LINGUISTICS

An Introduction to Language and Communication

Sixth Edition

Adrian AkmajianRichard A. DemersAnn K. FarmerRobert M. Harnish

The MIT Press

Cambridge, Massachusetts

London, England

( 2010 Massachusetts Institute of Technology

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Linguistics : an introduction to language and communication / Adrian Akmajian

. . . [et al.]. — 6th ed.

p. cm.

Includes bibliographical references and index.

ISBN 978-0-262-01375-8 (hardcover : alk. paper) — ISBN 978-0-262-51370-8

(pbk. : alk. paper)

1. Linguistics. I. Akmajian, Adrian.

P121.A4384 2010

410—dc22 2009028422

10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

Index

Page references in italics indicate an illustrative figure or table. Underscored page referencesare to glossary entries.

Individuals whose works or ideas cited or discussed in this book are listed by last name andfirst initials. Names of other persons are given in full.

Distinctive features are listed in square brackets: [a¤ricated].

Abbreviated questions. See QuestionsAbbreviated styles. See Language stylesAbbreviations, 27–28acronyms, 27, 59, 300, 579alphabetic, 27–28, 59, 579clippings, 28, 300, 581orthographic, 28, 592Aboriginal Australian languages, 152Abstractnessof alphabetic representation, 67–68of phonology, 99of principles, 11, 68of syntactic structure, 10, 154Abstract nouns, 44‘‘Accent,’’ phonetic representation and, 97–98

Accidental overlap. See Chanceoverlap

Accusative case pronouns, 169Acoustic phonetics, 68, 579Acoustic representations of speechspectrograms, 84–86, 85waveforms, 67, 68Acoustic stability, 119–120Acquisition. See Language acquisitionAcrolects, 299Acronyms, 27, 59, 300, 579Adam’s apple. See LarynxAdams, V., 63Adequacyof definitions, 18of representations, 15–17, 73–74, 151, 178,183–184

Adjective Agreement rule of Old English,342

Adjective phrases, 216Adjectives, 22, 231Adverb phrases, 200Adverbs, 22sentential, 199–200VP, 200–201A‰xes, 20, 91, 423, 424, 579-able, 38–42, 47, 48–50, 341closed-class character, 25derivational (see Derivational a‰xes)derivational and inflectional, contrasted,45–48derivational and inflectional, relativeorder, 46, 47, 62–63, 499–500-ed (past tense su‰x), 145–146, 497-en, 60-er (agentive su‰x), 38, 43infixes, 20–21inflectional, 45–48-ing, 47–48-ion, 39, 44-ize, 62–63prefixes, 20re-, 61–62-s (plural su‰x) (see Plural su‰x -s)-ski/-sky (slang su‰x), 302su‰xes, 20un-, 60–61used as evidence for part-of-speech class,21–22-y/-ie (diminutive su‰x), 42

A‰x-Hopping, 211[a¤ricate], 117, 579A¤ricates, 76, 79, 117, 579lateral, 118–119African American Vernacular English. See

Inner-City English (ICE)African languagesclicks, 87–88labiovelar stops, 120tone, 142Afro-Asiatic language family, 344Agentive nouns, 38Agents, 167Agraphia, 560, 562Agree/disagree answer systems, 248Agreementin gender, 168in number, 168, 217in person, 168between subject and tag pronoun, 168between subject and verb, 217–218Aijmer, K., 412Airflow, 69–71, 116–117in a¤ricates, 117, 124in clicks, 88in fricatives, 77ingressive, 120in laterals, 117in liquids, 80in nasals, 79, 117in stops, 75, 93in vowels, 81Akimel O’odham, and Tohono O’odham,

dialects or languages, 277Akmajian, A., 221, 412Algeo, J., 353Algonquian, 317, 318–319, 336Algorithms, 465, 579Allan, K., 266Allophones, 95–99, 125, 579of /I/, 99of /k/, 112–113of /l/, 94–95, 106of /¤/, 94, 106of /t/, 92–94, 95Alphabetic abbreviation, 27–28, 59, 579Alphabets, 67, 106, 576–577Cyrillic, 278Greek, 109, 576International Phonetic (IPA), 75, 86, 88,95, 107, 588

Roman, 278Alston, W., 266, 412–413Altaic language family, 344Alter, K., 559Alternations, 19, 579Altmann, G., 468Alveolar ridge, 73, 75, 78, 80, 81, 94, 579

Alveolar speech sounds, 77, 87, 91, 111,117, 119–120, 579

Alveopalatal speech sounds, 78, 91, 94, 117,118, 579

Ambiguity, 235, 262, 263, 264, 266, 580.See also Polysemylexical, 153, 235, 435–436, 589resolving (disambiguation), 368–369, 375,435–436structural, 152–154, 181, 188, 216, 239,375, 597of use, 254–255, 265American English. See also Inner-CityEnglish (ICE); Standard AmericanEnglish (SAE)/¤/, 99, 107aspiration, 97–98Boston/New England use of /a/, 86–87consonants, 75–81, 76, 92–95flapping, 93–94number of phonemes, 87vowels, 81–87, 82, 85American Sign Language (ASL), 580acquisition by children, 508attempts to teach to nonhuman primates,511–517, 524slips of the hand, 423Amharic, 16–17, 344Amplitude, 67, 68Analytic processing of stimuli, 544, 545Anaphora and coreference, 55, 63–64, 221,267, 461, 484, 580and sentence structure, 206–208binding principles, 520–522morphological anaphora, 55–56Anaphoric relations, 257–259Anaphors, 520, 521Anatomybrain, 532–533, 534–538and vocal production, 69–73Ancient Greek. See GreekAnderson, A., 266Anderson, J., 468Anglo-Saxon. See Old EnglishAngular gyrus, 533, 537, 551Anomaly, 235–236, 555–558, 580Anomia, 549, 550–551Answerhood conditions, 233, 249Answer systems for yes/no questions, 247–248

Antecedent noun phrases, 257[anterior], 117, 580Anticipation, 423Anticipatory assimilation, 495–496, 580Antonymy, 237–238, 266, 337–338Anttila, R., 353AP. See Adjective phrasesApex. See Tongue, tip (apex)

602 Index

Aphasia, 25, 468, 531, 532, 533, 534, 543,546, 580anomic, 549, 550–551Broca’s, 532, 547–548, 563conduction, 550graphic, 560, 562Wernicke’s, 532, 548–550Apical speech sounds, 117, 580Appropriateness. See Contextualappropriateness

Arabic, 30, 344, 345Arbitrariness of sound-meaning pairing,17–18compositionality and, 50language change and, 320Archangeli, D., 146Arcuate fasciculus, 549–550Argot, 300, 580Arlotto, A., 353Armstrong, S., 447, 450Arnovick, L., 412Arono¤, M., 63Articles, 23–24, 171, 197, 297, 423, 424, 580Articulation, 75–88, 580distinctive features and, 114manner of (see Manner of articulation)overlapping (see Coarticulation)place of (see Place of articulation)Articulatory phonetics, 68, 107, 580Artificial intelligence, 430, 462Arytenoid cartilages, 72Ash (symbol), 83Asher, N., 413Aspiration, 92, 96, 97–98, 124, 580Aspiration Rule, 97–98, 123–124, 127–128contrastive (phonemic) in Hindi, 98Assertion, 233, 239, 248–249Assimilation, 110, 125, 580anticipatory, 495–496, 580perseverative, 496, 593Associative thought, 543Assymetry in brain function, 545, 546–547,558–560, 564

Atlas, J., 413Attentiveness Hypothesis, 453Attributive use of definite descriptions, 255,265, 266–267, 580

Audibility, 122Auditory association cortex. See Wernicke’sarea

Auditory rhyme detection tasks, 439Austin, G., 468Austin, J. L., 363, 393, 397, 411, 412Australian languages, 152Austro-Asiatic language family, 344Austronesian, 344, 350Autonomy of modules, 430, 440Auxiliaries. See Verbs

Avramides, A., 413Aztec. See also Classical NahuatlEnglish borrowings from, via Spanish, 29–30, 336

Babbling, 486–487, 513Bach, Johann Sebastian, pronunciation ofname, 90

Bach, K., 253, 403, 412, 413[back], 113, 118, 119, 125, 581Backformation, 43–44, 581Back speech sounds, 81, 82, 85, 112–113,581

Baker, C. L., 221Baltic language family, 325Balto-Slavic language family, 325Barred-i (symbol), 84Basal ganglia, 539, 564Base morphemes, 19, 44, 46–47, 50–51, 581Base structures. See Derivation, syntacticBasilects, 299Basque, 343Bates, E., 506Bats, 563Battan, P., 337Battig, W., 445Baugh, A., 353Baugh, J., 308Bayley, R., 308be (verb)contraction, 101–103, 283, 291deletion, 282–284, 288–289, 291, 308invariant, 283–284reduction, 283Behaviorism, 427, 482–486Bellugi, U., 423Bellwood, P., 350, 353Berko, J., 498Bever, T., 435, 436–437, 455, 461, 466, 468,469, 545

Bezuidenhout, A., 267, 469Bickerton, D., 295, 299–300, 308Bilabial speech sounds, 75, 76, 87, 117, 581Binarity, of distinctive features in SPEsystem, 114

Binding, 408, 520–522, 525. See alsoAnaphora and coreference

Biolinguistics, 531–532, 565, 581Biological determination. See InnatenessBird communication systems, 313, 563Bishop, D., 565Black English. See Inner-City English (ICE)Blade. See TongueBlakemore, D., 412Blasko, D. G., 469Blends, 28, 302, 423, 581Bloom, L., 525Bloom, P., 439, 525

603 Index

Bloomfield, L., 63Blumstein, S., 107Bock, K., 421, 422, 468Bomhard, A., 353Bonobos, 517–518, 525Bonto Igorot, infixes, 20–21Bookin, H. G., 454Borden, G., 107Borg, E., 267, 413Borrowings, 29–30, 90, 296, 305–306, 581not evidence of genetic relationship, 316,317–318

and phonotactics, 104, 130Boston-area use of /a/, 86–87Bott, L., 469Bound morphemes, 20–21, 44, 50–51, 548,

581Bowerman, M., 525Box diagrams, 174–175, 174Brainanatomy, 532–533, 534–538damage, 531–534functional asymmetry, 545, 546–547, 558–560, 564

size, and language evolution, 313split, 538–539Brain stem, 536Branches, 171, 201Branching nodes, 206–208Branching of linguistic family trees, 324Brand names. See Generified wordsBrazilian Portuguese, 112, 276–277, 304Breathing, 69, 71. See also AirflowBreheny, R., 456Briihl, D., 469British Empiricists, 441British Englishlack of flapping, 98lack of glottal stop reinforcement, 98lack of r-colored vowels, 100vowels, 83–84Broadening, 32–33Broca, P., 532, 547Broca’s aphasia, 532, 547–548, 563Broca’s area, 532, 533, 534, 535, 537, 553,

564–565, 581abnormality in size, 563damaged, 532, 547, 560Brookshire, R., 543Brown, C., 558, 565Brown, G., 412Brown, R., 487, 516Bruner, J., 468, 506Bullock, B. E., 308Burmese, 344Burton-Roberts, N., 412Butterworth, B., 468Bynon, T., 353

