatbirthandacceptedbaptismonlyasadultsLolaandGiselaasCatholicsin1908,LiseasProtestantthesameyear.19ButFrisch'simpressionwasinessencetrue:theMeitnersdidleavetheoldreligionforthenew.

Theirreasonswereneverexplicitlystated.Opportunismwasapparentlynotoneofthem:PhilippandHedwigMeitnerneverbaptizedtheirchildrenorthemselvesandthusderivednoneoftheadvantagesconversionwouldhaveoffered,particularlyinthelegalprofessionwherediscriminationremainedstrongandconversionwasstillapassporttojudgeshipsandothercivilservicepositions.20OnecanonlyassumethattheMeitnercouplelostinterestinJudaism,regardingitasaghettorelicperhaps,oranundesirableethnicdivisiontheysurelyfeltlittlekinshipwithLeopoldstadt'smanyOstjuden,JewsfromGaliciaandotherAustrianheldPolishprovinceswhoselanguage,dress,andorthodoxysetthemapart.21Enlightenedandprogressive,HedwigandPhilippMeitnerweredrawntoGermanculturefreshlyemancipated,withoptimismborderingonfaith,theyembracedtheculturethatfreedthem.22Bytheturnofthecentury,suchoptimismmusthavedimmedsomewhat,asthemostcharismaticViennesemayorofalltime,thehandsomeKarlLueger(derschneKarl),ralliedhisvotersbyappealingtotheirCatholicism,nationalism,andantiSemitism.ItisworthnotingthatnoneoftheMeitnerchildrenfollowedtheirfatherintopolitics,orevenlaw.Buttheirparents'idealisminfluencedthemnonetheless.Itwaspartofthe"unusualgoodness"Liseremembered,thebasisfortheextraordinaryintellectualatmospherethatnurturedLiseandtheotherchildrenintheirparents'home.

InthisatmospherealltheMeitnerchildren,includingthefivedaughters,pursuedanadvancededucation.Eventodaysuchafamilyrecordwouldbenotable,butatthetimeitwastrulyextraordinary,foruntiltheendofthenineteenthcenturywomenwerebylawexcludedfromAustrianuniversitiesand,bythesamelogic,fromrigoroussecondaryschoolsaswell.WhileabrightboymightattendaGymnasiumandtaketheMatura,aleavingexaminationthatwasrequiredbeforeenteringtheuniversity,publicschoolforgirlswasoveratagefourteen,anditwaspoor.LiseattendedtheMdchenBrgerschuleatCzerninplatz,acrowdedinter

Copyright 1996. Uni


copyright law.


sectionnotfarfromhome.On15July1892,shereceivedherfinalJahresZeugnis,areportcardthatwasalsoanEntlassungsZeugnis,acompletioncertificate.23Shehadlearnedbookkeepingarithmeticbutnotalgebra,asmatteringofhistory,geography,andscience,therequisitedrawing,singing,and"femininehandwork,"alittleFrenchandgymnastics.Althoughhergradeswereallgoodandherbehavior"entirelyappropriate"(vollkommenentsprechend),herdiligencewasratedonly"satisfactory''(befriedigend)ratherthan"industrious"(ausdauernd),anindicationthatshedidnotfindschoolverychallenging.InkedatthebottomofherJahresZeugniswastheline:"vomweiterenSchulbesuchbefreit"(releasedfromfurtherschooling).LisehadgoneasfarinpublicschoolasanAustriangirlcouldgo.

Notyetfourteen,herchoiceswerefew.Mostgirlswouldspendthenextfewyearshelpingathome,sewing,anddaydreamingofmarriage.TheonlywayforagirltogoonwastoattendaprivatehhereTchterschuleforyoungladiesofthemiddleclasstheonlyprofessionshecouldseekwasteachingasubjectthatdidnotrequireuniversityeducation.LisechoseFrench.Nothinginhercontemporaryrecordsorlatermemoirsindicatesthatsheeverhadarealinterestinit.Instead,shelavishedherenergyandloveonherbabybrother,Walterhewouldalwaysbeherclosestsibling.ShealsotutoredyoungergirlstohelppayforGusti'sadvancedmusiclessonsandvolunteeredwiththepoorinrelieforganizationsandschools.24

OftheseyearsLisewouldrememberlittlebutasenseofloss."AlthoughIhadaverymarkedbentformathematicsandphysicsfrommyearlyyears,Ididnotbeginalifeofstudyimmediately,"shewrotelater.25"Thinkingbackto...thetimeofmyyouth,onerealizeswithsomeastonishmenthowmanyproblemsthenexistedinthelivesofordinaryyounggirls,whichnowseemalmostunimaginable.Amongthemostdifficultoftheseproblemswasthepossibilityofnormalintellectualtraining."26

InAustriatheissueofhighereducationforwomenhadbeensimmeringforageneration,certainlysince1867whenuniversitieswerefirstopenedtomenwithoutregardtoeconomicclass,religion,ornationalorigin.Overtheyearsasmallnumberofwomenhadapproachedtheuniversities,petitionedprofessors,beggedtoattendaclassortwo.Atbesttheywerepermittedtositinasunofficialauditors,notexpectingandcertainlyneverreceivinganycreditordocumentation.Mostofthesewomenwereteacherswhoseprioreducationdidnotqualifythemforuniversityadmission.But

Copyright 1996. Uni


copyright law.


eventhefewwhodidqualifyoccasionallyayoungwomanfromBohemiaorAustrianPolandwouldsomehowmanagetoattendherlocalGymnasiumandpasstheMaturawerealsodeniedadmission.DaughtersofthewealthyandthearistocracywereroutinelyeducatedinSwitzerland.Therestweretrappedinacyclewilledbythestate:sincetheuniversities(allpublicinstitutions)excludedwomen,thegovernmentdidnotseefittoestablishschoolsthatwouldpreparewomenforuniversityadmission.InEurope,onlyGermanyandTurkeyofferedmoreresistancetowomen'seducation.27

Towardtheendofthenineteenthcentury,however,theresistancebegantofalter.Women'sgroups,oftenledbyheadmistressesofgirls'schools,regularlypetitionedforimprovedsecondaryeducationaprivateMdchengymnasiumwasestablishedinViennain1891eventhoughitsgraduateswerenotpermittedtotaketheMaturathegovernmentitself,urgentlyneedingfemalephysiciansforMoslemwomeninoccupiedBosniaandHerzegovina,recruitedforeignwomenformanyyears,hiredthefirstAustrian(Swisstrained)in1892,butstilldeniedmedicalcertificationtootherSwisstrainedAustrianwomenphysicianswhowishedtoenterprivatepractice,although,atthesametime,ahighlycompetenteyesurgeonwhowasborninRussiaandtrainedinZurichreceivedspecialpermissionfromtheKaisertoestablishaclinicwithherhusbandinSalzburg.Publicityaccompaniedeachcase,andopiniongraduallysoftened.Itseemedplausible,finally,tosupposethatinAustriaasinAmerica,France,andSwitzerlandwomencouldbeeducatedwithoutsufferingmentalillnessorinfertilityorsocialcatastrophe.Bythemid1890s,evenconservativeuniversityprofessorsregardedwomenstudentsasafloodthatcouldnolongerbeheldback.In1897thegovernmentgrantedwomenaccesstothephilosophicalfaculties(lettersandsciences)ofAustrianuniversitiesafewyearslaterwomenwereadmittedtomedicalschoolsaswell.28

Withthis,thecycleofexclusionwasthrownintoreverse.Justice,andtheneedforuniversityeducatedwomenteachers,requiredthatuniversitiesadmitwomenatonce,evenwithoutGymnasiumpreparation.FortheinterimwomenwouldberequiredonlytopasstheMatura,anywaytheycould.Thiscameasgoodnewslate,butnottoolateforLiseandhersisters.

Gisela,alreadytwentyone,camefirst.Aftertwoyearsofintensiveprivatelessons,GiselapassedtheMaturaandenteredmedicalschoolin

Copyright 1996. Uni


copyright law.


1900.Lisemeanwhilecompletedherteachertraining(asinsurance,herfatheradvised)andin1899beganherownlessonsinagroupwithtwootheryoungwomen.Togethertheycompressedeightmissingschoolyearsintotwo:GreekandLatin,mathematicsandphysics,botany,zoology,mineralogy,psychology,logic,religion,Germanliterature,history.Lisestudiednightandday."You'llfail,"heryoungerbrothersandsisterswouldtease."You'vejustwalkedacrosstheroomwithoutpickingupabook."29Aphotographshowsapaleyoungwomanwithdarkcirclesunderhereyes.

Forphysicsandmathematics,Lise'sgroupwastutoredbyArthurSzarvassy,ayoungphysicistwhohadjustcompletedhisdoctorateattheUniversityofVienna.30

Dr.Szarvasy[sic]hadarealgiftforpresentingthesubjectmatterofmathematicsandphysicsinanextraordinarilystimulatingmanner.SometimeshewasabletoshowusapparatusintheViennaUniversity[Physics]Institute,ararityinprivatecoachingusuallyallonewasgivenwerefiguresanddiagramsofapparatus.ImustconfessthatIdidnotalwaysgetcorrectideasfromthese,andtodayitamusesmetothinkoftheastonishmentwithwhichIsawcertainapparatusforthefirsttime.31

LisetooktheMaturainJuly1901attheAkademischesGymnasium,adistinguishedboys'schoolonBeethovenplatzintheoldcity.32ThecourseofstudyhadbeensointenseandtheexaminationconditionssoterrifyingasExternisten(outsidestudents),LiseandtheotherwomenwereexaminedinstrangesurroundingsbyteacherstheyhadnevermetthatLiseneverfailedtomentionitinherlaterremembrances.Offourteenwhotooktheexam,onlyfourpassed33threewerethestudentsofDr.Szarvassy.ThefourthwasHenrietteBoltzmann,34whosefatherwouldsoonbeaformativeinfluenceinLise'slife.

LisewouldalwaysthinkofArthurSzarvassyasherfirsttrueteacher.Andshewasgratefultoherparents,whomadeitpossibleforhertoachievewhatfewotheryoungwomenofhergenerationcould.

Manyparentssharedtheprejudiceofthetimeagainst[women's]education,sothattheirdaughterseitherhadtoforgotheeducationtheydesired,orfightforit....[Iknew]ayoungwomanwhoatage24wantedtobeprivatelytutoredbyhercousintopreparefortheMaturaherparentsinotherrespectsveryloving,I'msureliterallykeptherprisonerintheirapartmenttokeepherfromcarryingoutherintentions.Onlywhenshedisappearedfromtheapartmentonedayandletherparentsknowthatshewouldnotreturnunlessshehadpermissiontostudy,didtheygivein.35

Copyright 1996. Uni


copyright law.


AlthoughLiseherselfhadnosuchobstacles,shesensedthatforhermother,atleast,itwasnotalwayseasy.

Ihadthefeelingthatinthebeginning,whenfirstmyoldersister,andthenIpassedtheMatura,thatmymotherwasinwardlysomewhatdepressedbyit.Butshewasmuchtoolovingamotherevertoexpressitinanyway.36

Fromherfathertherewasnosuchambivalence.Onthecontrary,hewasasteadysourceofsupportandadvice.

EvenasachildIwasstronglyinterestedinmathematicsandphysics,andasIgrewupIalsodevelopedaverypronouncedinclinationforsocialresponsibility....WhenIwas23yearsoldandabouttoentertheuniversity,Ientertainedtheideaofprimarilypursuingmedicine,foritssocialusefulness,andstudyingmathematicsandphysicsonlyattheside.MyfatherkeptmefromthisincorrectchoicebymakingitcleartomethatsuchacourseofstudymightbepossibleforageniuslikeHermannHelmholtz,butnotforanotherperson.37

LiseenteredtheUniversityofViennainOctober1901.Smallandslender,withafarawayexpressionandseriousdarkeyes,shelookedyoungerthanhertwentythreeyears.Abluestocking,hernephewwouldjudgelater,ayoungwomanwhocaredfornothingbutstudy.Hewasprobablyright.Anxioustomakeupforlosttime,Lisefilledheruniversityregistrationbookwithphysics,calculus,chemistry,andbotanytwentyfivehoursaweekoflectures,laboratories,demonstrationanddiscussionsections.38

Nodoubt,likemanyotheryoungstudents,Ibeganbyattendingtoomanylectures....IcannotsayIhaveaverylivelyrecollectionofthelecturesonexperimentalphysics.Theseweredeliveredalmostwithoutexperiments,betweennoonandoneP.M.,whenmostofthestudentswerealreadyverytired.SometimesIwasreallyafraidIwouldslipoffmychair.

Butforcalculus,ateighto'clockinthemorning,shewasawake.

MyfirsttermIstudieddifferentialandintegralcalculuswithProfessorGegenbauer.InmysecondtermheaskedmetodetectanerrorintheworkofanItalianmathematician.HoweverIneededhisconsiderableassistancebeforeIfoundtheerror,andwhenhekindlysuggestedtomethatImightliketopublishthisworkonmyown,Ifeltitwouldbewrongtodoso,andsounfortunatelyannoyedhimforever.

HerewasLise,afirstyearstudent,refusingtopublishasherfamousprofessorasked.Assertiveinoneway,selfdeprecatinginanotherneither

Copyright 1996. Uni


copyright law.


toheracademicadvantage."Thisincidentdidmakeitcleartome,however,thatIwantedtobecomeaphysicist,notamathematician."39

Infact,thephysicscourseLiseattended,herdrowsinessnothwithstanding,hadthereputationofbeingexceptionallywelltaught.Ithadbeendesignedforpharmacystudents,butProfessorFranzExnerbroughtsuchclarityandperspectivetothesubjectthatstudentsfromalldisciplinesthrongedtoit.40ThelaboratorywasdirectedbyAntonLampa,apromisingyoungphysicistandteacher.41Lisemayhavebeendrowsyinlecture,butshevividlyrememberedthelaboratory:thesomewhataloofinstructor,theprimitiveequipment,theexperimentsrequiringicethatcouldbedoneonlywhentherewassnowinthecourtyardbelow.42Forthisyoungwomanwhohadneverhadscienceinschool,whoseonlypreviousencounterwithapparatuswastoviewitwithastonishment,thelaboratorywasofparamountinterest.Shewouldstudyphysicsafterall.

ThephysicsinstitutewasontheTrkenstrasse,ashortsidestreetinVienna'sninthdistrict,onthesameblockastheinstitutesforpharmaceuticalchemistryandmedicinalchemistry,notfarfromtherenownedmedicalschoolanditsclinics.Theuniversityhadnocentralcampusitsbuildingswereinterspersedamongtheresidencesandshopsoftheneighborhood.Aphotographer'sstudioandacoffeehousestoodoneithersideofTrkenstrasse3SigmundFreudlivedandworkedonthesteepBerggassenearby.Originallythestructurehadbeenasmallapartmenthouse,alreadyrundownwhentheuniversitypurchaseditasatemporarybuildingin1875(apermanentphysicsbuildingopenedin1913).ItsentranceremindedLiseMeitnerofthedoortoahenhouse."Ioftenthought,'Ifafirebreaksouthere,veryfewofuswillgetoutalive.'"43Insidewerewornstairsandshakyfloors,makeshiftlaboratorieswithuntoldamountsofmercuryinthefloorcracks,alectureroomwithneitherpodiumnordesks,ceilingbeamssorottentheylookedasthoughtheyhadbeenchewedbytermites.44

Thelecturehallsinparticularweredownrightlifethreatening.ThiswassowidelyknownthattheViennesenewspaperArbeiterzeitungoncecarriedthisnotice:"OnceagainastudenthasregisteredatthePhysicsInstituteontheTrkenstrasseunhappinessinloveissaidtobethemotiveforthedeed."45

Butinthatshabbybuildingthequalityofteachingandresearchwasveryhigh.Exner,thefirstprofessorstudentsencountered,wasamultifaceted

Copyright 1996. Uni


copyright law.


experimentalphysicistwhoseresearchincludedelectrochemistry,atmosphericelectricity,crystalphysics,spectroscopy,andoptics.AfriendofWilhelmRntgen,ExnerhadintroducedxrayresearchanditsmedicalapplicationstoViennaoneofthefirsttotakeaninterestinradioactivity,ExnersecureduraniumoreresiduesforMarieandPierreCurie,receivedanenrichedradiumsampleinreturn,andmadeViennaanearlycenterforradioactivityresearch.AlthoughExnerlecturedonlytofirstyearstudents,hedirectedtheadvancedphysicslaboratoriesandsupervisedalargenumberofdoctoralcandidates.OneofLise'sfellowstudents,KarlPrzibam,rememberedExnerforhiscontagiousenthusiasmandforthecommunityspiritthatwentfarbeyondtheusualrelationshipbetweenteacherandstudents.46

ThissenseofcommunitywasessentialforLiseinfindingherway.Shehadcometotheuniversityonherown,veryconsciousofhowfewwomentherewereandhowvisibleshewas,howsomeofthemenwentoutoftheirwaytobepleasantandothers,justasconspicuously,didtheopposite.NeverhavinggonetoaGymnasium,shecouldonlyimaginethatshehadmissedsomevitalaspectofnormalstudentlife,inacademics,perhaps,orstudentfriendships,orrelationshipswithteachers.WithProfessorGegenbauershehadapparentlybeenawkwardandthenembarrassedbyherawkwardnessnotreadytobesingledout,sheneededfirsttobeconvincedthatshecouldbeastudentlikeanyother.

ForLise,thishappenedintheoldbuildingontheTrkenstrasse,intheclutteredlaboratory,duringtheinformalgiveandtakeofteachersandstudents.Ithelpedthatthesubjectwasdifficult,chosenonlybyafew.InVienna,indeedworldwide,thenumberofphysicistswassmallnearlyallwereengagedinteachingandresearch,veryfewinbusinessorindustry.Physicswasmoreacallingthanacareer.47Studentswhocommittedthemselvestophysicsdidsobecausetheycouldnotimagineamorefascinatingwaytospendtheirlives.By1902,LiseMeitnerknewshewasoneofthem.

Inherseconduniversityyear,shebeganstudyingphysicsinearnest.Overthenextsixsemesters,herMeldungsbuchlistsanalyticalmechanics,electricityandmagnetism,elasticityandhydrodynamics,acoustics,optics,thermodynamics,andkinetictheoryofgasesaswellasmathematicalphysicseachsemesterandacourseinphilosophyofscience.Afairlytypicalcurriculum,itwashighlyunusualinonerespect:allofitwastaughtbyjustoneperson,thetheoreticalphysicistLudwigBoltzmann.

Copyright 1996. Uni


copyright law.


FiftyyearslaterLiseMeitnerwouldstillrememberBoltzmann'slecturesas"themostbeautifulandstimulatingthatIhaveeverheard....Hehimselfwassoenthusiasticabouteverythinghetaughtusthatonelefteverylecturewiththefeelingthatacompletelynewandwonderfulworldhadbeenrevealed."48

Onecanscarcelyimagineabetterteacherfortheatomicworldthatlayahead.In1902,Boltzmannwasfiftyeightyearsold,thefamedtheoreticalphysicistwhohadextendedkinetictheoryandestablishedstatisticalmechanics,theleading"atomist"whotiedthesecondlawofthermodynamicstoatomictheorybyshowingthattheinherentirreversibilityofnaturalprocessesarisesfromthestatisticalbehaviorofatomsintheaggregate.Thenotionofunseeableatomswithindeterminatebehaviorwasmorethansomescientistscouldswallow.ForyearsBoltzmannwasforcedtodefendhisworkagainstthefairlywidespreadphilosophyofscientificpositivismthatdeniedthevalueofscientifictheoryandtherealityofanythingthatcouldnotbedirectlyobserved.