Cable, T., 353Cairns, H., 468Calques, 30, 581Calvin, W. H., 508Cameron, D., 412Campbell, L., 348Canadian English, 328–329Cann, R., 266, 344–345, 353Cantonese, 344and Mandarin, 277, 569velar nasal, 80Cape York Creoleconcord particles, 297–299vocabulary, 297, 298Cappelen, H., 267, 413Caramazza, A., 548Careful speech. See Language styles, formalCarlson, M., 438Carnap, R., 363Carroll, D., 468Carston, R., 403, 413Carver, C., 308Case, 168–169Casual speech. See Language styles,informal

Categories. See also Parts of speechfunctional, 211lexical, 197, 208, 589phrasal (see Phrasal categories)Categorization, mental, 441Caucasian language family, 344Causative Verb Formation rule of OldEnglish, 341

Cavalli-Sforza, L., 344–345, 346, 353C-command (constituent command), 206–208, 258–259, 501–504, 521, 583

Celtic language family, 315, 325Central nervous system, 534, 536Central sulcus, 533, 537Central vowels, 82Cerebellum, 564Cerebral cortex, 536, 537Cerebral hemispheres, 536, 538–539functional asymmetry, 545, 546–547, 558–560, 564left, 532–534, 533, 542–543, 545, 558–560right, 539, 544, 545, 558–560Chambers, S., 433Champollion, Jean-Francois, decipherer ofEgyptian hieroglyphics, 571

Chance overlap, 316, 318–319, 581Character, 260, 581Cherokee syllabary, 571–574, 575Chierchia, G., 266Child language, 25, 483, 484–486, 524. Seealso Language acquisition

Chimpanzees, 510, 511–518, 563

604 Index

Chimpsky, Nim, subject of ASL acquisitionstudy, 515–516

Chinese. See also Cantonese; Mandarinchance overlap with Navajo, 318past tense, 331Pidgin English, 294writing system, 277, 560, 569, 570Chinook Jargon, 296Chomsky, C. S., 501–502, 503Chomsky, N., 4, 6–7, 10–11, 113, 151, 191,194, 208, 210–211, 221, 225, 257, 266,419, 461, 483, 486, 509, 519, 520–521,523, 531

Churchland, P. S., 462Circumlocutions, 549, 550Clark, E., 468, 486, 492, 525Clark, H., 412, 451, 452, 453, 468, 486,492

Clarke, D., 412Clarke, R., 534, 564Classesof derivational a‰xes, 56–58, 59, 64, 499–500natural, 122, 123–124, 129, 144–146,591

Classical Nahuatl, compounds, 63Clauses. See also Sentencesembedded, 150modifying, 184–186, 190–191Cleft sentences, 176–177, 220, 581Clements, G. N., 107, 129, 146Clicks, 87–88Clifton, C., 440Clippings, 28, 300, 581Cloitre, M., 469Closed-class words, 24–25, 426, 487, 582Closing of talk-exchanges, 392, 412Coarticulation, 67, 94, 112–113, 120, 582Cockney English, 127Coda, 127, 574, 582Code switching, 305–306, 308, 582Cognitive background, 420–421, 582Cognitive psychology, 34, 231–232Cognitive science, 360, 468Cognitivism, 427Cohort theory of speech comprehension,430, 468

Coined words, 27, 300, 302, 582Cole, D., 145Colloquial styles, 301–302, 338. See alsoSlang

Combinatorial nature of phonology, 73Commands, 240Communication, 363–365complexity, 368direct and indirect (see Direct and indirectutterances)and language evolution, 312–313

literal and nonliteral (see Literal andnonliteral utterances)models, 365–388success, 229, 235, 365, 369, 375, 376, 397,400, 404, 427, 442, 505

Communicative act potential. See Commu-nicative function

Communicative and noncommunicativeacts, 239, 248, 370–371, 396, 582. Seealso Speech acts

Communicative function, 239–240, 263.See also Force; Illocutionary acts; Moods

Communicative intentions, 369, 370–371,376, 421, 582recognition, 372, 376, 397, 399strategies for inferring (see Inferentialstrategies)underdetermination, 369Communicative potential. See Communica-tive function

Communicative Presumption, 373, 376–377Community language change, 328–330Comparative linguistics, 316, 319, 582. Seealso Historical linguistics

Comparative method, 319, 348, 349–350,582. See also Reconstruction

Comparatives, 22, 45, 238Competence, 6, 150–151, 221, 225, 481, 582communicative, 388, 505–506models, 6, 149Complementary distribution, 88, 97, 98,125, 582

Complementizers, 211Complements, 208, 582order relative to heads, 209, 210–211,522–523

Complete thoughts, 238, 441Completion, 403, 582Complex concepts, 441, 442–443Complex words, 18–21, 582 (see alsoA‰xes; Derivational morphology;Inflectional morphology)

Compliance conditions, 233, 249Compositionality, 19, 35, 50, 243–245, 266,582communicative function and, 250in compounds, 37constituent structure and, 183–184in derivational morphology, 35, 50enriched, 245and idioms, 243–244in inflectional morphology, 46–47and performative verbs, 394, 395semantic drift and, 51–52Compounds, 35–37, 52, 59–60, 63, 302–303, 582archaism-preserving, 336in child language, 498–500

605 Index

deverbal (see synthetic)First Sister Principle, 54headless, 37heads, 35, 37, 63orthography, 36primary, 52productivity, 52stress patterns, 36–37synthetic, 52–54, 53types, 35verbal (see synthetic)Comprehension. See Speech comprehensionComputational models, 427–430, 462–466,

468, 469Computer programs, 360, 428, 462, 465,

594Concepts, 231, 441, 468–469, 582complex, 441, 442–443lexical, 441, 444–446meaning as, 231–232, 441–451phrasal, 441, 447simple, 441typicality e¤ects, 231Concept Theory of meaning, 231–232Concord particles in Cape York Creole,

297–299Conditions A, B, and C, 521Conduction, 538–539, 550Conjunction, 24, 177–178, 582Connectionism, 430, 462–466, 469, 583Connine, C., 469[consonantal], 116, 583Consonants, 75, 583. See also Manner of

articulationof American English, 75–81, 76, 92–95,114–115

clusters, 103–104, 107, 496distinctive feature composition, 114–115,497

Constatives, 240, 249, 583Constituent command. See C-commandConstituents, 165, 583discontinuous, 181–186, 188–191grammatical functions of, 179–180Constituent structure, 153–154, 165, 166,

170, 583abstractness, 154compositionality and, 183–184reality, 194represented in tree diagrams, 171–173,216

tests, 175–181, 220Constraintsin Optimality Theory, 143phonotactic (see Phonotactics)on rules, 201, 208sequential (see Phonotactics)on word order, 152

Constriction, 75, 116, 120, 583. See alsoAirflow; Manner of articulation

Contact languages. See Pidgin languagesContent, 260–261, 583. See also Propositio-nal content

Content words. See Open-class wordsContext of utterance, 15, 259, 363, 365,372, 389–390, 421, 452appropriateness in (see Contextualappropriateness)and early child language, 488influence on propositional content, 403,404, 405, 407–408reference dependent on, 250–252, 260shared beliefs about (see Shared beliefs)Contextual appropriateness, 368–369, 370,375, 377–378, 381, 382, 383–384, 385,439, 451, 505, 506

Contextual beliefs. See Shared beliefs[continuant], 116, 123, 583Continuousness, of speech, 14, 67, 69, 73,109, 431

Contraction and contracted forms, 21,101–103, 107, 159, 283, 285, 287–288,292

Contradiction, 240Contralateral and ipsilateral inputs, 538,542

Contrasts, 96, 97, 583acquisition by children, 494language-particular, 98–99, 113, 125Control, 205–206, 501–504, 583Conversational implicatures, 400–402, 404,413, 583

Conversational maxims, 400–401, 583Conversational Presumptions, 373, 378,381, 384, 401

Conversations and other talk-exchanges,368–369, 371, 382, 389–393, 412, 583

Cook, V. J., 221Cooperation and communication, 372Cooperative Principle, 400–401Coreference. See Anaphora and coreferenceCornish, 332[coronal], 112, 117, 119, 122, 125, 583Coronal speech sounds, 111–112, 583Corpus callosum, 536, 538, 542Correspondences, 319–320, 322Correspondence sets, 319, 584Cortese, C., 433–434Cortex, cerebral, 536, 537Cortical conduction, 538–539Coulthard, M., 412Crain, S., 439–440, 501Cranberry morphs, 44, 50–51Creativity in language use, 13, 32, 34, 149,300–301, 306, 484, 510

Creek, and English, 304

606 Index

Creole languages and creolization, 296–300, 308, 584

Critical period, 507–509, 584Croatian, dialect of Serbo-Croatian, 278Crowley, T., 297, 298, 308Cruse, D., 266Crystal, D., 308Cuneiform, 571, 572Curtis, W., 62Curtiss, S., 508, 546Cuss words, 303–304Cutler, A., 426, 433Cutting, J., 469Cyrillic alphabet, 278

d, place of articulation, 111–112Danish, and Swedish, intelligibility, 277Danks, J., 230Dark-l, 94–95, 120Daughter languages, 323Daughter nodes, 196, 215Davenport, M., 146Davis, S., 412, 413Davis, W., 413Dawson, M., 468Deafness, 487, 508, 537de Bode, S., 546Decay, language change as, 326, 331Declarative sentences, 154–155, 232, 233,239–240, 246, 247, 249, 291

Declarative tags. See TagsDecoding of signals, 365–367, 540, 584Decomposition, semantic/definitional, 442–444, 596

Default heuristics, 404–407, 584. See alsoConversational maxims; ConversationalPresumptions

Defeasibility, 405, 406, 407, 456Defectiveness, supposed, of nonstandarddialects, 273, 274, 281, 282–283, 285,306

Deficitslanguage, 532, 563 (see also Aphasia)motor, 543musical, 544visuospatial, 544, 546Definite articles. See ArticlesDefinite descriptions, 250, 253, 254–255,266–267, 584

Definitional decomposition, 442–444Definitional view of meaning, 441–446Defooting of syllables, 138–139, 139, 140,584

Deictic expressions, 229, 250–252, 265, 266,584nondeictic uses, 252Deixis. See Deictic expressionsDelayed release, 117, 584

Deletionand recoverability, 287, 290–291, 292, 308characteristic of informal, abbreviatedstyles, 285of auxiliary verbsof be, 282–284, 288–289, 291, 308of subjects, 289, 308Tag-Controlled, 286–288Dell, G., 426, 468Demers, R. A., 412Demonstratives, 24, 251–252, 584Demotic script, 571, 574Denes, P., 107Denison, D., 353Dennis, M., 546Denotation, 229–230, 232, 233, 447–448,584of natural kind terms, 256versus reference, 250, 258Denotational Theory of meaning, 229–230,232, 233, 262

Dental speech sounds, 77, 87, 111, 117,119–120, 584

Dependencies, 290, 292anaphoric (see Anaphora and coreference)categorial, 156, 171, 194, 195, 197control (see Control)crossing, 186, 187, 191–194discontinuous (see Discontinuousdependencies)hierarchical (see Domination)passive, 204raising, 205wh- (see Questions, wh-)DeRenzi, E., 543Derivation, 584morphological (see Derivationalmorphology)syntactic, 188–191Derivational a‰xes, 38–42category changes with, 39–42, 46classes, 56–58, 59, 64, 499–500phonological changes with, 39, 42pragmatic changes with, 42semantic changes with, 39, 42, 47stress patterns with, 57Derivational morphology, 34–44, 584a‰xation (see Derivational a‰xes)backformation, 43–44, 581compositionality in, 35, 50, 51–52compounding (see Compounds)contrasted with inflectional morphology,45–48systematic relations, 42Description Theory of reference, 253–256Descriptive grammar, 9, 228–229Determiners, 211. See also Articles;Quantifiers