Abigman,heavy,verynearsighted,withcurlybrownhairandafullreddishbeardthatframedhisbroadface,49Boltzmannarousedadmirationandaffectioninhisstudents.Hebeganhismechanicscoursein1902byofferinghisstudents"everythingIhave:myself,myentirewayofthinkingandfeeling,"andaskingthesameofthem:"strictattention,irondiscipline,tirelessstrengthofmind.ButforgivemeifI[first]askyouforthatwhichmeansmosttome:foryourtrust,youraffection,yourloveinaword,forthemostyouhavethepowertogive,yourself."50

Likemanyoftheothers,Lisewassweptaway.Hewasimmenselyengaging,sheremembered,thisfamousprofessorwhoselecturesweremodelsofclarity,thiswarmheartedHofrat(Excellency)whowouldshrugathistitleandlaugh,"Ach,howdumbofme!"athisblackboarderrors.51

Boltzmannhadnoinhibitionswhatsoeveraboutshowinghisenthusiasmwhenhespoke,andthisnaturallycarriedhislistenersalong.Hewasfondofintroducingremarksofanentirelypersonalcharacterintohislectures.Iparticularlyrememberhow,indescribingthekinetictheoryofgases,hetoldushowmuchdifficultyandoppositionhehadencounteredbecausehehadbeenconvincedoftherealexistenceofatomsandhowhehadbeenattackedfromthephilosophicalsidewithoutalwaysunderstandingwhatthephilosophersheldagainsthim....Iwonderwhathewouldsayaboutourhugemachinesandteamwork[today],whenIrememberhowbitterlyhecomplained...aboutthegreatextensionofthesubjectmatterofphysicsand

Copyright 1996. Uni


copyright law.


theresultingoverspecialization.Hestatedcategoricallythat[Hermann]Helmholtzwasthelastphysicistwhohadbeenabletohaveanoverallviewofthewholesubject.52

Hisrelationshiptostudentswasverypersonal....Henotonlysawtotheirknowledgeofphysics,buttriedtounderstandtheircharacter.Formalitiesmeantnothingtohim,andhehadnoreservationsaboutexpressinghisfeelings.Thefewstudentswhotookpartintheadvancedseminarwereinvitedtohishousefromtimetotime.Therehewouldplayforushewasaverygoodpianistandtellusallsortsofpersonalexperiences.53

Boltzmannacceptedwomenstudentsasamatterofcourse.In1872,longbeforewomenwereadmittedtoAustrianuniversities,hemetHenriettevonAigentler,anaspiringteacherofmathematicsandphysicsinGraz.Fromtheirfouryearcorrespondenceweknowofherdesiretoattendtheuniversity("outofeagernesstolearnandtoqualifyforteaching"),howshewasrefusedpermissiontounofficiallyauditlectures(anadministratordeclaredhimself"delighted"tokeepwomenout,since"thecharacteroftheuniversitywouldbelostandtheinstitutionendangered''bytheirpresence),thatBoltzmannadvisedhertoappeal(shedid,successfully),andthatwhenheproposedmarriage,finally,hebegan,"Itseemstomethataconstantlovecannotendureifthewifehasnounderstanding,noenthusiasmfortheendeavorsofthehusband,butismerelyhishousekeeperratherthanthecompanioninhisstruggles."54

Lisemayhaveheardsomeofthisshecametoknowhiswifeanddaughtersandconsideredtheirfamilylifeharmonious.55Inanycase,heruniversityyearswerefreeoftheobstaclesshehadencounteredearlierandthedifficultiesthatlayahead.Withhisintellectandspirit,Boltzmanncreatedacommunitytowhichshefullybelonged."Hewasinawaya'puresoul,'fullofgoodnessofheart,idealism,andreverenceforthewonderofthenaturalorderofthings."56

AllwhowereclosetoBoltzmannwerealsoawareofhisboutsofseveredepressionandhissuicideattempts.57Hisstudentsblameditonthebittercontroversyoverwhetheratomsexisted,inwhichBoltzmanngainedmanyadherentsamongyoungerscientistsbutneverthesatisfactionofconvincinghisopponents.Itwasnotthatsimple.BoltzmannhimselfjestinglyattributedhisrapidchangesintemperamenttothefactthathewasbornduringthenightbetweenShroveTuesdayandAshWednesday:hewas,almostcertainly,manicdepressive.58Buthewasalsoverysensitive.As

Copyright 1996. Uni


copyright law.


Meitnerreflected,"[He]mayhavebeenwoundedbymanythingsamorerobustpersonwouldhavehardlynoticed....Ibelievehewassuchapowerfulteacherjustbecauseofhisuncommonhumanity."59

Boltzmann'sacademiccareerwasaseriesofwanderings.BorninViennain1844,hegraduatedfromtheAkademischesGymnasium,whereLiseMeitnerandalsohisdaughter,Henriette,latertooktheirMatura.AttheUniversityofVienna,hewasastudentofJosefLoschmidt(18211895),whomadereliableearlyestimatesofmolecularsizeandthenumberofmoleculespermole,60andhewasassistanttoJosefStefan(18351893),whodevisedanempiricalformulaforblackbodyradiationthatBoltzmannsubsequentlygaveatheoreticalbasis.61Between1869and1890,BoltzmannheldappointmentsinGraz,thenVienna,thenGrazagain,aperiodduringwhichhecontributedtoallbranchesoftheoreticalphysics:electromagnetictheory,kinetictheory,theMaxwellBoltzmanndistribution,statisticalmechanics.HewenttoMunichin1890,returnedtoViennaasStefan'ssuccessorin1894,leftforLeipzigin1900,andcamebackagainin1902.Theuniversityhadkepthispositionopenintheexpectationthathewouldreturn.62

BoltzmannwastornbetweenhisattachmenttoAustria,especiallyVienna,andtheattractionsofGermanuniversities.MeitnerrecalledthatBoltzmannwouldtellhowinMunichtherewas"wonderfulequipment,butfarfewergoodideas"thaninViennaandthenhastilyadd,"OnemustnotlettheAustrian[education]ministryknowthatgoodworkcansometimesbedonewithinferiorequipment."63Ofalluniversities,hemostpreferredBerlin,foritsintensescientificatmosphereandthepresenceofHermannHelmholtz,whomBoltzmannregardedasthegreatestphysicistofthenineteenthcentury.Yetin1888herefusedtheofferofachairinBerlin,inpartoutofconcernforhishealth,64inpart,itwassaid,becausehedislikedtheformalityofthePrussiancapital.65Laterhewouldtellhisstudentshowmuchheregrettedthatdecision.Thepositionherefusedwenttoayoungertheoreticalphysicist,MaxPlanck.

AyearafterBoltzmanncametoViennain1894,hewasjoinedonthefacultybyoneofhisprincipalscientificadversaries,theformidableErnstMach.Theleadingproponentofthephilosophyofscientificpositivism,Macharguedthatsciencecandonomorethanconductpositivethatis,directobservations:whilescientifictheorymaybeofusefororganizingsuchdata,itmustnotcreate"pictures,"ashecalledit,ofunderlying

Copyright 1996. Uni


copyright law.


reality.Mach'simpetuswasantimetaphysical,areactionagainstnineteenthcenturyattemptstoreduceallofphysicstomechanicalprinciplesheopposedthekinetictheoryofgases,basedasitwasonmolecularmotion,anddismissedtheexistenceofatomsinbroadViennese,"'Avey'seenoneof'em?"66Inthe1890s,accordingtoBoltzmann,theattitudetowardthegastheorywas"malevolent,"67completewithangrydebatesatmeetings,strugglesfortheallegianceofyoungscientists,fightsoverappointmentstofacultiesandjournals.68IncentralEuropeespecially,Machattractedasizablefollowing,including''energeticists"ledbythephysicalchemistWilhelmOstwald,forwhomenergywastheprimaryrealityandthesecondlawofthermodynamicssuperfluous.Forhispart,Boltzmannattackedpositivismasamodernversionofan"oldaberration,"goingbacktothephilosophyofGeorgeBerkeley.In1905hevisitedauniversityinCaliforniawhosecampushedescribedas"theloveliestplaceonecanimagine,"exceptforits"philosophicalaura":69"ThenameBerkeleyisthatofahighlyreputedEnglish[sic]philosopherwhoisfamousforthegreatestfoolishnesseverhatchedbythehumanbrain,philosophicalidealism,whichdeniestheexistenceofthematerialworld."70

In1898Machsufferedastroke,andheretiredfromteachingin1901.WhenBoltzmannreturnedtoViennain1902,heclaimedthephilosophyofsciencecoursethathadbeenMach'sformanyyears.Boltzmann'sinauguralphilosophylecturein1903wasthrongedbythepress,students,includingLiseMeitner,andsixhundred"sensationseekers."Withhispredecessorinmind,Boltzmannconfessedtohis"dislike,evenhateofphilosophy,"comparingitto"ahallowedvirgin...[that]willremaineternallybarren"71aslongasitdeniestheexistenceofphysicalreality.ThusthehostilitiesbetweentheatomictheoristsandthefollowersofMachwenton.

Butthedisputeovertherealityofatomswasnearinganend.Thediscoveryofradioactivityin1896andtheelectronin1897transformedatomsfromdisputedspecksofmasstocomplexstructuresthatweredivisible,measurable,packedwithamazingamountsofinternalenergy,andcomposedoffundamentalparticlesofelectriccharge."Nophysicisttodaybelievesatomsareindivisible,"72BoltzmanntoldanaudienceattheWorld'sFairinSt.Louisin1904.Thatwasprobablytrueforthosewhobelievedinatoms,butnotallphysicistsdid,yet.ThefinalblowcameafterAlbertEinsteinin1905andJeanPerrinin1908madedetailedstudiesof

Copyright 1996. Uni


copyright law.


Brownianmotion,therandommovementofparticlessuspendedinaliquid,visibleunderthemicroscope.Byrelatingthemovementofthesuspendedparticlestothenumberandenergyofthemoleculesintheliquidthatwerehittingthemfromonesideoranother,EinsteinandPerrinobtainedavalueforthenumberofmoleculesinamolethatwasconsistentwithother,unrelatedexperiments.ThedirectrelationshipbetweentheheatenergyofatomsandthemechanicalenergyofvisibleBrownianparticlesgavecompletecredencetoBoltzmann'sinterpretationofthermodynamiclaws.Andsomehowitmadeatomsnearlyvisibleandveryreal.Ostwaldwasconvincedandin1908concededitisuncertainifMacheverdidbeforehediedin1916.73

Thecontroversymadeplaintostudentsthatscientificendeavorisnotcoldlyobjectivebutreliesonhumanjudgment.FromBoltzmann,LiseMeitnerunderstoodphysicstobeapassionatecommitmentofintellect,strength,andintegrity.ManyyearslaterhernephewOttoRobertFrischwrote,"Boltzmanngaveherthevisionofphysicsasabattleforultimatetruth,avisionsheneverlost."74

Meitner'sgoalinphysicswouldbetheoreticalunderstandinghermeans,nearlyalways,wouldbeexperiment.Inthesummerof1905,hercourseworkcompleted,shebeganherdoctoralresearch.InAustrianandGermanuniversitiesthethesisresearchforadoctorategenerallytooknomorethanafewmonthstocomplete.Shechoseanexperimentalproject,underFranzExnerandhisassistant,HansBenndorf,undoubtedlybecauseshewantedthelaboratoryexperiencebutalso,perhaps,becauseBoltzmannwaslecturinginCaliforniathatsummerandhadbeenquiteillbeforeheleft.75

Inherresearch,LisedeterminedthatMaxwell'sformulafortheconductionofelectricityinaninhomogeneoussolidalsoappliestotheconductionofheat.Herinhomogeneoussolid,anemulsionafinelydividedmixtureofmercurydropletsembeddedinfat,waslayeredbetweentwohorizontalcopperplates,onwhichwaslaidathirdcopperplatethatwasinsulatedfromthebottomtwo.Thetemperatureofthebottomplatewaskeptconstantbyastreamofrunningwaterwhenthetopplatewasheatedbysteam,threestrategicallyplacedthermometersintheemulsionmeasuredthetemperaturegradientastheheatflowedthrough.Exnerwaspleased,commendingherfora"notentirelyeasy"investigationthatwasbroughttocompletion"notwithoutexperimentalskill."Herdissertation,

Copyright 1996. Uni


copyright law.


"TestofaFormulaofMaxwell's,"waspublishedunderthetitle"ConductionofHeatinInhomogeneousSolids"intheproceedingsfortheViennaPhysicsInstitute.76Experimentclosetotheory,ittypifiedherlaterapproachtophysics.Personally,however,Exner'sinfluenceseemstohavebeenslight:inherlatermemoirsshementionshimonlyinpassing,neverwiththeaffectionatetermDoktorvaterthatGermanspeakingstudentsoftenuse.MostprobablyBoltzmann'spersonalityeclipsedallothers.BothmentookpartinherRigorosen,theoralexaminationsthatshetookinDecember1905andpassedsummacumlaude.Shewasawardedherdoctoraldegreeon1February1906.77

ItwasthemiddleoftheacademicyearandLisefoundherselfsomewhatatlooseends.AtthetimePaulEhrenfest,atheoreticalphysicistherownagewhohadtakenhisdoctorateunderBoltzmannafewyearsbefore,wasinVienna.WhenheheardthatLisehadtakendetailednotesofallBoltzmann'slectures,hesuggestedtheystudyhisideasaswellastheworkofothersinanalyticaldynamics.78EhrenfesthadagiftforexplainingtheoreticalphysicshecalledLise'sattentiontoLordRayleigh'sscientificpapers,inparticularanarticleonopticsthatdescribedanexperimenttheBritishphysicistcouldnotexplain.Meitnernotonlyexplaineditbutalsopredictedsomeconsequences,provedthemexperimentally,anddescribedtheminherreport,"SomeConclusionsDerivedfromtheFresnelReflectionFormula."79Morethanherthesisproject,thisinvestigationconvincedherthatshewascapableofindependentscientificwork.80

Whileengagedintheopticsstudy,shealsodecidedtolearnsomethingoftheexperimentalproceduresusedinthenewfieldofradioactivity.ShehadtakenanadvancedseminaronthesubjectfromEgonvonSchweidlertheyearbeforenowshebecameacquaintedwithStefanMeyer,anassistantinBoltzmann'sinstitutewhowasonlysixyearsherseniorandalreadyquitewellknowninthefield.AtMeyer'ssuggestion,Meitnermeasuredtheabsorptionofalphaandbetaradiationinfoilsofvariousmetals.ByJuneshecompletedthestudy,81havingbeenintroducedtoseveralradioactivesubstances,theliteratureofradioactivity,andanewinstrument,theleafelectroscope.

Itwasthesummerof1906,atimetoassessherfuture.FortheyoungwomanwhohadjustbecomeDr.LiseMeitner,thefuturewasnotmuchclearerthanithadbeenatagefourteen.Asthesecondwomantoearnadoctorateinphysicsfromtheuniversity,sheknewofnoprospectsfora

Copyright 1996. Uni


copyright law.


womaninphysics82itseemedentirelypossibleshemightneverworkasascientist.InAustriatherehadasyetbeennofemaleAssistent,thefirstpositionontheacademicladdertherewerenowomen'scollegeslikethoseinAmericawithpositionsforafewwomenscientists,83nogreatlikelihoodofajobinindustry.Ofcourse,LisehadheardofMarieCurie,whohadwonthe1903NobelPrizeinphysicswithherhusband,Pierre,andHenriBecquerelifshealsoknewofCurie'senormousprofessionaldifficultiesinParisandhowlittletheprizehadalleviatedthem,shewouldnothavebeenencouraged.AtonepointshewrotetoMarieCurieaboutworkinginherlaboratory,buttherewasnopositionavailable.84Thereseemednochoicebuttofollowherfather'sadviceonceagainandobtainthecredentialsnecessarytoearnaliving.Shesignedupforpracticeteachingatagirls'school.85Teachingdidnotappealtoher.Great,perhapsinsurmountable,obstaclesstoodinthewayforawomaninscience.Therewasnopathtofollow.

Latethatsummer,on5September1906,thephysicscommunitywasshockedbythenewsthatLudwigBoltzmannhadtakenhislife.Inatributetohisfriendandscientificopponent,WilhelmOstwalddescribedBoltzmannasavictimoftheimmensesacrificesofhealthandstrengthdemandedofthosewhostruggleforscientifictruth.86LiseMeitner,morerealistically,ascribedhissuicideto"mentalinstability"sheneverunderstoodit.87ButitseemslikelythatBoltzmann'sdeathstrengthenedherdeterminationtoremaininphysics,sothatthesparkhehadkindledinherwouldremainalive.

Inthefallof1906,therefore,shecontinuedworkingwithStefanMeyer,whotemporarilytookoverBoltzmann'sinstitute.BydayshetaughtschoolintheeveningshereturnedtoTrkenstrasse3.Duringthatyearshebecamefamiliarwithradioactivityresearch,althoughshehadnoparticularintentionofspecializinginit.88

Oneoftheearliestworkersinthefield,Meyerhadbeeninvestigatingthemagneticpropertiesofvariouselementswhenpolonium,radium,andthenactiniumwerediscoveredintheCuries'laboratoryin1899.89WithvonSchweidler,heinvestigatedtheradiationemittedbythenewelementsusingamagneticfieldtodeflecttheradiation,theydiscoveredthatbetaradiationconsistsofparticleswithnegativecharge,90adiscoverymadeatnearlythesametimebyHenriBecquerelinFranceandFriedrichGieselinGermany.AyearlaterBecquerelmeasuredtheirchargetomassratio

Copyright 1996. Uni


copyright law.


andconfirmedthatbetaraysmorecorrectly,betaparticlesareidenticaltoelectrons.Inasimilarexperiment,MeyerandvonSchweidlerstudiedthealpharadiationfrompoloniumbutwereunabletoobserveadeflectionafewyearslaterErnestRutherfordwouldusestrongermagnetstodeterminethatalphaparticlesarepositivelycharged.

Meyerremainedinradioactivity.Herecognizedthatthepuzzling"inducedactivity"thatearlyworkershadfoundthroughouttheirlaboratorieswasduetoradium,thorium,oractiniumemittingaradioactivegasRutherfordcalledit"emanation"thatdiffusedintotheairandthendecayedtoasolidthatcoatedobjectsalloverthelaboratory.Thesolid,alsoradioactive,wasthereaftertermedthe"activedeposit."91(Fortheradioactivedecayseries,seeAppendixfig.1.)Inthoseearlyyearsofradioactivityresearch,Meyeralsostudiedthephysicaleffectsofradiation,suchascolorchangesinminerals.

In1900,fouryearsafterthediscoveryofradioactivity,thenumberofrecognizedradioactivespeciesstoodatfive:theelementsuranium,thorium,polonium,radium,andactinium.WhenLiseMeitnerbeganresearchin1906,thenumberwasovertwentyandrisingmostconfusing,sinceatfirsteverynewradioactivesubstancewasthoughttobeanewelement(theexistenceofisotopeswasnotfullyappreciateduntilabout1913,whenitbecameclearthatitwaspossiblefordifferentradioactivespeciestobechemicallyidentical).Inaddition,therelationshipbetweenradioactivesubstanceswasnotunderstood,andlittlewasknownabouttheirradiation.Andyet,chaoticasitwas,thefieldwasinviting,foranewcomerneededlittlemorethanaradioactivesourceandameasuringdevicetoquicklydiscoveranewactivityorlearnsomethingnewaboutitsradiation.