607 Index

Devanagarı syllabary, 574, 575Developmental stages. See Stages of

linguistic developmentDevelopment of language in children. See

Language acquisitionDeverbal words, 52–56Diachronic linguistics. See Historical

linguisticsDialectal variation, 4, 273–276, 308in meaning, 16, 227in pronunciation, 80, 83–84, 86–87, 94,99, 100, 101, 278–280

in vocabulary, 275–276syntactic, 282–283, 291Dialects, 273–278, 308, 584and writing systems, 277, 278ethnic, 274mutual and one-way intelligibility, 276–278

regional, 273–274, 278social and political complications indefining, 277–278

social, 274, 282standard and nonstandard, 273, 274, 591,597

Diamond, J., 345Diaphragm, 69, 70, 71Dichotic listening, 542–543, 544, 585Dictionaries, 15–16, 29, 52, 228, 262Digraphs, 80, 120, 585Dijk, T. van, 412Dillard, J. L., 273, 284, 297, 308Dillon, G., 266Diminutives, 42Diphthongs, 85, 86, 87, 118, 144–145, 339,

585Direct and indirect utterances, 370, 382–

385, 394, 395, 421, 451–453, 469, 588Direction of fit, 249Directives, 240, 249Direct Strategy, 374–377, 377, 383, 385Disambiguation, 368–369, 375, 435–436Di Sciullo, A. M., 64Discontinuous dependencies, 181–186, 585crossing, 186derivation, 188–191Discourse, 308, 388–392, 412, 585Discretenessof linguistic units, 14of phonemes, 73of words, 14, 431of written symbols, 67, 109Disjointness of reference, 257–259Distinctive features, 109, 111–118, 146, 585.

See also entries for individual featuresof American English phonemes, 114–115,116

binarity, 114in child language, 497as organizing principle of phonologies,126relationship to articulation, 114SPE-based system, 113–118universality, 118–120Distinctness, in vowels, 87[distributed], 117, 585Distributioncomplementary, 88, 97, 98, 125, 582of class I and class II derivational a‰xes,57, 58, 499–500

Division of linguistic labor, 256–257, 267,589

Dolphin communication, 313Domination, 179, 196, 206–208, 210, 585Donnellan, K., 255, 266–267Dore, J., 506Do-support, 158, 159, 160, 162, 214Dowty, D., 266Dravidian language family, 344, 345Drift, semantic, 33, 47, 51–52, 596Dropping. See DeletionDunn, M., 348, 349–351Dutchand Flemish, dialects or languages, 278Grimm’s Law in, 320

Early Modern (Shakespearean) Englishmain and auxiliary verbs, 342yes/no questions, 157Ebonics controversy, 282, 308Eccles, J., 538Echo answer systems, 248Echolocation, 563EEGs, 555–560E¤ability. See Scope, of languageEgyptian writing systems, 571, 573, 574Electroencephalograms (EEGs), 555–560

Embedding, 150, 585Embick, D., 565Emmorey, K., 468Empty categories, 459–462, 469Encapsulation, of information, 429, 430,439–440

Encoding of signals, 365–367, 540, 585Encyclopedia Britannica Advocacy forAnimals, 518

Endings. See A‰xes, su‰xesEndocentricity, 209End-of-sentence tasks, 455Eng (symbol), 79English. See also American English; BritishEnglish; Canadian English; ChinesePidgin English; Cockney English; Early

608 Index

Modern (Shakespearean) English;Hawaiian Pidgin English; Inner-CityEnglish (ICE); Jamaican English; MiddleEnglish; New York City English; OldEnglish; Standard American English(SAE); Yiddish Englishas a lingua franca, 294linguistic history, 332–335, 353main source of data in this book, 4, 10, 75member of Indo-European languagefamily, 315

Enriched compositionality, 245Entailment, 241–242, 585scales, 405Entities, meanings as, 229, 232Environment, role in language acquisition,482–486, 506–507

Epenthesis, 122Epiglottis, 73ERPs. See Event-related potentialsErrors. See also Prescriptive grammarin processing, 435–436, 437in production (see Speech errors)Ervin, S. M., 497, 525Esophagus, 73Estonian, 343Ethnic dialects, 274Euphemisms, 303–304, 585European languagesplace of articulation of t and d, 111rounded front vowels, 119Evans, G., 267Event-related potentials, 555–560, 565,585

Evolution of language, 312–314, 326Exaggeration, 382. See also OverstatementExceptions, in morphological analysis, 48–51, 62–63

Exchange errors, 423, 426Exemplars. See PrototypesExpansion (type of impliciture), 403–404,585

Expansion of vocabulary and grammar,part of creolization, 297, 299

Experimental pragmatics, 451–457, 469,585

Explicatures. See ImplicituresExpressive aphasia. See Broca’s aphasiaExpressiveness of language, 313, 314, 316,326, 331

Extension, metaphorical, 31–32, 337–338,590

External intercostal muscles, 69–71, 70Extraposition, 185–186, 187, 220–221, 585interaction with Particle Movement, 191–194, 193transformation, 189–191, 190

Eye movement studies, 438Eysenck, M., 469

Faglioni, P., 543False analysis, 49–50Falsehood. See TruthFarmer, A. K., 209, 210Fasold, R. W., 283–284Fawley, W., 266Fay, D., 433Features, 3, 91, 110–111, 586. See alsoDistinctive features

Feet, 130–131, 590defooting of syllables, 138–140, 139, 584types, 131unfooted syllables, 137–138Ferguson, C. A., 506Ferreira, F., 471Fields, W., 525Fiengo, R., 413Fillmore, C., 266Finiteness. See also Scopeof dictionaries, 16of grammars, 151, 243of vocabulary/lexicon, 13, 25, 244Finnish, 343, 344rounded front vowels, 119Finno-Ugric language family, 343, 344Fischler, I., 439Fisher, S., 565Flaps and flapping, 93–94, 96, 137, 586Flap Rule, 98, 134–137, 328–329Flemish and Dutch, dialects or languages,278

Fletcher, P., 563, 565fMRI (Functional magnetic resonanceimaging), 553–555, 558–559, 563, 586

Fodor, J. A., 266, 430, 439, 440, 441, 442,443, 447, 465–466, 468, 469

Fodor, J. D., 266, 437, 442, 469Folb, E. A., 308Foot. See FeetForce, 233, 247, 248–250, 264, 586. Seealso Communicative function; Moods;Illocutionary acts

Formal speech. See Language styles, formalForster, K., 430, 433, 434, 435, 468Foss, D., 468, 490, 492Fouts, R., 514foxp2/FOXP2 gene, 560–564, 565Frames, 107, 176, 177, 498Francis, W. N., 308Frazier, L., 437, 438, 469Freedle, R., 412Free enrichments. See Expansion (type ofimpliciture)

Free morphemes, 20, 586

609 Index

Free variation, 96, 586. See also AllophonesFrege, G., 232–233, 252, 261French, 315English borrowings from, 29, 30, 305–306,335–336

historical influence on English, 335lack of aspirated allophones, 98and neighboring languages, sharedchanges, 330

pronunciation of /l/, 94–95reanalysis in, 19rounded front vowels, 119sound–meaning arbitrariness, 17yes/no answer system, 247–248French, P., 412Frequency (acoustic), 71Frequency e¤ect in lexical access, 433, 586Fricatives, 76, 77–79, 87, 586distinctive feature composition, 117Friction, 77, 78–79, 117Friederici, A., 558–560, 565Fromkin, V., 422, 468Frontal lobe, 532, 533, 548, 563–564Front speech sounds, 82, 85, 112–113, 118,

586Full vowels, 131Functional categories, 211Functional level of speech production, 424,

425Functional magnetic resonance imaging,

553–555, 558–559, 563, 586Functional theories of language evolution,

312–313Function, grammatical. See Grammatical

relationsFunctions of language. See Uses of

languageFunction words. See Closed-class wordsFuzzy set theory, 448–449

Ganda. See also Lugandaplace of articulation, 119Garden path sentences, 435–436, 439–440,

586Gardner, B., 511–515, 516Gardner, R. A., 511–515, 516Garfield, J., 468Garman, M., 468Garnham, A., 468Garrett, M., 420, 424, 425, 435, 442–443,

457, 468, 469, 564Gaskell, G., 469Gazdar, G., 468Gazzaniga, M., 505, 508, 525, 538–539Gee, J., 432Geis, M., 412Gender agreement, 168

Gender and language, 308Gender di¤erences in child language, 525Generalized conversational implicatures,402, 404

Generation, 195–198, 586Generative linguistics, 4, 195. See alsoTransformational grammar

Generative Semantics, 363Generified words, 28–29, 586. See alsoProper names

Genetic relationships among languages,315–316, 319, 324

Geneticsand evolution of language, 560–564and language change, 327, 344–349, 346and uniqueness of language to humans(see Innateness)

Georgian, 344Gerken, L., 494German, 315English borrowings from, 29, 30, 90, 336Grimm’s Law in, 320and neighboring languages, sharedchanges, 330and Old English, compared, 333orthography for compounds, 36plural morphology, 22pronunciation of /l/, 94–95rounded front vowels, 119Germanic language family, 320–322, 323,325Grimm’s Law, 320–322, 324, 328, 352,353, 587

Gernsbacher, M., 469Geschwind, N., 534, 562Gestural languages, 312–313, 512, 537. Seealso Sign languages

Gibbs, R., 452, 454, 469Gildea, P., 454Gimbutas, M., 326Giora, R., 412, 469Givon, T., 506Gladwell, M., 293Gleason, J. B., 506Gleitman, H., 447, 450Gleitman, L., 442, 447, 450, 468Glides, 76, 80–81, 586distinctive feature composition, 116Glottal speech sounds, 72, 78, 93, 586Glottis, 72, 78, 93, 587Glucksberg, S., 230, 454, 469Goddard, C., 266Goldman-Eisler, F., 468Goldsmith, J., 141, 146Goodnow, J., 468Gopnik, M., 563, 565Gordon, P., 498, 500, 525

610 Index

Gorillas, 510Gothic, 315Gough, P., 433Governing category, 520, 521Grammars, 6, 91, 225finiteness, 151Grammar simplification, 327–328Grammatical function. See Grammaticalrelations

Grammaticality. See JudgmentsGrammatical relations, 23, 179–181, 331,443, 587morphological marking, 168–169, 331Grandy, R., 266Graphic aphasia, 560, 562Great Vowel Shift, 338–339, 338, 587Greek alphabet, 109, 576Greek, 315, 320, 323cognates of English, 353English borrowings from, 336, 353Green, G., 415Green, L., 308Greenberg, J., 345, 353Greenfield, P. M., 506Greetings, 390–391Grice, H. P., 363, 399–403, 404–405, 407,411, 412, 413, 451

Grimm, J., 322Grimm’s Law, 320–322, 324, 328, 352, 353,587

Grodzinsky, Y., 539, 548, 564–565Groothusen, J., 558Grosjean, F., 432Grundy, P., 412Guillotin, Joseph, source of guillotine, 29Gullah, 297Gundel, J., 413Gunnar, W., 468Gussenhoven, C., 146Guyanese Creole, continuum, 299Gyri, 537angular gyrus, 533, 537, 551inferior frontal gyrus, 547precentral gyrus, 533, 537superior temporal gyrus, 533, 537, 553,559

Haas, M. R., 304Haegeman, L., 221Hagoort, P., 558, 565Hahne, A., 565Haitian Creole, example of creole language,296

Hakes, D., 468, 490, 492Hale, B., 267Halle, M., 113–114, 123, 146Halliday, M., 412

Hamm, A., 534, 564Hannahs, S., 146Hard palate. See PalateHarley, T., 468Harnish, R. M., 266, 412, 457, 469Harris, K., 107Harris, R. A., 191, 363Hartshorne, J. K., 525Hasan, R., 412Hausa, 344Hauser, M., 412HawaiianEnglish borrowings from, 29phonemes, number of, 87phonotactics, 104Hawaiian Pidgin English, word ordervariation, 295

Hayes, B., 146Hayes, C., 512Hayes, K., 512Head Parameter, 210–211, 522–523Headsof compound words, 35, 37, 63of phrases, 181, 197, 208, 211, 522, 587of phrases, order relative to complements,209, 210–211, 522–523

HEARSAY II model of speech comprehen-sion, 430

Hebrew, 344, 345Hedberg, N., 413Heim, I., 266Hellenic language family, 325Hemispherectomy, 545–546Hemispheres. See Cerebral hemispheresHeny, F. W., 221Heritage, J., 412Hewes, G., 312Hieratic script, 571, 574Hieroglyphics, 571, 573, 574Higginbotham, J., 266[high], 113, 118, 119, 125, 587High speech sounds, 81, 82, 84, 85, 112–113, 118, 587

Hillyard, S. A., 553Hindiaspiration, 98English borrowings from, 30written, 574Hirsh, I., 543Historical Chain Theory of reference, 256Historical linguistics, 311, 316, 353, 587.See also Comparative linguistics

Historically related languages, 315–316,319, 324

Hoard, J., 575Hogg, R., 353Holistic processing of stimuli, 544, 545

611 Index

Holm, J., 308Holophrastic speech, 488, 587Holtgraves, T., 469Homeland of Indo-European speakers, 326Homonymy and homophony, 139–140,

236, 424Hood, L., 525Horn, L., 411, 413Horrocks, G., 221Horwich, P., 266Houston, S., 576Huang, Y., 267, 412, 413Hungarian, 343, 344rounded front vowels, 119word order, 152Hurst, J., 563, 565Hurtig, R., 435Huttenlocher, J., 525Hymes, D. H., 308Hyperbole. See OverstatementHypercorrection, 280, 587

Ibo. See IgboICE. See Inner-City English (ICE)Iconic representation, 512, 569, 587Ideas, meaning as, 230–232, 233Ideographic writing systems, 562, 569,

587Idiolectal variation, 227, 262Idiolects, 227, 275, 587Idioms, 236, 243–244, 264, 303, 587speech act, 248Igbo, 344labiovelar stops, 120I-heuristic, 405, 406–407, 587I-language, 419, 587Illocutionary acts, 396–397, 398, 399, 588Illocutionary force. See ForceIllusions, 429, 431–432Images, meaning as, 231Image Theory of meaning, 231Imitation, role in language acquisition, 483,

484–486, 511, 525Impairments. See DeficitsImperative sentences, 233, 240, 246, 247,

249, 488Implicatures, 400–402, 451, 469, 588conventional, 402, 413conversational, 400–402, 404, 413, 583scalar, 405–406, 455–456Implicitures, 402–404, 413, 457, 469, 588Imura, T., 562i-Mutation, 339–340Inappropriateness. See Contextual

appropriatenessInconsistency of English orthography. See

Orthography

Indefinite articles. See ArticlesIndexical expressions, 250–251, 265, 588Indic language family, 324, 325Indirection. See Direct and indirectutterances

Indirect Strategy, 385–386Individual language change, 327–328Indo-European language family, 315, 325,353, 588systematic correspondences within, 323Indo-European protolanguage, 315homeland of speakers, 326reconstruction, 321, 323Indo-Iranian language family, 325Indonesian-Malay, 344Inferences, system of (see Inferentialstrategies)

Inferential Model of communication, 371–388, 412, 588

Inferential strategies, 371, 372, 373–386,374, 386

Inferior frontal gyrus, 547Infinite scope of language, 9, 16, 150–151,165, 175, 243–244, 500

Infixes. See A‰xesInflectional a‰xes, 45–48and paradigms, 48semantic changes with, 46–47Inflectional morphology, 588a‰xation, 45–48contrasted with derivational morphology,45declarative inflection, 247of verbal mood, 246Old English, 333–334Informal speech. See Language styles,informal

Informationencapsulation, 429, 430, 439–440flow, in speech production, 419, 420Injuries of the brain. See Brain, damageInnateness, 299–300, 312, 441–442, 482–483, 500, 507–509, 519, 588

Inner-City English (ICE), 273, 282, 291–292, 588be, 282–284possible creole origins, 297Input structures, 188Input systems, 429–430, 588Institutional acts, 370, 588Instructionof children, role in language acquisition,483–484, 486, 518of nonhuman primates, 510–518Intelligibility, mutual and one-way, 276–278, 591

Intensifiers, 216

612 Index

Intentionscommunicative (see Communicativeintentions)pragmatic, 364, 420, 421, 594Interaction in language processing, 430,438–439

Interdental speech sounds, 77–78, 117, 588International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA), 75,86, 88, 95, 107, 588

Interpretationpragmatic, 427, 451–457rich, 488semantic, 427, 430, 440–451, 559Interrogative pronouns. See Wh-wordsInterrogative sentences. See QuestionsInterspecies communication, 519, 525Intuitions. See JudgmentsInvariant be, 283–284Invented words. See Coined wordsIPA. See International Phonetic Alphabet(IPA)

I-phenomena, 407, 457, 588. See alsoImplicitures

Ipsilateral and contralateral inputs, 538, 542Iranian language family, 325Irish Gaelic, 333Irony, 227, 379, 381–382Irregular forms, 21, 37, 60–61, 482, 497,499–500

Isolates, 343, 350, 588Italian, 315and neighboring languages, sharedchanges, 330vowels, 87Italic language family, 325i-Umlaut, 339–340

Jackendo¤, R., 208, 245Jacobs, H., 146Jacobs, S., 412Jakobson, R., 114, 486Jamaican English, example of creole, 296Janus, R., 455, 469Japanese, 344agree/disagree answer system, 248articles, lack of, 23–24borrowings from English, 130, 318complements precede heads, 211, 522English borrowings from, 29, 318Head Parameter setting, 522, 523honorifics, and contextual appropriateness,506and Korean, relationship, 345onomatopoeic words, 17particles, 23, 168phonotactics, 130place of articulation, 119

place of articulation of t and d, 111plural morphology, lack of, 22–23r-sounds and l-sounds, 98–99sound–meaning arbitrariness in, 17subjects, morphological marking, 168tone, 142word order, 152, 295writing systems used, 560, 561, 562, 576Jargon, 300–301, 588Jaw, 81Je¤erson, G., 412Jespersen, O., 63, 246Johnson, K., 68, 107Johnson, W., 146Johnson-Laird, P., 266, 446, 468Jones, W., 315, 326Jongman, A., 107Joos, M., 328Journalsbiolinguistics, 565language acquisition, 525language change, 353language variation, 308morphology, 64neurolinguistics, 565phonetics, 107phonology, 146pragmatics, 413psycholinguistics, 469semantics, 267syntax, 221Judgments, 150, 151, 156

Kahn, D., 81, 107, 129Kaiser, M., 353Kana script, 560, 561, 562, 576Kanji script, 560, 561, 562, 576Kannada, 344Kanzi, pygmy chimpanzee, subject oflanguage acquisition study, 518

Kaplan, D., 252, 260, 266Kasher, A., 413Katsos, N., 456Katz, J., 266, 367Kean, M.-L., 564Keane, M., 469Keenan, E., 266Kempson, R., 266Kenstowicz, M., 146Kerns, J., 353Keysar, B., 469Keyser, S. J., 107, 129, 146Khalkha Mongolian, 344Khoisan, number of phonemes, 87Kimball, J. P., 195Kimura, D., 542, 544–545Kiparsky, P., 64, 498–500

613 Index

Kittay, E., 266Klima, E., 423Knowledge of words, 15–16, 52. See also

CompetenceKoko, gorilla, subject of ASL acquisition

study, 517Korean, 344and Japanese, relationship, 345complements precede heads, 522Head Parameter setting, 522r-sounds and l-sounds, 98–99Kratzer, A., 266Kripke, S., 253, 256, 266, 267Kubo, S., 413Kuperberg, G., 565Kutas, M., 555

[labial], 117, 119, 589Labialized speech sounds. See Rounded

speech soundsLabial speech sounds, 75, 76, 87, 117, 581Labiodental speech sounds, 77, 589Labiovelar speech sounds, 120Labov, W., 278–280, 281, 282–283, 287,

308Lachter, J., 466Lackner, J., 543LAD. See Language Acquisition DeviceLadefoged, P., 68, 107Ladusaw, W., 107, 266Lako¤, G., 363Lako¤, R., 308Lamarque, P., 267, 413Laminal speech sounds, 117, 589Landau, B., 442Language (the term), 9Language acquisition, 361, 481–482, 525and grammar simplification, 327by imitation, 483, 484–486, 525by instruction, 483–484environment’s role, 482–486, 506–507in human children, 481–510in nonhuman primates, 510–519journals, 525pragmatic factors, 506–507Language Acquisition Device, 483, 494,

518, 519Language acquisition models, 7Language and gender, 308Language attitudes and prejudices, 281, 306Language change, 4, 16, 311. See also

Lexical change; Morphological change;Phonological change; Syntactic change

additions, 335–336, 338–339, 340, 341as decay, 326, 331as improvement, 326, 331journals, 353

losses, 336, 339–340, 341, 342mechanisms of spread, 328–331and migration, 326, 327, 332–333, 344–351open-class/closed-class distinction and, 24origin, 327–328shared, 324structural, 337–338, 340, 341, 342Language comprehension. See Speechcomprehension

Language deficits. See DeficitsLanguage development. See Languageacquisition

Language disorders. See DeficitsLanguage families, 315, 320, 323–326, 325,343–351, 344, 348

Language localization in brain, 532–539,564

Language of thought, 465–466Language processing, 420, 539, 542–543,552–553, 558–560, 564–565. See alsoSpeech comprehension

Language processor, 430, 439–440Language production. See Speechproduction

Language reconstruction. SeeReconstruction

Language standardization. See Standardand nonstandard language

Language styles, 284–285abbreviated, 285–291archaizing, 160careful (see formal)casual (see informal)colloquial, 301–302, 338formal, 101, 279–280, 284, 391, 586informal, 101–103, 112, 127, 279–280,282–284, 285–291, 301, 306–307, 391,588rapid (see informal)Language universals, 9–10, 22–24, 87, 109–110, 119–120, 152, 210, 214, 247–248,519, 522, 589

Language use. See Uses of languageLanguage variation, 4, 16journals, 308LANs. See Left anterior negative shifts(LANs)

Lappin, S., 267Larson, R., 266Larynx, 69, 70, 71–72, 93, 589Lasnik, H., 221[lateral], 117, 589Lateral neglect, 544Lateral speech sounds, 117, 589a¤ricates, 118–119clicks, 88