InViennathepreferredinstrumentforradiationmeasurementswastheleafelectroscope.Asimpledevice,itconsistedofaverythingoldoraluminumleaffastenedtoametalrodwhoseendprotrudedfromanenclosedcontainerintowhichitwassealed.Whentherodwasgivenanelectriccharge,thegoldleafwasrepelledawayfromtherodwhenaradioactivesubstancewasbroughtnear,itsradiationwouldionizethesurroundingair,thechargeonthemetalrodandthegoldleafwouldleakaway,andtheleafwoulddescendtoitsrestingposition,therateofdescentbeingameasureofthestrengthoftheradiation.FranzExnerhadimprovedtheelectroscopeforhighlysensitivemeasurementsofatmosphericradi

Copyright 1996. Uni


copyright law.


ationJuliusElsterandHansGeitelhadaddedamirror,ascale,andamagnifyingglass.Theelectroscopewasasensitiveinstrument,readilymodifiedforalpha,beta,orgammaradiationsitsdisadvantagesincludedthemindnumbingtediumofthemeasurementsandthedelicacyofthemetalleaf.KarlPrzibamrecalled"howirritatingitwaswhen[theelectroscope]wasnotcarefullychargedandthelittlegoldleafhitthetopandgotstuck,oreventoreoff!"92

InMeitner'sfirststudy,doneinthespringof1906,shemeasuredtheabsorptioninseveralmetalsofalphaandbetaradiationemittedbytheactivedepositsofthoriumandactiniumshefound,asothershad,thatalpharadiationexhibitsawelldefinedrangeineachmetal,whereasthemorepenetratingbetaradiationtapersoffgradually.Althoughshepointedtotheimportanceofabsorptionstudiesforunderstandingthenatureoftheradiation,shepresentedhermeasurementswithoutspeculatingontheirmeaning.

Now,inlate1906,Meitnerturnedtothequestionofwhetheralphaparticlesaremerelyabsorbedastheypassthroughmatter,orwhethertheyarealsoscatteredtosomeextent.Anumberofscientists,includingMarieCurieandRutherfordhadfoundevidenceofscattering,butW.H.Braggdisputedthesefindings.ThequestionwasofconsiderableinterestforlearningsomethingofthenatureofalphaparticlesandalsothematterthroughwhichtheypassedRutherfordhadalreadynotedthatscattering"bringsoutclearlythefactthattheatomsofmattermustbetheseatofveryintenseelectricalforces."93Meitnerdevisedanarrangementbywhichabeamofalphaparticleswascollimatedmadeparallelbypassingthroughabundleoftinymetaltubes,thenallowedtopenetrateametalfoil,andthencollimatedagainbyanotherbundleoftubessomedistanceaway.94TheattenuationofthebeamasitpassedthroughthefirstandsecondcollimatorsvariedwiththedistancebetweentheminamannerthatcouldbeexplainedonlyifthealphaparticleswereindeedscatteredsomewhatbythemetalfoilMeitnerfoundthatthescatteringincreasedwiththeatomicmassofthemetalatoms.Inafewyears,alphascatteringwouldleadRutherfordtothenuclearatomMeitner'swasanearlyexampleofsuchexperiments,cleverlydesignedandcarefullyexecuted.95ShesubmittedherreporttothePhysikalischeZeitschrifton29June1907.

Anotheryearwasover,andagainLiseMeitnerfacedadecision.InViennaherfutureappearedtoholdnothingbutteaching.96Behindherlay

Copyright 1996. Uni


copyright law.


thethreeinvestigationsshehadindependentlycompleted.Asshelaterwrote,"ThisgavemethecouragetoaskmyparentstoallowmetogotoBerlinforafewterms."97Herparentsagreed.Meitnerregardeditaspureselfindulgenceonherpartandgenerosityontheirs.Attheageoftwentyeight,shestilldependedonthemforanallowance.

Copyright 1996. Uni


copyright law.


ChapterTwoBeginningsinBerlinWewereyoung,contented,andcarefree,perhapspoliticallytoocarefree.

LiseMeitnerarrivedinBerlininSeptember1907.Sheexpectedtostudythereafewsemestersshewouldstayformorethanthirtyyears.

ShechoseBerlinbecauseitwasamagnetfortheGermanspeakingworld,becauseBoltzmannhadspokenofitwithregret,andaboveallbecausesheknewthenameofMaxPlanckandhadseenhimwhenhewasinvitedtoViennaasapossiblesuccessortoBoltzmann.Shehadnotheardofhisquantumtheory,althoughithadbeenpublishedin1900,andsheknewalmostnothingaboutBerlin,noteventhatwomenwerestillexcludedfromPrussianuniversities.1

TheuniversityinBerlin,youngbyEuropeanstandards,wasfoundedunderFriedrichWilhelmIIIin18091810.Berlinwaslargethenbutstillamorphous,setonasandyplainattheconfluenceoftwominorrivers,theSpreeandtheHavel.WithPrussia'sgrowingdominance,BerlindevelopedintoGermany'spolitical,social,andintellectualcenter.ItsfocuswasthetreelinedUnterdenLinden,thelandmarkBrandenburgerTor,andanimmenseclusterofpublicbuildings:thehugeReichstag,theStaatsoper,theCharithospitalsandclinics,museumsofart,antiquity,andanthropology,churches,palaces,libraries,theaters.LestPrussia'straditionalsourceofstrengthbeforgotten,theBrandenburgGatewastoppedbythegoddessVictorywhogazedcalmlyoverthecafsonUnterdenLindentoherleftjustbeyondtheReichstagstoodtheSiegesule,avictorycolumnencrustedwithceremoniouslygildedcannonbarrelscapturedfromDenmark,Austria,and,mostsatisfying,France.TastewasnotBerlin'sstrongpoint,neitherinwomen'sfashionsnorcuisinenormonumentalarchi

Copyright 1996. Uni


copyright law.


tectureitlackedthepatinaofVienna,thegraceofMunich,thesolidityofHamburg.Butthecityhadwit,nonEuropeanenergy"ChicagoontheSpree"andamodernedginessthatleftroomfornearlyeveryformofhumanactivity.2AndBerlin'sbeautycouldbesurprisinglygentle,withwarmsummersandgenerousopenspace,waterwayslacingthecentralcity,andtothewestachainoflakesframedbythickpinewoodsastheHavelflowedsouthtowardPotsdam.

BytheturnofthecenturytheFriedrichWilhelmUniversittrankedasoneofthefinestinEurope.ItsmainbuildingopenedontoUnterdenLindenacrossfromtheOpera,withotherbuildingsandinstitutesonthenarrowstreetsbetweenthehospitalcomplex,themuseums,andtheReichstag.Theuniversity'splacementasoneamongmanyculturalemblemsmaywellhaveemphasizeditsinaccessibilitytowomen,whowereexpectedtofilltheirdesignatedrolesofmother,Hausfrau,andguardianofvirtuewithlesseducationthantheircounterpartselsewhereinEurope.AtnotimeinthenineteenthcenturycouldGermanwomenattenduniversitiesasanythingbutunmatriculatedauditorstheirsecondaryeducationwascorrespondinglyirregular.ThestateofBadenwasthefirsttoopenitsuniversitiestowomen,in1900othersslowlyfollowed.Prussia,whichdidnotadmitwomenuntilthesummerof1908,wasbynomeansthelast.3

WhenLisewalkedthroughtheuniversitygates,therefore,sheenteredadomainsodecidedlymalethatshefeltnotjustastrangerbutanoddity.Shereactedwithareservesoextremethatsheherselfdescribeditas"borderingonfearofpeople."4OneofthefirstpeopletospeaktoherwasGertavonUbisch,abiologystudentattendingclassesasanauditor.Gerta,whowasanativeofBerlin,andherparentsinvitedLiseforweekendsinthecountry."Noonewhoknewyouwhenyouweresoshyatfirstdoubtedthatyouwoulddosomethinggreat,"shetoldLisefortyyearslater."Mysmallcontributionduringthosefirstmonthswastohelpyouovercomeyourshynesswithrespecttoyourcolleagues,whichyouwouldhavedoneeventuallyonyourown."5

LisehadtoaskMaxPlanckforpermissiontoattendhislectures.

Hereceivedmeverykindlyandsoonafterwardsinvitedmetohishome.ThefirsttimeIvisitedhimtherehesaidtome,"ButyouareaDoctoralready!Whatmoredoyouwant?"WhenIrepliedthatIwouldliketogainsomerealunderstandingofphysics,hejustsaidafewfriendlywordsanddidnotpursuethematteranyfurther.Naturally,Iconcludedthathecouldhaveno

Copyright 1996. Uni


copyright law.


veryhighopinionofwomenstudents,andpossiblythatwastrueenoughatthetime.6

Shewasright.Planck'sopinionwasinfactonrecord,publishedin1897byaBerlinjournalistwhosurveyedsomeonehundredprofessors,teachers,andwritersfortheirviewsonhighereducationforwomen.7Theresponsesvariedwidely.Impassionedsupporterstendedtobebrief:"Keepingwomenfromtheuniversitiesisaninjusticethathasgoneonfartoolong,""Itisquiteimpossibleformetounderstandhowamodernhumanbeingdeservingofthenamecandenywomen'srightandabilityforacademicstudy,""Whatgivesusmentherighttoalwaysdeterminewhatwomenshalldo?"Thosestronglyopposedarguedatlength:womenwouldbetooweakforsurgery,frightful(schrecklich)intheministry,untalentedinhistory,athreattothesocialandintellectualcharacteroftheuniversity.Mathematiciansunconditionallyfavoredtheadmissionofwomen:FelixKleinreportedthathissixcurrentwomenstudents(fullymatriculatedinGttingenunderatrialprogramopenonlytoforeignwomen)8wereascapableasthemen,whiletheKielmathematicianG.WeyerlistedtwentyonewomenmathematiciansandastronomersfromHypatiatoMariaMitchell,includingabiographyofSofiaKovalevskaia.SeveralrespondentsdeploredtheGermanfeminineidealofwoman'splaceinnurseryandkitchen,anditsreverse,thecaricatureofthesexlesslearnedwoman(diegelehrteFrau)afewpointedoutthatsincemendidnotobjecttowomenworkinginfactories,theiroppositiontowomenintheprofessionswassurelyduetofearofcompetition.HugoMnsterberg,aFreiburgphilosophyprofessorwhospentseveralyearsatHarvard,describedthevitalityofBostonsocietywithitseducated,intellectual,andinterestingwomenhenoted,however,thattheirAmericancollegediplomaswerebynomeansequivalenttoaGermanuniversitydegree.9

MaxPlanck'sresponsewaswelltowardtheconservativeendofthespectrum.

Ifawomanpossessesaspecialgiftforthetasksoftheoreticalphysicsandalsothedrivetodevelophertalent,whichdoesnothappenoften,butdoeshappenonoccasion,thenIconsideritunjust,fromapersonalaswellasanobjectivepointofview,tocategoricallydenyherthemeanstostudyasamatterofprincipleifitisatallcompatiblewithacademicorderIshallreadilyadmither,onatrialbasisandalwaysrevocably,tomylecturesandmypracticalcourses....

Copyright 1996. Uni


copyright law.


Ontheotherhand,Imustholdfasttotheideathatsuchacasemustalwaysbeconsideredanexception,andinparticularthatitwouldbeagreatmistaketoestablishspecialinstitutionstoinducewomenintoacademicstudy,atleastnotintopurescientificresearch.Amazonsareabnormal,eveninintellectualfields.Incertainpracticalsituations,forexample,women'shealthcare,conditionsmightbedifferent,butingeneralitcannotbeemphasizedstronglyenoughthatNatureitselfhasdesignatedforwomanhervocationasmotherandhousewife,andthatundernocircumstancescannaturallawsbeignoredwithoutgravedamage,whichinthiscasewouldappearespeciallyinthenextgeneration.10

Planckwrotethisin1897whenhewasthirtynineyearsold,alreadyaprofessorandwellknownscientist,husbandandfatheroffour.Unlikemanyofhiscontemporaries,heacceptedthesocietalstatusquowithoutquestionandelevatedhisownfamilystructuretonaturallaw.NeverthelessPlanckdidnotcompletelydepersonifywomen:hewaswillingtoadmitexceptions.WhenLiseMeitnerappearedinhisofficetenyearslater,heapparentlyrecognizedherasoneofthem.Perhapshesawinherpainfulshynessthedeterminationittookjusttobetherehemusthavesensedhowoutofplaceshefeltandinvitedhertohishome.

EvenwithmyfirstvisitIwasveryimpressedbytherefinedmodestyofthehouseandtheentirefamily.InPlack'slectures,however,Ifoughtacertainfeelingofdisappointmentatfirst....Boltzmannhadbeenfullofenthusiasm...andhedidnotrefrainfromexpressingthisenthusiasminaverypersonalway....Withthisbackground,Planck'slectures,withtheirextraordinaryclarity,seemedatfirstsomewhatimpersonal,almostdry.ButIveryquicklycametounderstandhowlittlemyfirstimpressionhadtodowithPlanck'struepersonality.11

LisesoonrealizedthatPlanck'slectureswouldnotoccupyallhertime,andshelookedaboutforaplacetodosomeexperimentalwork.WhensheapproachedProfessorHeinrichRubens,headoftheexperimentalphysicsinstitute,heofferedheraplaceinhisownlaboratory.

Nowitwasquitecleartomethen,asabeginner,howimportantitwouldbeformetobeabletoaskaboutanythingIdidnotunderstand,anditwasnolesscleartomethatIshouldnothavethecouragetoaskProfessorRubens.WhileIwasstillconsideringhowtoanswerwithoutgivingoffense,RubensaddedthatDr.OttoHahnhadindicatedthathewouldbeinterestedincollaboratingwithme,andHahnhimselfcameinafewminuteslater.Hahnwasofthesameageasmyselfandveryinformalinmanner,andIhadthefeelingthatIwouldhavenohesitationinaskinghimallIneededtoknow.

Copyright 1996. Uni


copyright law.


Moreover,hehadaverygoodreputationinradioactivity,soIwasconvincedhecouldteachmeagreatdeal.12

Morethanfiftyyearslater,OttoHahnwouldcite28September1907asthedayhefirstmetLiseMeitner.13Althoughthedate,likeotherthingsOttowouldlaterremember,isprobablynotquitecorrect,theirmeetingwasclearlyanimportanteventforhim,asitwasforLise.Theywouldworkunderthesameroofforthenextthirtyoneyears,togetheratfirstandthenindependently,theclosestofcolleagues,thebestoffriends.Later,afterLiseleftBerlin,theircollegialitywouldnotsurvivethedifferencesthatgrewbetweenthem.Buttheirfriendshipprovedirreversible,aconstantintheirlives.

HahnwasborninFrankfurton8March1879,fourmonthsafterLise,theyoungestsonofawelltodotradesman,agoodbutnotespeciallydiligentstudentwhotookhisdegreeinchemistryfromtheUniversityofMarburg.TolearnsomeEnglishandimprovehisprospectsforapositioninchemicalindustry,hewenttoLondonin1904SirWilliamRamsay,thechemistfamousfordiscoveringargonandothernoblegases,introducedhimtothefieldofradioactivity.Hahn'sresearchwentsowellhepromptlydiscoveredanewradioactivesubstance,radiothorium(228Th)thathedecidedonanacademiccareerasaradiochemist.HespentthefollowingyearinMontrealwithErnestRutherford,discoveredtwomoreactivities,thoriumC(laterrevisedtoThC'[212Po])andradioactinium(227Th),andin1906returnedtoGermanyforapositionasAssistent(assistant)intheinstituteofEmilFischer,thegreatorganicchemistinBerlin.Atthetime,veryfewphysicistsandevenfewerchemistsworkedinradioactivity,noneinBerlin.InFischer'sinstituteHahnwassurroundedbychemistswhohadnoideawhathewasuptoFischerhimself,wholikedtosaythatnoinstrumentwasmoresensitivethanthehumannose,foundithardtobelievethatanelectroscopecoulddetectfarsmallerquantitiesofradioactivematerial.14Hahnsoonfoundanotheractivity,whichhenamedmesothorium,amixtureofMsTh1(228Ra)andMsTh2(228Ac),andinthespringof1907wasreadyforhisHabilitation.OnlearningofHahn'spromotion,adepartmentheadsniffed,''It'sincrediblewhatgetstobeaPrivatdozentthesedays!"15

IntheGermanacademichierarchy,thefirstrungontheacademicladderwasthatofAssistent,aresearchpositionthatcarriedasmallsalaryandnoteachingduties.Afterafewyears,theAssistentwouldpreparehis

Copyright 1996. Uni


copyright law.


Habilitationsschrift,awrittenandverbalpresentationofhisindependentwork,receivethevenialegendi(righttoteach)attheuniversitylevel,andbeappointedPrivatdozent(instructor),anunsalariedpositionthatprovidedacademicrank,researchfunding,andteachingassignmentsinreturnforfeespaidbystudents.IfthingswentwellhecouldexpectaRuf(literally,"call")toanappointmentsasausserordentlicherProfessor(extraordinaryprofessor)andifhewasexceptionalandapositionwasavailable,ordentlicherProfessor(ordinaryprofessor,orsimplyprofessor),apositionmostacademicsneverreached.

ThetitlesdonotconveythesamerelativeimportanceascomparableAmericantitles:inGermany,thepositionofProfessorwasfarmorepowerfulthanthosebelowitbecauseofthepracticeofhavingonlyoneprofessorforagivensubjectarea.Mostuniversities,forexample,hadonlytwoprofessorsinphysics,onetheoreticalandtheotherexperimental(inBerlin,thesewerePlanckandRubens).Manyphysicistsmightworkundertheminvariousfields,butthenumberofprofessorsremainedconstantunlessmajoreffortswereundertakentoconvincetheMinistryofEducationthatanewprofessorshipwasneeded.Professorsoftenheadedtheirowninstitutes,werepaidfarmore,andweretheonlyfacultytohaveasayinhiring,budget,andpolicydecisions.OrdinaryandextraordinaryprofessorsweregovernmentofficialswithcivilservicerankverydistinguishedprofessorsmightbegiventhetitleGeheimrat(privycouncilorinAustria,Hofrat)orevenennobledwitha"von"beforetheirfamilyname.Ithasbeenarguedthatwiththeirpower,privilege,andgovernmentrank,GermanacademicsoftheperiodwereafunctionalrulingcastecomparabletothemilitaryinPrussiathatsubstitutedforamoretraditionalaristocracy.16

Withfewkindredspiritsinthechemistryinstitute,HahnregularlyattendedProfessorRubens'sWednesdayphysicscolloquium,anditwasthere,mostprobably,thathewasfirstintroducedtoLise.Theyweredelightedwitheachotherfromthestart.Ottolikedwomeningeneralhehadworkedwithatleastoneotherwomanphysicist,HarrietBrooks,inMontreal,andhewasgenuinelygladtofindanotherpersonespeciallyaphysicistwithexperienceinradioactivity.17AndLisesensedthatOtto'sgoodnaturedinformalitywouldmakeiteasierforhertoovercomehershyness.Eachsawintheothersomethingtheylacked.LiseknewthephysicsandmathematicsOttohadneverstudied,andshehadthemiddle

Copyright 1996. Uni


copyright law.


classintellectualupbringinghehadalwaysadmiredfromafarOttowascharmingandsociabletothetipsofhisWilhelminianmustache,whoseupturnedendssignaledthataperson"wassomebody,"oratleastwantedtobe.Ineachother'scompanybothcouldescapesomeoftheformalitiesofBerlin.ForhisoutspokennessHahnhadalreadybeendescribedas"oneofthoseAnglicizedBerliners"(notintendedasacompliment),andMeitnerhadbeenappalledatbeingaskedtosignapapersayingshewouldbehave"Standesgemss""accordingtoherrankandstation"whenrentingaroom.18InmanywaysViennaandFrankfurtwereclosertoeachotherthaneitherwastoBerlin.LiseandOttomadeplanstobeginworktogetheratonce.