614 Index

Lateral sulcus, 533, 537, 549Latin, 315, 320–321cognates of English, 352, 353English borrowings from, 317, 318, 336, 353as a lingua franca, 294verb paradigms, 48word order, 152Laurence, S., 468–469Lax (short) vowels, 82–84, 82, 85, 99–101,118, 589, 596

Learning, 360, 441–442, 482–483, 522, 523,555, 589. See also Innateness; Instruction

Leech, G., 412Left anterior negative shifts (LANs), 556Lehiste, I., 436Lehrer, A., 237, 266, 337, 338Lehrer, K., 266Leibniz, G., 315Leiman, J., 436Length (duration)of feet, 137of syllables, 130of vowels, 82, 84, 85, 133, 138Lenneberg, E. H., 69, 313, 506, 507Leopold, W. F., 525Lepore, E., 267, 413Lesions. See Brain, damageLesser, V., 430Level-Ordering Hypothesis, 498–500, 499,525

Levels of linguistic structure, 6, 359, 419Levelt, P., 468Levelt, W., 468Levinson, S., 266, 348, 349–351, 404–407,412, 413

Levitsky, W., 534Lewin, R., 525Lexical access, 428, 430, 433–434, 589. Seealso Word recognitionin speech production, 468, 549, 550Lexical categories, 197, 208, 589. See alsoParts of speech

Lexical change, 335–338. See also Meaningchange; Neologisms

Lexical concepts, 441, 444–446Lexical decision tasks, 433, 439, 589Lexicon, 13, 24, 63, 234, 433, 468, 589as part of grammar, 197kinds of information encoded in, 14–16structure, 24, 197, 236, 238, 433, 434, 435Liberman, M., 468Lieber, R., 63Lieberman, P., 107, 314, 432Lightbown, W. F., 525Lightfoot, D., 342Light-l, 94–95like-insertion, 292, 293

Lindstrom, E., 348, 349–351Linearity, of writing, 67, 109Lingua francas, 294, 569, 589Linguistic communication. SeeCommunication

Linguistic competence. See CompetenceLinguistic constituents, 423, 589. See alsoConstituents; Units

Linguistic knowledge. See CompetenceLinguistic labor, division of, 256–257, 267,589

Linguistic meaning. See MeaningLinguistic Presumption, 373Linguistic reference. See DenotationLips, 73, 75, 77, 81, 117rounding, 81, 83, 117Liquids, 76, 80, 87, 590distinctive feature composition, 116Literal and nonliteral utterances, 227, 258,259, 379–382, 394, 412, 421, 451, 453–455, 590, 591

Literal Strategy, 377–378, 379Literalness, Presumption of, 373, 378Loan translations. See CalquesLoanwords. See BorrowingsLobes of the brain, 533frontal, 532, 548, 563–564occipital, 553temporal, 532, 534, 548Localization in brain, 532–539, 564Locke, J., 366–367Locutionary acts. See Propositional acts;Utterance acts

Loebell, H., 422Logic, supposed deficiency of nonstandarddialects in, 273, 281, 282, 285

Logographic writing systems, 560, 569–571,576, 590

Long vowels. See Tense (long) vowels[low], 118, 590Low speech sounds, 82, 85, 118, 590Lucas, C., 308Luce, P., 468Lucy, P., 451, 452Luganda. See also Gandaphonetic variation, 145Lummibasic word order, 218–219chance overlap with English, 318Lungs, 69, 70, 71Lycan, W., 266Lyons, J., 266

McClelland, J., 462, 463–465, 466, 525McConnell-Genet, S., 266MacDonald, J., 458–459, 460McElree, B., 266, 461, 469

615 Index

McGurk e¤ect, 458–459, 460, 469McGurk, H., 458–459, 460McLeod, P., 469McMahon, A., 353Macron (diacritic), 339MacSweeney, M., 537MacWhinney, B., 506Magnetic resonance imaging, 553–555,

558–559, 563, 565, 586Magnetoencephalograms (MEGs), 559Main Clause Strategy, 437Main verbs. See Verbs, main and auxiliaryMakah, and neighboring languages, shared

changes, 330–331Malayalam, 344Mandarin, 343, 344, 569and Cantonese, dialects or languages, 277Mandela, Nelson, speaker of Xhosa, 88Manner, Maxim of, 401, 405Manner of articulation, 75, 76, 111, 590acquisition by children, 495a¤ricate, 79, 91, 579click, 87–88, 120fricative, 77–79, 87, 91, 586glide, 80–81, 586liquid, 80, 87, 590nasal, 79–80, 87, 93, 591stop, 76–77, 87, 597Maratsos, M. P., 468, 504Marchand, H., 63Marchman, V., 469Marconi, D., 266Marcus, G., 565Marginal languages. See Pidgin languagesMargolis, E., 468–469Markee, N., 412Marmaridou, S., 412Marslen-Wilson, W., 430, 468Martin, S., 345Matthews, P. H., 63Maturational stages. See Critical periodMaximal Onset Principle, 128–129Maxims, conversational, 400–401, 403, 405,

583Mayan writing system, 576Meaning, 225, 226, 590as concepts, 231–232, 233, 441–451, 468–469

as an entity, 229, 232as images, 231, 233linguistic, 226–227of meaning, 226operative, 375, 400, 592of phrases, 441saying, and implicating, 399–402, 413as sense, 232–233of sentences, 441

speaker, 226–227, 263, 399–400, 413, 597theories of, 229–234, 266varieties, 226–229, 228of words, 33–34, 266, 441, 449–451words without, 18, 234Meaning change, 30–34, 302broadening, 32–33change in part of speech, 31mechanisms, 33–34metaphorical extension, 31–32, 337–338,590narrowing, 33, 52, 337reversal, 33semantic drift, 33, 47, 51–52, 596in semantic fields, 337–338Meaning inclusion, 236, 237Meaning properties, 243of morphemes, 234of phrases, 235–236, 263of sentences, 239–240of words, 234–236, 263Meaning relations, 243between phrases, 263between sentences, 239between words, 236–238, 263Medin, D., 444, 448, 449, 468MEGs, 559Memory limitations. See Performance,limitations

Menn, L., 496Mental images. See Images, meaning asMentalist theories of meaning, 230–232,233Concept Theory, 231–232Image Theory, 231, 263Mental lexicon. See LexiconMervis, C., 444, 447Mesmer, Franz Anton, source ofmesmerize, 29

Mesolects, 299Message Model of communication, 365–371, 372, 376, 377, 387–388, 412, 505–506, 590

Metaphor, 31–32, 227, 380, 382, 412, 453–455, 469interference e¤ect, 454–455pragmatic and semantic, 455Metaphorical extension, 31–32, 337–338,590

Metathesis, 497Metonymy, 380Metrical feet. See FeetMey, J., 411, 412Meyer, A., 468Meyer, D., 434Meyers, J., 469M-heuristic, 405, 590

616 Index

Mice, 563Mid vowels, 82, 85, 590Middle English, 335, 590Migration and language change, 326, 327,332–333, 344–351, 353

Mill, J. S., 252Miller, A., 266Miller, G., 266, 313, 446Miller, J., 468Mills, S., 308Minimal Attachment, 437–438, 440Minimal Distance Principle, 502–504Minimal pairs, 96–97, 111, 590Minimalism, semantic, 260–261, 267, 596Minimalist Program, 210, 214Modals. See Verbs, modal auxiliaryModelscompetence, 6, 149connectionist, 430, 463–466, 469, 583Inferential Model of communication, 371–388, 412, 588language acquisition, 7Message Model of communication, 365–371, 372, 376, 377, 387–388, 412, 505–506, 590performance, 6–7, 419, 420search model of word recognition, 434,435Three-Stage Model of comprehension,451–452, 454

Modifying phrases, 36, 172–173, 244–245clauses, 184–186, 190–191Modules and modularity, 429–430, 438–440, 468, 591

Mohr, J., 547Molding in sign language acquisition, 514Molony, C., 314Mondegreens, 432Mongolian, 344Montague, W., 445Montgomery, G., 552, 554, 565Moods, 246–250, 264, 266, 591. See alsoCommunicative function; Force;Illocutionary actsminor, 246–247, 264verbal, 246Moran, R., 412Morgan, J., 412Moro, A., 548, 565Morphemes, 3, 18–19, 591a‰xes (see A‰xes)base, 19, 44, 46–47, 50–51, 581bound, 20–21, 44, 50–51, 548, 581classification, 26contracted forms, 21, 159, 283, 292English, classification, 20free, 20, 586

grammatical, 25 (see also A‰xes; Closed-class words)meaning properties, 234pronunciation, 91Morphological change, 341Morphology, 3, 14, 17, 63, 91, 292, 591acquisition by children, 497–500alternations, 19, 579compositionality in, 19, 35, 37, 46–47, 50,51–52derivational (see Derivational morphology)exceptions, 48–51false analysis, 49–50inflectional (see Inflectional morphology)journals, 64marking of grammatical relations, 23,168–169, 331productivity of processes, 48–49, 50, 62,594

Morphophonemic transcription, 577, 591Morris, C., 363Morris, R., 469Mother nodes, 196Motor aphasia. See Broca’s aphasiaMotor speech area. See Broca’s areaMovement, syntactic, 188–191M-phenomena, 591MRI (Functional magnetic resonanceimaging), 553–555, 558–559, 563, 565,586

Muller-Lyer illusion, 429Multiword stages, 483, 488–494Murphy, G., 469Musical skills, 544–545Musolino, J., 455–456Mutual intelligibility, 276–278, 591

N125 response, 556, 558N400 response, 555–556, 557Nakayama, M., 501Names. See Proper namesNaming tasks, 433, 591Napoli, D. J., 210, 221Naro, A., 299Narrowing, 33, 52, 337[nasal], 114, 117, 591Nasal cavity, 73Nasals, 76, 79–80, 87, 93, 591distinctive feature composition, 114, 116,117

Nathan, G., 146Native American languagesEnglish borrowings from, indirect, 30families, 345infixes, 21lateral a¤ricates, 118–119parts of speech, 22

617 Index

Native speakers, 4, 14–15, 149, 151, 294,296, 591

Natural classes of phonemes, 122, 123–124,129, 144–146, 322, 591

Natural kind terms, 256–257, 266, 267,591

Navajobasic word order, 218chance overlap with Chinese, 318lateral a¤ricate, 118–119morphological marking of subjects, 218numerals, compared to Spanish andSanskrit, 316

place of articulation, 119yi/bi alternation, 218Neale, S., 267Neanderthal man, 314, 344, 561–562Negation, 159–160, 423, 424, 443Negative sentences, 488–489, 492–493, 494Neisser, U., 468Neo-Gricean pragmatics, 404–407, 413,

591Neologisms, 25–44, 591abbreviation, 27–28acronym formation, 27, 59, 300, 579alphabetic abbreviation, 27–28, 59, 579backformation, 43–44, 581blending, 28, 302, 581borrowing (see Borrowings)broadening, 32–33calquing, 30, 581change in meaning, 30–34, 302change in part of speech, 31clipping, 28, 300, 581coining, 27, 300, 302, 582compounding (see Compounds)derivational processes, 34–44generification, 28–29, 586metaphorical extension, 31–32, 337–338,590

narrowing, 33, 52new words (neologisms in the strict sense),16, 27–30, 549, 591

proper names as basis for, 29reversal, 33semantic drift, 33, 47, 51–52, 596Nerlich, B., 412Nerve fibers, 534–535, 538, 539–540Nervous system, 534–538Network English. See Standard American

English (SAE)Networks, 463–464, 534, 536–537, 538, 563Neuroanatomy, 532–533, 534–538Neurolinguistics, 7, 361, 363, 427, 565, 591.

See also Biolinguisticsjournals, 565Neurons, 360, 463, 535Neuroscience, 462

Neville, H., 555, 557Newmeyer, F., 191, 208, 221, 363Newport, E., 508Newson, M., 221New words. See NeologismsNew York City Englishpronunciation of /¤/, 278–281pronunciation of final g, 80Nicaraguan sign language, creolization and,300

Niger-Congo language family, 344Nim Chimpsky, chimpanzee, subject ofASL acquisition study, 515–516

Nodes, 173, 196, 591branching, 206–208daughter, 196, 215mother, 196sister, 196, 199, 215Nogales, P., 416Noise, 77, 78–79, 117Nominal Description Theory of propernames, 253–254, 265

Nominative case pronouns, 169Noncommunicative acts. See Communica-tive and noncommunicative acts; Com-municative Presumption

Nonhuman primate communication sys-tems, 313, 510

Non-Indo-European languages, 344Nonliteral Strategy, 382, 383, 385Nonliterality. See Literal and nonliteralutterances

Nonsense words, 498. See also Possiblewords

Nonstandard language, 273, 274, 281, 591Norris, D., 439Nostraticprotolanguage, 345superfamily, 353Noun phrases, 171, 175, 176–178, 195, 206,254in anaphoric relations, 257–260Nouns, 21, 22–23, 171, 197abstract, 44agentive, 38meaning, 231proper (see Proper names)Noveck, I., 469Novel words. See NeologismsNP. See Noun phrasesNucleus, 127, 592Null elements, 211–214Number agreement, 168Number of languages, 343Number of phonemes in di¤erent languages,87

Number of sentences in a language, 150–151 (see also Scope)

618 Index

Number of speakers of di¤erent languages,343, 344

Number of words in a language, 13 (seealso Scope)

Ober, J., 573, 574Objective case pronouns, 169Objects, 40, 204, 205, 331semantic characterizations, 167structural definition, 179Obscenity, 303–304Obstruction of airflow. See Airflow;Constriction

Obstruents, 116, 592Occipital lobe, 533, 553Oceanic languages, 348, 349, 350Ochs, E., 506Odden, D., 146O¤glides, 86, 118Ojemann, G. A., 508, 540Old English, 335, 592borrowings from Latin, 317, 318dialects, 333inflectional morphology, 333–334and Modern English, changes between, 33,334, 335–342

Olmsted, D., 495One-way intelligibility, 276–277One-word stage, 483, 487–488Online tasks, 455Onomatopoeic words, 17–18, 312Onset, 127, 128, 574, 592Open-class words, 24–25, 426, 487, 592Open-endedness. See ScopeOpenings of talk-exchanges, 390, 412Operative meaning, 375, 400, 592Optimality Theory, 143, 146, 592Oral cavity, 72, 79, 80Oral nonverbal apraxia, 543Oral pharynx. See PharynxOrderof derivational and inflectional a‰xes, 46,47, 62–63of words (see Word order)Orders, 240Origin of language, 312–314, 326Orthographic abbreviations, 28, 592Orthography, 73, 77, 78, 79, 80, 83, 236,592Cape York Creole, 298for compound words, 36inconsistency, 73–74, 339Japanese, 560Navajo, 119spaces, 14Ortony, A., 412, 453–454, 469Osherson, D., 448, 449Osterhout, L., 558, 565

Output structures, 188–189Overextension, 487, 525, 592Overgeneralization, 497–498, 525Overlapin articulation (see Coarticulation)between languages, in sound and meaning(see Chance overlap)in meaning (see Semantic fields)Overstatement, 379. See also ExaggerationOwens, R. E., 495

Palatalized speech sounds, 111–112Palatal speech sounds, 113, 119, 125, 592Palate, 73, 77, 78, 592Pallie, W., 534, 564Papafragou, A., 455–456Papago. See Tohono O’odhamPapuan languages, 350, 351Paradigms, 48Parallel processing, 453, 465Parameters, 210, 483, 519, 592Head Parameter, 210–211, 522–523Paraphasias, 548, 562Paraphrase. See SynonymyParent languages, 323Parietal lobe, 533Parsing, 427, 430, 436–438, 559, 598Particle Movement, 183, 186, 187, 220, 341interaction with Extraposition, 191–194,193transformation, 188, 189, 199Particles, 23, 247–248, 592concord, 297–299verb þ particle construction, 183, 188, 192(see also Particle Movement)

Particularized conversational implicatures,402

Parts of speech, 21–24, 292, 426, 592. Seealso Functional categories; Lexicalcategoriesadjectives, 22, 231adverbs, 22a‰xation and, 39–42, 46articles, 23–24, 171, 197, 297, 423, 424,580compound words and, 35, 54derivational a‰xes and, 39–42inflectional a‰xes and, 46nouns, 21, 22–23, 171, 197particles, 23, 297–299, 592prepositions, 22, 24, 171, 297in syntactic structure, 156, 166, 170, 171universality or language-particularity, 22–24verbs, 21–22, 171, 197, 231, 599Passingham, R., 563, 565Passive, 204Past tense su‰x -ed, 145–146, 497

619 Index

Patterson, F., 517PDP Research Group, 462Pedersen, H., 570, 572, 575Penfield, W., 533–534Perception, speech, 107, 427, 430–432, 468Perceptual systems. See Input systemsPerformance, 6, 151, 593limitations, 6, 165, 435, 437models, 6–7, 419, 420Performatives, 247, 363, 393–395, 397, 412,

593Performative utterances, 393, 593Peripheral nervous system, 534–535Perlmutter, D., 63, 221Perlocutionary acts, 370–371, 396–398,

399, 593Perlocutionary intent, 421Perry, J., 267Perseveration, 423Perseverative assimilation, 496, 593Persian, 315Person agreement, 168Peter, G., 267, 413Peters, J., 412Peters, S., 266Petersen, S., 553PET (positron emission tomography) scans,

551–553, 563, 565, 594Pharynx, 73, 81Philippine languagesinfixes, 20–21word order, 295Philosophy of language, 363Phonation. See VoicingPhonemes, 73, 97, 593acquisition by children, 495American English, 75–87, 114–116distinctive features and, 111, 113, 115,118–119

natural classes, 122, 123–124, 129, 144–146, 322, 591

number of, in di¤erent languages, 87Old English, 340restoration e¤ect, 431, 593Phonemic transcription, 73–88, 92, 95–99,

577, 593Phones, 95, 97, 593Phonetic features, 3, 91, 110–111, 586Phonetics, 3, 14, 68, 107, 593acoustic, 68, 107, 579acquisition by children, 494–497articulatory, 68, 107, 580journals, 107Phonetic symbols. See also International

Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)ash, 83eng, 79

schwa, 84, 138, 596script-a, 83wedge, 83, 138Phonetic transcription, 92, 95–99, 106, 593Phonetic variation, 84, 92, 95–99in Amharic, 124–125in English, 92–95, 144–145, 328in Luganda, 145in Tohono O’odham, 145Phonological change, 138–139, 338–340defooting of syllables, 138–140, 139, 584regularity, 320, 322, 323rule addition, 320, 322and spelling di‰culties, 139–140spread, 328–331Phonological correspondences betweenlanguages. See Correspondences

Phonological rules, 90, 121, 130, 320, 322Phonology, 3, 14, 68, 109–110, 292, 593acquisition by children, 494–497discrete combinatorial nature, 73journals, 146as part of grammar, 91Phonotactics, 103–104, 129, 593Phrasal categories, 171, 208, 593. See alsoAdjective phrases; Adverb phrases; Nounphrases; Prepositional phrases; Verbphrasesendocentricity, 209expansion, 195head, 181, 197, 208–211Phrasal concepts, 441, 447Phrase markers. See Tree diagramsPhrases, 3, 149heads, 181, 197, 208–211, 587meaning properties, 235–236, 263, 441meaning relations, 263modifying (see Modifying phrases)Phrase structure. See Syntactic structurePhrase structure grammars, 195–198, 593Phrase structure rules, 195–198, 201, 210,215, 556, 594

Physiology of speech, 69–73Pickett, J., 432Pictographic writing systems, 569, 571, 594Pidgin languages, 294–296, 308, 594creolization, 296, 297, 299–300Pieczuro, A., 543Pima. See Akimel O’odhamPinker, S., 13, 14, 63, 121, 221, 300, 426–427, 466, 482, 504, 525

Pinson, E., 107Pisoni, D., 468Pitch, 71, 140, 594. See also TonePlace of articulation, 75, 76, 111, 594acquisition by children, 495alveolar, 77, 87, 91, 111, 117, 119–120, 579

620 Index

alveopalatal, 78, 91, 94, 117, 118, 579bilabial, 75, 76, 87, 117, 581in clicks, 87, 120of d and t, 111–112dental, 77, 87, 111, 117, 119–120, 584glottal, 72, 78, 586interdental, 77–78, 117, 588labial (see bilabial)labiodental, 77, 589multiple, 87, 120palatal, 113, 119, 125, 592prevelar, 112–113velar, 77, 87, 112–113, 119, 599Planning. See Speech planningPlanum temporale, 534Platts, M., 267Plunkett, K., 469Plural Rule (of English), 88–91, 110–111,121–123, 327–328

Plural su‰x -s, 14, 18–19, 21, 44, 68acquisition by children, 498phonological form(s), 121pronunciation, 44, 68, 71, 88, 110Plus sign (þ), 199Poeppel, D., 565Point of articulation. See Place ofarticulation

Polish, onomatopoeic words, 17Politeness, 453, 469Pollack, I., 432Polysemy, 235, 266, 594. See also AmbiguityPortner, P., 266Portuguese. See also Brazilian Portugueseand Spanish, intelligibility, 276–277Positional level of speech production, 424–426, 425

Positional variation, 94, 95–99, 124–125,594. See also Allophones

Positron emission tomography (PET), 551–553, 563, 565, 594

Possible words, 434Postal, P., 207, 221Postpalatal speech sounds. See Place ofarticulation, prevelar

Potts, C., 413PP. See Prepositional phrasesPragmatic intentions, 364, 420, 421, 594Pragmatic interpretation, 427, 451–457Pragmatic presuppositions, 258, 594Pragmatics, 15, 254, 292, 363–364, 411–412, 594acquisition by children, 505–507experimental, 451–457, 469, 585journals and reference works, 413neo-Gricean, 404–407, 413, 591relation to semantics, 260–261, 407–408,413

Precentral gyrus, 533, 537Predication, 398, 488Prefixes. See A‰xesPreglottalized speech sounds, 93, 96, 594Premack, A., 519Premack, D., 519Prepositional phrases, 172, 176–178, 195Prepositions, 22, 24, 171, 297Prescriptive grammar, 9, 228–229Prestige language, 278–279, 280–281. Seealso Standard and nonstandard language

Presumptions, 373, 374, 594Presumption of Disjoint Reference, 258–259Presumption of Literalness, 373, 378Presumption of Quality, 373Presumption of Quantity, 373Presumption of Relevance, 373Presumption of Sincerity, 373, 381Presumption of Truthfulness, 373, 381,395