Therewasoneproblem.TheChemistryInstitutewascompletelyofflimitstowomen:EmilFischerwasafraidtheywouldsetfiretotheirhair,havingoncehadaRussianstudentwithan"exotic"hairstyle.19(Hemusthavebelievedhisbeardtobeflameresistant.)Asacompromise,Lisewasallowedtoworkinabasementroom,formerlyacarpenter'sshop,whichOttohadsetupformeasuringradiationshewasnottosetfootinanyotherpartoftheinstitute,noteventhelaboratoryupstairswhereOttodidhischemicalexperiments.FischerrelentedonlybecausethewoodshophadaseparateoutsideentrancetouseatoiletLisewalkedtoarestaurantdownthestreet.Ayearlater,whenwomenwerelegallyadmittedtoPrussianuniversities,Fischerwelcomedthem,liftedhisrestrictionsonMeitner,andinstalledaladies'room.20Manyofthechemistryassistantsresentedthechange,andLiseremainedessentially"nonexistent"inFischer'sinstitute.21Sometimes,whenanassistantencounteredMeitnerandHahntogether,hewouldmakeapointofsayingonly,"Goodday,HerrHahn!"22

Thephysicistsweremuchfriendlier.AtRubens'sphysicscolloquiumLisejoinedagroupofyoungpeoplethatincludedJamesFranck,GustavHertz,MaxLaue,OttovonBaeyer,RobertPohl,PeterPringsheim,andErichRegener,and,later,manyotherswhowouldbeherlifelongfriends.Asshewrote,"Notonlyweretheybrilliantscientists,theywerealsoexceptionallynicepeopletoknow.Eachwasreadytohelptheother,eachwelcomedtheother'ssuccess."23

Fortheirfirstinvestigation,HahnandMeitnerdecidedtosurveyallthebetaemittingradioactivesourcesattheirdisposal.Suchastudywasnecessary,theybelieved,becauseearlierresults,obtainedbydifferentscientistsundervaryingexperimentalconditions,wereprovingdifficultto

Copyright 1996. Uni


copyright law.


interpret.Althoughnoonedoubtedthatbetaparticleswerehighenergyelectrons,almosteverythingelseaboutthemwasquiteunclear,includingtheirenergyofemissionandthemannerinwhichtheywereabsorbedinvariousmaterials.

Onthewholealpharadiationpresentedasomewhatsimplerpicture.ThenatureofalphaparticleswasnotknownwithcertaintyRutherfordhadnotyetproventhattheywereheliumatomsthathadlosttwoelectronsbuttheirenergyandabsorptioncharacteristicswereunderstoodquitewell.In1904Bragghadshownthateachpurealphasourceemitsalphaparticleswithuniformenergyandasharplydefinedrange(penetratingdistance)thatissufficientlycharacteristicofthesourcetoserveasameansofidentification.24InMontrealOttoHahnhadusedjustthischaracteristictofindanewalphasource:theactivedepositofthorium,alreadyknowntocontainthealphaemitterThB(laterdesignatedThC[212Bi]),emittedalphaparticleswithtwodistinctranges,indicatingthepresenceofasecondactivityhecalledThC(laterThC'[212Po]).25Thismethodwasparticularlyusefulforfindingveryshortlivedsubstances.Hahn'sThC(ThC'),forexample,waslaterfoundtodecaywithahalflifeof3X107secondssofastthatnotenoughcouldaccumulatefordetectionbychemicalmeans.

Asaworkinghypothesis,MeitnerandHahnassumedthatbetaparticles,likealphaparticles,wereemittedwithuniformenergytheyknew,however,thatbetaparticleswerefarmorepenetratingandwereabsorbedonlygraduallyastheytraveledthroughmatter.By1907therewasageneralconsensusthatbetaparticlesofuniformenergywouldbeexponentiallyabsorbed.26Iftrue,thenanydeviationfromexponentialabsorptionwouldindicatethepresenceofmorethanonebetasource.

HahnandMeitnermeasuredtheabsorptioncharacteristicsofanumberofpurebetasourcesandmixturesmesothorium1and2,thethoriumandradiumactivedeposits,uraniumX(234Th),radiolead(210Pb),andradiumE(210Bi)makingchemicalseparationswherepossible,controllingphysicalparameterssuchasthethicknessandareaoftheradioactivesource,secondaryabsorptioneffects,andinterferencefromalphaandgammaradiation.Theirelectroscope,awellmadebrassdesignwithaluminumleaves,wasclampedinplacewithscrewadjustmentsforvaryingthedistancebetweensourceandinstrumenttheabsorbingmaterialconsistedofthinaluminumfoilsasmanyasfiftylayeredoverthesourceandheld

Copyright 1996. Uni


copyright law.


downwithametalring.Withoneexception,eachpuresubstanceexhibitedexponentialabsorptionmixturesdidnot.Theloneexceptionwasmesothorium2(228Ac),whosenonexponentialabsorptionMeitnerandHahnattributedtothepresenceofayetundiscoveredsubstanceattemptstoseparateitchemicallywereunsuccessful.InApril1908theysubmittedtheirresultstothePhysikalischeZeitschrift,atwelvepagearticle,Hahnnoted,inajournalwithunusuallylargepagesize."Evidentlywewereverydiligentinthosedays."27

HahnandMeitnernextturnedtotheactivedepositofactinium,knowntocontainonebetaemitter,actiniumA,anditsdaughter,actiniumB,thoughttoemitbothalphaandbetaparticles.Thebetaradiationdeviatedconsiderablyfromexponentialabsorption,28sothatMeitnerandHahnsuspectedthepresenceofanotherbetaemittertofindandcharacterizeit,theychemicallyseparatedactiniumB,measuredalphaandbetadecaysimultaneously,andestablishedthatactiniumBisanalphaemitteronly,decayingtoanewbetaemittertheycalledactiniumC.(AcAwaslaterrevisedtoAcB[211Pb],AcBtoAcC[211Bi],andAcCtoAcC"[207Tl]).29

TheactiniumworkwascompletedinAugust1908,justbeforetheinstituteclosedforthefourweeksummervacation.IntenmonthsMeitnerandHahnhadaccomplishedfarmoretogetherthaneithercouldhavedonealone,inpartbysharingthetediousphysicalmeasurements,morefundamentallybecauseradioactivitywasbynatureinterdisciplinary,requiringthechemicalseparationsthatwereHahn'sforteaswellasMeitner'sphysicalmeasurementsandthemathematicalandgraphicskillsshebroughttotheanalysisoftheirdata.Inafieldcharacterizedbyaprofusionofstrangenewspeciesandunexplainedeffects,theircollaborationalsobenefitedfromtheirdifferencesinscientifictemperament:Hahn'spatienceandthoroughnessinspiredconfidencethatnodetailwasoverlooked,whereasMeitnerlookedforboldgeneralizationsthatwereessentialforfindingawaythroughthechaos.Thiswastrueintheirfirstyear'sworktogether,andeventhoughtheirassumptionofuniformbetaenergiesandexponentialabsorptionwouldsoonbeprovenincorrect,itprovidedastrategyforsystematicallyexploringalargenumberofradioactivesubstancesandevendiscoveringanewone.WhenLisewenthometoViennainAugust,sheaskedherparentstoextendherallowanceforanotheryear.

InVienna,Lisealsoattendedtoanothermatter.On29September1908,sheformallywithdrewfromtheJewishcommunityinwhichhernamehad

Copyright 1996. Uni


copyright law.


beenregisteredatbirth,andwasbaptizedattheEvangelical(Protestant)Congregation.ThereisnorecordofwhyLisetookthatstepjustthenshemayhavebeenpromptedbythebaptismofhersistersCarola(Lola)andGisela,bothasCatholics,earlierthatyear.AlthoughshealsoneverexplicitlystatedwhyshechosetobeProtestant,shemaintainedagenuineinterestintheethicalteachingsofthereligionallherlife.30ItmaywellbethatheryearinBerlinhadsomethingtodowithit,especiallyheradmirationforPlanck,whosecharacterandbehaviorexemplifiedtheGermanProtestantidealof"excellent,reliable,incorruptible,idealisticandgenerousmen,devotedtotheserviceofChurchandState."31OnecanalmostcertainlyruleoutopportunismasamotiveforLise'sconversionprofessionallyshewassothoroughlyexcludedforreasonsofgenderthatreligionplayednoessentialrole.AndinBerlin,asinVienna,everyoneknewwhowas"really"Christiananyway.

ThatfallHahnandMeitnerturnedasmalldiscrepancyintoanimportantnewmethodforisolatingindividualradioactivespecieswithexceptionalpurity.Anumberofscientists,includingStefanMeyer,hadfoundminuteamountsofwhatappearedtobeactiniumX(223Ra)intheactivedepositofactinium.Thiswaspuzzling,sinceactiniumXdecaystoactiniumemanation,agasthatescapesandthendecaystoformtheactivedepositsomedistancefromitsparentnoonecouldimaginehowactiniumX,asolidincapableofevaporation,couldbetransportedtotheactivedeposit:

Towardtheendof1908,Hahndiscoveredthattheeffectdidnotoccurunlessradioactinium(227Th),theparentofactiniumX,wasalsopresentthisenabledhimtoexplainthepuzzle.Whenaradioactiniumatom(227Th)expelsanalphaparticle,herealized,itdoessowithsuchforcethatitsdaughteratom,actiniumX(223Ra),recoils,sometimeswithenoughenergytofreeitselffromthesolidandtraveltoanearbysurfacesomedistanceaway:

Thephenomenon,nodifferentinprinciplefromtherecoilofariflefiringabullet,hascometobeknownasradioactiverecoil.

Hahnhastenedtopreparehisresultsforpublicationpreoccupiedwithactinium,hedidnotspeculateonothersystems.WhenMeitnerreadhis

Copyright 1996. Uni


copyright law.


manuscript,however,sheimmediatelyproposedthattherecoilhehadobservedfromfairlythicklayersofactiniumshouldoccurfarmorereadilyfromtheextremelythinlayersformedbyactivedeposits.32Togethertheytestedtheactivedepositofthoriumandatoncediscoveredanewradioactivesubstance,thebetaemitterthoriumD(nowThC"[208Tl]),whichtheycouldshowwasejectedfromtheactivedepositbythealpharecoilofitsparent,ThB(nowThC[212Bi]):

The208Tltheyobtainedwasexceptionallypure,sothattheycoulddetermineitshalflifeofthreeminuteswithunusuallyhighprecisionforsuchashortperiod.IntheradiumactivedeposittheysearchedforevidenceofbetarecoilexpectedtobemuchweakerandindeedfoundminusculeamountsofradiumC(214Bi)thatcouldonlyhavecomefromthebetarecoilofradiumB(214Pb).Finallytheyturnedtotheactiniumactivedeposit,andfromthealpharecoilofactiniumB(nowAcC[211Bi])theycollectedapuresampleandverifiedthehalflifeofactiniumC(nowAcC"[207Tl]),thespeciestheyhaddiscoveredafewmonthsbefore.