Presuppositionspragmatic, 258, 594semantic, 242, 596Prevelar speech sounds, 112–113Preyer, G., 267, 413Primary auditory cortex. See Superiortemporal gyrus

Primary compounds, 52Primary motor cortex. See Precentralgyrus

Primate communication systems, 313,510

Priming, 434, 459, 594semantic, 459, 596syntactic, 421–422, 598Primitiveness in languages, 314, 326Prince, A., 121, 466, 525Principles, 483, 519, 523binding, 520–522Cooperative Principle, 400–401for establishing genetic relationships, 320,322–323First Sister Principle, 54grammatical, 3, 151, 210 (see also Rules)Maximal Onset Principle, 128–129Minimal Attachment, 437–438, 440Minimal Distance Principle, 502–504Principle A, 521Principle B, 521Principle C, 521Principle of Referential Success, 439–440turn taking, 391–392Printed-a (symbol), 86Probabilistic models of concepts, 446–447Processing. See Language processingProduction. See Speech production

621 Index

Productivity of morphological processes,48–49, 50, 62, 594

Profanity, 303–304Programs, 360, 428, 462, 465, 594Progress, language change as, 331Progressive assimilation. See Perseverative

assimilationProminence. See StressPronouns, 168anaphora and, 206–208, 257, 484, 520,521

case, 169interrogative (see Wh-words)in tags, 167–168, 217Proper names, 29, 229, 250, 265, 266syntax, 265, 266theories of, 252–254, 256Propositional acts, 398–399, 413, 595Propositional content, 248–250, 398. See

also ContentPropositions, 232–233Prosody, 146, 432, 558–560. See also Feet;

Pitch; Stress; Syllables; ToneProtoforms, 323, 324, 336, 352, 353, 595Proto-Indo-European. See Indo-European

protolanguageProtolanguages, 323, 345, 595Prototypes, 231, 468, 595Prototype theories of concepts, 447–448,

469, 595Proverbs, 386–387PS rules. See Phrase structure rulesPsycholinguistics, 7, 266, 419, 421, 468,

595journals and reference works, 469Psychological reality, 459–462Psychologycognitive (see Cognitive psychology)of language (see Psycholinguistics)Pullum, G. K., 107‘‘Pure’’ vowels, 87Pustejovsky, J., 245Putnam, H., 256, 267Pygmy chimpanzees, 517–518, 525Pyles, T., 353Pylkkanen, L., 266Pylyshyn, Z., 465–466Pynte, J., 469

Q, 211Q-heuristic, 405, 455, 595Q-phenomena, 405–406, 455–456, 595. See

also Scalar implicaturesQualityMaxim of, 401Presumption of, 373Quantifiers, 24, 185

QuantityMaxim of, 401, 405Presumption of, 373Questionsabbreviated, 288–291, 307–308acquisition by children, 488, 489–494,492–493, 501asking of, 233, 240, 248, 249, 398, 413meaning of, 249tag (see Tags)wh-, 201–204, 247, 307–308, 482, 492–493, 494, 556–558, 599yes/no, 154–159, 161–167, 175, 211–214,232–233, 247–248, 492–493, 494, 599

Question words. See Wh-wordsQuileute, and neighboring languages,shared changes, 330–331

Radford, A., 183, 214, 221Raichle, M., 554–555, 565Raising, 205Ramat, A., 353Ramat, P., 353Raphael, L., 107Rapid speech. See Language styles,informal

Rask, E., 322Ratner, N. B., 506Rayner, K., 438r-colored vowels, 82, 99–100Reanalysis, 19Recanati, F., 403, 404, 411, 412, 413Recency e¤ect in lexical access, 433–434,595

Receptive aphasia. See Wernicke’s aphasiaRecognitionof communicative intention (see Commu-nicative intentions)of letter shapes, 463–464of operative meaning, 375of (speaker) reference, 369, 375–376speech (see Speech perception)of utterance act, 375word (see Word recognition)Reconstructed languages. SeeProtolanguages

Reconstruction, 323–324, 348–351, 595.See also Comparative method

Recoverability of information, 287, 290–291, 308

Recursion, 198, 500, 595Reddy, M., 367–368Reduced vowels, 82, 84, 100, 102, 131–132,138, 595in word-initial syllables, 137–138Reduplication, 23, 595Reed, D., 577

622 Index

Reesink, G., 348, 349–351Reetz, H., 107Reference, 240, 250–260, 267, 413, 597. Seealso Anaphora and coreferencecontext-dependence, 250–252, 439–440disjoint, 257, 258–259indirect, 398–399linguistic (see Denotation)nonliteral, 398–399of natural kind terms, 257recognition of, 369semantic (see Denotation)theories of, 255–256, 265and truth conditions, 260–261underdetermination, 369, 375–376versus denotation, 250, 258Reference workspragmatics, 413psycholinguistics, 469Referential intent, 421Referential Theory of proper names, 252–253

Referential use of definite descriptions, 255,265, 266–267, 595

Referring expressions, 232, 260, 261, 262,263, 266, 520, 521. See also Definitedescriptions; Proper names

Regional dialects, 273–274, 278Regressive assimilation. See Anticipatoryassimilation

Regularity. See Rule-governedness oflanguage

Reich, P., 426Reicher, G., 434Reilly, J., 506Reimer, M., 267Reinhart, T., 63, 208, 221, 267, 525Related languages, 315–316, 319, 324Relationsanaphoric, 257–259grammatical (see Grammatical relations)meaning (see Meaning relations)structural, 194, 207truth (see Truth relations)Release, 92–93delayed, 117, 584RelevanceMaxim of, 401, 403Presumption of, 373‘‘Remarks on Nominalization,’’ 208Renfrew, C., 326, 353Representationsof linguistic competence, 15–16 (see alsoCompetence, models)of linguistic structure, 3of speech sounds (see Phonemictranscription; Phonetic transcription)

of speech, acoustic, 67, 68, 84–86, 85of speech, alphabetic, 67–68of syntactic structure, 170–175Requests, 233, 240, 453Retroflexed speech sounds, 81, 595Reuland, E., 63, 525Reversals, 33R-expressions. See Referring expressionsRich interpretation, 488Right ear advantage, 542–543Rigsby, B., 297, 298, 308Rips, L., 446–447, 469r-less dialect of New York City, 278–281Roberts, L., 533–534Roca, I., 146Roelofs, A., 468Roeper, T., 53, 54, 63Rohrman, N., 433Rolls, E., 469Roman alphabet, 278Romance languages, lack of aspiratedallophones, 98

Romanian, high consonants (velar andpalatal), 113

Rosch, E., 444, 445, 446, 447Rosetta stone, 571Ross, J. R., 204, 363, 525Ross, N. E., 25[round], 117, 595Rounded speech sounds, 81, 83, 119, 596Ruhl, C., 266Rule-governedness of language, 8–9, 394,525and language change, 320, 322, 323, 342–343

Rules, 3, 8–9. See also Principlesdescriptive, 9phonological, 90, 121, 130, 320, 322prescriptive (see Prescriptive grammar)syntactic (see Phrase structure rules;Transformational rules)

Rumbaugh, D., 519Rumelhart, D., 462, 463–465, 466, 525Russell, B., 254–255, 266–267, 523Theory of Descriptions (see DescriptionTheory of reference)

Russian, word order, 152Rymer, R., 508

-s (English plural su‰x). See Plural su‰x -sS. See SentencesSachs, J., 487Sacks, H., 412Sacred language, 304Sadock, J., 266, 412S-adverbs. See Adverbs, sententialSAE. See Standard American English (SAE)

623 Index

Saeed, J., 266Salish, and neighboring languages, shared

changes, 330–331Sanskrit, 315, 316, 319, 320–321, 323cognates of English, 353English borrowings from, 353word order, 152written, 574Santi, A., 539, 548, 564–565Sapir, E., 20, 63Sarcasm, 227, 379, 381–382, 383Sassetti, F., 315Satisfaction conditions, 232–233, 248, 596answerhood conditions, 233, 249compliance conditions, 233, 249truth conditions, 232, 248–249, 598Saturation. See CompletionSavage-Rumbaugh, S., 517–518, 525Scalar implicatures, 405–406, 455–456Scales, 238of entailment, 405Scandinavian languages. See also Danish;

SwedishEnglish borrowings from, 334–335Grimm’s Law in, 320Scarborough, D. L., 433–434Scarborough, H. S., 433–434Schatz, C., 431Scheglo¤, E., 412Schenkein, J., 412Schie¤elin, B., 506Schi¤er, S., 266Schi¤rin, D., 412Schunk, D., 453Schvaneveldt, R., 434Schwa (symbol), 84, 138, 596Schwanenflugel, P., 468Schwartz, S., 267Scope. See also Finitenessof language, 9, 16, 150–151, 165, 175,243–244

of language, recursion and, 500of vocabulary/lexicon, 13, 25of word meanings (see Meaning change,broadening; Meaning change, narrowing)

of the world around us, 13Scots Gaelic, 334chance overlap with Algonquian, 317,318–319

Scotti, G., 543Scovel, T., 468Script-a (symbol), 83Sea Island Creole, example of creole

language, 297Search model of word recognition, 434, 435Searle, J., 363, 395–396, 398, 412, 413

Segal, G., 266Segerdahl, P., 525Seidenberg, M., 436, 439Sejnowski, T., 462Selkirk, E. O., 59, 63, 64Semantic coercion, 245, 266Semantic decomposition, 442–444, 596Semantic drift, 33, 47, 51–52, 596Semantic fields, 237, 266, 596Semantic interpretation, 427, 430, 440–451,559

Semantic minimalism, 260–261, 267, 596Semantic presuppositions, 242, 596Semantic properties. See Meaningproperties; Truth properties

Semantic reference. See DenotationSemantic relations. See Meaning relations;Truth relations

Semantics, 4, 15, 266–267, 596journals, 267as part of grammar, 225–226, 262, 266relation to pragmatics, 260–261, 407–408,413software, 266Semantic theories, 229–234, 266Semitic language family, 345Semitic writing systems, 571, 574Semivowels. See GlidesSense, 232, 596Sense Theory of meaning, 232–233, 260,266

Sensory aphasia. See Wernicke’s aphasiaSentence classification tasks, 439–440Sentence frames. See Test framesSentence processing. See Speechcomprehension

Sentences, 149–150, 173, 195, 233cleft, 176–177, 220, 581as complete thoughts, 238, 441declarative, 154–155, 232, 233, 239–240,246, 247, 249, 291general, 254imperative, 233, 240, 246, 247, 249, 488interrogative (see Questions)meaning properties, 239–240, 441meaning relations, 239negative, 488–489, 492–493, 494number of, in a language, 150–151 (seealso Scope, of language)performative, 247, 363, 393–395, 397, 412,593truth properties, 239–241, 243truth relations, 241–242, 243Sentence structure. See Syntactic structureSentence types, 240, 488, 516, 524Sentential mood. See also Moods

624 Index

Sequential constraints. See PhonotacticsSequoia, inventor of Cherokee syllabary,571–574

Serbo-Croatian, dialects, 278Serial processing, 453, 465Sets and set theories, 447–449Shakespeare, Williamauxiliary and main verbs in, 342current intelligibility, 311yes/no questions in, 157Shanker, S., 518Shapiro, A., 469Shared beliefs, 371, 372, 373, 596contextual, 365, 374, 421Shared innovations, 324Shaw, George Bernard, on English spelling,104