Therecoilmethodwassocleanthattheirexperimentswerecompletedinafewdaysintheirreporttheyemphasized"thegreatadvantageofthisphysicalseparationmethodoverchemicalseparations,notonlywithrespecttopuritybutalsothequantityofthepreparationsobtained."33RecoilcontinuedtobeapowerfulmethodforseparatingandpurifyingradioactivesubstancesmorethantwentyyearslaterLeoSzilardandT.A.Chalmerswouldusetherecoilfromhardgammaemissiontoseparateradioisotopesproducedbyneutronirradiation.

InDecember1908ErnestRutherfordwasawardedtheNobelPrizeinchemistryontheirreturnfromStockholmtoManchester(wherehehadmovedfromMontrealin1907),heandhiswifevisitedBerlinforthefirsttime.WhenhewasintroducedtoLise,heexclaimedinastonishment,"Oh,Ithoughtyouwereaman!"(eventhoughherfirstnamewasoneverypublication).34Thevisitwasfestive,Rutherfordmuchamusedabouthissudden"transformation,"ashecalledit,fromphysicisttochemist.HetwittedOttoHahnandlateranother"brotherchemist,"BertramBoltwoodofYale,"Iwasverystartledatmytransformationatfirstbutafterwardssawthatitwasquiteinaccordwiththedisintegrationtheory."35WhileRutherfordandHahnhadlongtalks,LiseaccompaniedMrs.Ru

Copyright 1996. Uni


copyright law.


therford,whospokenoGerman,onherChristmasshoppingtrips.36Lisecouldnothavebeenpleasedtobeoutshoppingwhilethementalkedshop.

Hahnmadearrangementsforagrandreceptionforhisformerprofessor,includingvisitstothephysicsandchemistryinstitutesanddinnersandseminarsinhishonor.37AtameetingoftheDeutschePhysikalischeGesellschaft,HahnreportedontherecoilofactiniumX.Rutherfordwasmostinterestedand,toHahn'sdiscomfort,toldhimthattheeffecthadbeendescribedsomeyearsbeforeinhislaboratoryinMontreal,whenhisstudentHarrietBrookshadobservedwhatappearedtobe"evaporation"ofradiumBfromtheradiumactivedeposit.NotingthattheeffectoccurredonlywhentheactivedepositwasfreshandradiumA(218Po)waspresent,RutherfordattributedittotherecoilofradiumB(214Pb)fromthealphadecayofradiumAhehad,moreover,discussedrecoilinseveralarticlesandinhis1904textbookonradioactivityandits1905revision,whichhadbeentranslatedintoGerman.38

Hahncountered,ratherstiffly,thathehadproveditwasnotevaporationbutrecoilbyshowingthatradioactiniumwasrequired,andinanycasehehaddonesowithactinium,notradium.Forallhischarm,Hahncouldbepricklyaboutpriorities,anexpression,perhaps,oftheinsecurityfeltbyachemistinafielddominatedbyphysicists.Inhismemoirsfiftyyearslaterhewasstilldefensive,insistingthatRutherford's"unexplainedresidualactivitiescannotbeexplainedbyradioactiverecoil.TheexperimentalproofofitsexistencewasfirstfurnishedinthewoodshopinBerlin."39Hahn'sproofmayhavebeenmoreconvincing,butonewonderswhyitwassodifficultforhimtoacknowledgethathismindhadbeenpreparedforrecoilbytheconceptRutherfordhadexplicitlyandrepeatedlyproposed.

Intheendtherewerenohardfeelings.40RutherfordcommiseratedwithHahnoverhislackofacademicadvancementandreturnedtoManchesterenthusiasticabouthisreceptioninBerlin.OfHahn'scolleaguehewrote,"LiseMitner[sic]isayoungladybutnotbeautifulsoIjudgeHahnwillnotfallavictimtotheradioactivecharmsofthelady."41

Infact,itwastruethatLiseandOttowerecolleaguesandfriends,nothingmore.Theytookcaretoavoidtheslightestappearanceofimpropriety,anecessityforayoungwomanandmanwhospenteachdayalonetogetherinasingleroom.AsHahndescribedit,

Therewasnoquestionofanycloserrelationshipbetweenusoutsideofthelaboratory.LiseMeitnerhadhadastrictladylikeupbringingandwasvery

Copyright 1996. Uni


copyright law.


reserved,evenshy....[F]ormanyyearsIneverhadamealwithLiseMeitnerexceptonofficialoccasions.Nordidweevergoforawalktogether[a"walktogether"beingoneoftheveryfewsociallyacceptablewaysforanunmarriedcoupletospendsometimealone].Apartfromthephysicscolloquiathatweattended,wemetonlyinthecarpenter'sshop.Therewegenerallyworkeduntilnearlyeightintheevening,sothatoneortheotherofuswouldhavetogoouttobuysalamiorcheesebeforetheshopsshutatthathour.Weneverateourcoldsuppertogetherthere.LiseMeitnerwenthomealone,andsodidI.Andyetwewerereallyveryclosefriends.42

Warmheartedbynature,withacapacityformakingandkeepinggoodfriends,LisemayatsometimehavewantedacloserrelationshipwithOtto,orperhapswithoneoranotherofthemanyyoungmenshemet.Butthereisnorecordofit,notevenahint,noristhereanyindicationthatsheregrettednothavingchildrenofherown.ShetookalivelyinterestinthechildrenandlaterthegrandchildrenofherrelativesandfriendsandwasalwaysespeciallyclosetohernephewOttoRobertFrisch,"adarlinglittlefellow[,]...exceptionallyobservant,"43whogrewuptobeanuclearphysicist,devotedtohisTanteLise.ManyyearslateroneofJamesFranck'sdaughters,DagmarvonHippel,askedLisewhyshenevermarried,sinceshewas"sobeautiful"andthereweresomanyyoungmenaround."ButDaggie,dear,Ijustneverhadtimeforit!"Liseexclaimed.44Ifsheeverhadthedesire,shemusthaveburieditearlyon.

LiseandOttoenjoyedeachother'scompany,buoyedbytheimmediatesuccessoftheircollaboration.WithhisrelaxedFrankfurtaccentandeasygoodhumor,OttohelpedLiseovercomeherreserve.Andherconnectionswiththephysicistsmeantthathewasincludedinacongenialgroupthatlookedaftereachotherandbecamegoodfriends.

Radioactivityandatomicphysicswerethendevelopingincrediblyquicklynearlyeverymonthbroughtawonderfulsurprisingnewresultfromoneofthelaboratoriesworkinginthesefields.Whenourworkwasgoingwellwesangduets,mostlyBrahmsLieder,whichIcouldonlyhum,whileHahnhadaverygoodsingingvoice....IfhewasinanespeciallygoodmoodhewouldwhistlelargesectionsoftheBeethovenviolinconcerto,sometimespurposelychangingtherhythmofthelastmovementjustsohecouldlaughatmyprotests....Bothpersonallyandscientificallywehadaverygoodrelationshipwiththeyoungcolleaguesinthenearbyphysicsinstitute.Theyoftencametovisitus,andsometimestheywouldclimbinthroughthewindowofthewoodshopinsteadoftakingtheusualway.Inshort,wewereyoung,contentedandcarefree,perhapspoliticallytoocarefree.45

Copyright 1996. Uni


copyright law.


Disinterestin,evenaversiontopoliticswastraditionalamongGermanacademicstheydisdaineditssubjectivityandlackofconsensusandcertainlyrecognizedthattheirowncareerswerebestenhancedbyjoiningtheestablishment,notchangingit.46AlthoughLisegrewupwiththedemocraticidealsofLiberalVienna,shetooklittleinterestinGermanissues,noteventhestruggleforequityinwomen'seducationandsuffragethatwasimportantatthetime.Beingaforeignermayhavebeenpartofit.Andthephysicswasallabsorbing.

EachsemesterLiseextendedherstayinBerlin.Herparentscontinuedhersmallallowance.Tosupplementit,sheoccasionallytranslatedscientificarticlesfromEnglishintoGerman47andwrotequiteregularlyforthepopularscientificperiodicalNaturwissenschaftlicheRundschauunderthename"L.Meitner."Othersuchassignmentswerehardtocomeby.TheeditoroftheBrockhausencyclopedia,impressedbytheRundschauarticles,decidedtoaskthe"HerrDoktor"foranarticleonradioactivityfortheencyclopediaandwrotetotheRundschaueditorfor"his"address.WhentheBrockhauseditorlearnedthatL.Meitnerwasa"FruleinDoktor,"herepliedwithsomeheatthathe"wouldnotthinkofprintinganarticlewrittenbyawoman!''48

Liselivedfrugally,rentingsingleroomsfromasuccessionoflandladies,neverwithprivatebath,occasionallywithapianoshecoulduse,oratelephone.Shecarefullylistedherclothing"7blouses,20pairstockings,4underskirts..."andaccountedforeverypennyshespent.Byeatingverylittleshehadenoughforcigarettes,adailynewspaper,andconcerts,49whereshecouldbefoundhighupinthecheapestseatsthesectionstudentscalled"Olympus"oftenfollowingthemusicwithafullscore.50

NotlongaftercomingtoBerlin,Lisemetanotheryoungpersononthecitytrain,wheretheirpathsregularlyjoinedontheirwaytotheuniversity.Thiswa

Documents

Lise Meitner: A Life in Physics