Shevoroshkin, V., 345, 353Shift errors, 423, 426Shinjo, M., 469Shoben, E., 446–447Sholl, D., 536–537Short vowels. See Lax (short) vowelsSiegel, M., 53, 54, 63Sign languages, 7, 300, 313, 508. See alsoAmerican Sign Language (ASL)

Simple words, 18, 21, 596Sincerity, Presumption of, 373, 381Singing, 72Singular terms, 255, 596Sino-Tibetan language family, 344Sister nodes, 196, 199, 215Skinner, B. F., 482Slang, 27, 32–33, 34, 301–303, 596Slavic language family, 325Slips of the ear, 426–427Slips of the hand, 423Slips of the tongue. See Speech errorsSloat, C., 266, 575Slobin, D., 497, 525Sloppy identity, 484, 525Smiley, P., 525Smith, E., 444, 446–447, 448, 449, 468Smith, N. V., 495, 496, 497Smitherman, G., 284Smolensky, P., 463, 466Snohomish, and neighboring languages,shared changes, 330–331

Snow, C. E., 506Soames, S., 63, 221Social contexts. See Language stylesSocial dialects, 274, 282Social prestige and prestige language, 278–279, 280–281

Social stratification, 279Sociolinguistic variation, 278–281, 308

Soft palate. See VelumSokolowski, P., 29[sonorant], 116, 596Sonorant sounds, 116, 596Sound change. See Phonological changeSound correspondences between languages.See Correspondences

Sound laws. See Phonological change, ruleaddition

Sound patterning. See PhonologySound Pattern of English, The (SPE ), 113–116

Sound structure. See PhonologySound waves, 67, 68Spanish, 316, 319borrowings from Aztec, 29–30, 336and (Brazilian) Portuguese, intelligibility,276–277and English, code switching, 305–306English borrowings from, 29–30, 336lack of aspirated allophones, 98place of articulation of t and d, 111pronunciation of /l/, 94–95reanalysis in, 19vowels, 87SPE. See Sound Pattern of English, TheSpeaker meaning, 226–227, 263, 399–400,413, 597

Speaker reference. See ReferenceSpecies-specificity. See Uniqueness, oflanguage to humans

Specificity Condition, 556–558Specifiers, 211, 597Spectrograms, 84–86, 85, 137Speechcontinuousness, 14, 67, 69, 73, 109, 431measurement with instruments, 67, 68physiology, 69–73Speech act idioms, 248Speech acts, 248, 394, 395–399, 396, 412–413, 597communicative, 248illocutionary, 396–397, 398, 399, 588institutional, 370of predication, 398, 413of reference, 398–399, 413perlocutionary, 370–371, 396–398, 399,593propositional, 398–399, 413, 595Speech comprehension, 420, 427–458, 428,468deficits, 532, 548–549models, 430, 597speed, 430, 433, 434Speech deficits. See DeficitsSpeech errors, 422–426, 468

625 Index

Speech perception, 107, 427, 430–432, 468Speech planning, 419–426Speech production, 419–427, 420, 468deficits, 532, 547–548, 550–551model, 424–426, 425, 597Speech recognition. See Speech perceptionSpeech sounds, 68, 110. See also Phonemes;

Phonesclasses, 111, 115complex, 79English (see Consonants, of AmericanEnglish; Vowels, of American English)

Spelling, 94, 107. See also Orthographydi‰culties, and changes in pronunciation,139–140

in speech comprehension, 439Spell-out rules, 211, 214Sperber, D., 403, 412, 413, 469Sperry, R., 538–539Spinal cord, 536Spinnler, H., 543Split-brain research, 538–539Spoonerisms, 422Sportscaster language, 307Spreading of features[voice], 122tone, 141, 142SPSs. See Sustained positive shifts (SPSs)Stability, acoustic, 119–120Stages of linguistic development, 483, 486–

494, 502, 503. See also Critical periodbabbling, 486–487multiword, 483, 488–494one-word, 483, 487–488Standard American English (SAE), 281,

282, 283, 284Standard and nonstandard language, 273,

274, 281, 591Standard English, 274acrolect of Guyanese Creole, 299Standardizationof forms of indirect communication, 384of forms of nonliteral communication, 380Stanley, J., 413Steedman, M. S., 439–440Stems. See Morphemes, baseStevens, K., 119Stix, G., 327, 347, 348Stops, 75–77, 76, 79, 87, 597Stowell, T., 209Strategiesinferential (see Inferential strategies)of syntactic parsing, 436–438Stratification, social, 279Stress, 130, 131, 146, 423, 424in compound words, 36–37derivational a‰xes and, 57

Strict identity, 484[strident], 117, 122, 597Structural change, 199, 598Structural description, 199, 598Structural linguistics, 4Structurelevels, 6, 359, 419of conversations, 388–393, 412of lexicon, 24, 197, 236, 238, 433, 434, 435of phrases and sentences (see Syntacticstructure)of words (see Morphology)proper representation, 3sound (see Phonology)Stuart, D., 576Stubbs, M., 412Sturge-Weber-Dimitri syndrome, 546Styles. See Language stylesStylistic variants, 390Subjacency Condition, 556–558Subjective case pronouns, 169Subjects, 41, 165–166, 204, 205deletion, 289, 308morphological marking, 168, 218, 331semantic characterizations, 167structural definition, 179structural properties, 167–169, 217tests, 167–168, 218Subjunctive, 246Substitutions, 423, 426, 495, 549Successful communication, 229, 235, 365,369, 375, 376, 397, 400, 404, 427, 442,505in Inferential Model, 372, 373, 375, 376,377, 378in Message Model, 366, 367, 371role of contextual appropriateness in, 370Su‰xes. See A‰xesSulci, 537central sulcus, 533, 537lateral sulcus, 533, 537, 549Summerfield, Q., 469Superfamilies of languages, 345, 346Superior temporal gyrus, 533, 537, 553, 559Superlatives, 22, 45Supplemental motor area, 534, 535Surface structures, 188–189, 192Sustained positive shifts (SPSs), 556Swahili, 344reanalysis in, 19Swear words, 303–304Swedishand Danish, intelligibility, 277and neighboring languages, sharedchanges, 330

Swinney, D., 436Swisher, L., 543

626 Index

[syllabic], 116, 598Syllabic consonants, 93, 118, 127Syllabic writing systems, 562, 571–574, 576Syllabificationof vowel–r sequences, 99–100, 142, 143word-internal, 127Syllables, 126–130, 146, 598in child language, 496Symbolic representation, 569, 598Synapses, 535Synchronic linguistics, 311, 598Synecdoche, 380Synonymy, 230–231, 236, 239Syntactic change, 341–343Syntactic parsing, 427, 430, 436–438, 559,598

Syntactic priming, 421–422, 598Syntactic structure, 149, 151–154, 194abstractness, 154generation, 195–198, 586grouping (see Constituent structure)represented in box diagrams, 174–175, 174represented in tree diagrams, 170–174surface, 188–189, 192unstructured-string hypothesis, 152–153Syntactic Structures, 191, 194Syntax, 3, 14–15, 91, 149, 151–152, 221,292, 598acquisition by children, 500–504journals, 221rules (see Phrase structure rules;Transformational rules)structure (see Syntactic structure)Synthetic compounds, 52–54, 53Szabo, Z., 413

t, place of articulation, 111–112T. See TenseTaboo language, 303–304, 598Tag-Controlled Deletion, 286–288Tag questions. See TagsTags, 160, 217, 286, 598as test for identifying the subject, 167–168declarativemain and auxiliary verbs and, 160–161Talk-exchanges, 371, 382, 389–393Tamil, 344Tanenhaus, M., 436, 439, 468Tannen, D., 308Taps. See Flaps and flappingTaylor, K., 266Taylor, S., 575Taylor, T. J., 412, 518Teaching. See Instruction; LearningTechnical vocabulary, 300Teenspeak, like-insertion in, 293

Teeth, 77Telegraphic speech, 24–25, 547–548Telugu, 344Templin, M., 495Temporal lobe, 532, 533, 534, 548Temporoparietal regions, 550, 563–564[tense], 118, 598Tense, 158, 211–214, 598Tense (long) vowels, 82, 84–87, 85, 99–101,118, 590, 598and the Great Vowel Shift, 338–339, 587in non-leftmost branch of foot, 133Terrace, H. S., 515, 519Terrill, A., 348, 349–351Test frames, 107, 176, 177, 498Testsfor constituent structure, 175–181for identifying the subject, 167–168Teuber, H., 543Text messaging, 25, 571Thai, and English, interlingual wordtaboos, 304

Thalamus, 536, 539–540, 540Theory of Descriptions, Russell’s, 253–256Thomas, J., 412Thorne, A., 345, 353Thorpe, W. H., 516Thought, language of, 465–466Three-Stage Model of comprehension, 451–452, 454

Tibetan, 344Tohono O’odhamand Akimel O’odham, dialects orlanguages, 277phonetic variation, 145pluralization by reduplication, 23sound–meaning arbitrariness, 17word order, 219–220Tok Pisin, 296Tone, 140–142, 146Tongue, 73advanced, in tense vowels, 86blade, 75, 78, 80, 81, 112, 117, 581body, 77, 81, 84, 118retroflexion, 81, 595root, 81tip (apex), 75, 77, 80, 81, 580Toribio, A. J., 308Tourangeau, R., 469Townsend, D., 436Trachea, 70, 71, 73Transcription, 598morphophonemic, 577, 591phonemic, 73–88, 92, 95–99, 577, 593phonetic, 92, 95–99, 106, 593Transformational grammar, 188, 191, 194–201, 598

627 Index

Transformational rules, 188, 198–201, 210,598

interaction, 191–194, 193Transformations. See Transformational

rulesTransitivity. See VerbsTravis, C., 411Traxler, M., 469Tree diagrams, 170–174, 180–181, 215, 598branches, 171generation, 195–198nodes, 173, 196Trueswell, J., 468Truth, 240–241, 598analytic (see linguistic)empirical, 241linguistic, 240, 241Truth-conditional semantics. See Sense

Theory of meaningTruth conditions, 232, 248–249, 260–261,

598conditional, 260–261Truthfulness, Presumption of, 373, 381, 395Truth properties, 240–241, 243Truth relations, 241–242, 243Tsohatzidis, S., 413, 468Turbulence. See Airflow, in fricativesTurkish, 344Turner, K., 412, 469Turn taking, 391–392, 412Two-word stage, 488, 490–491, 515, 516Tyler, K., 430Typicality e¤ects in categorization, 444–

447, 448–449

UG. See Universal GrammarUllman, M. T., 525Umlaut. See i-MutationUnboundedness. See ScopeUnderdetermination, 369Underextension, 487, 525, 599Uniquenesscognitive, 534, 544of language to humans, 510, 519, 560–563Unitary architectures, 428, 468Units (linguistic), 3, 419of discourse, 388discreteness, 14, 73, 109distinctive features, 109, 111–118, 146feet, 130–131, 590morphemes, 18–19, 591phonemes, 73, 97, 109, 593phrases, 149sentences, 149–150in speech errors, 423–424syllables, 127, 130words, 13–18

Universal Grammar, 210, 483, 519, 599Universal properties of language. SeeLanguage universals

Unreleased stops. See ReleaseUnstressed vowels. See Reduced vowelsUriagereka, J., 221Uses of language, 359–360, 363, 364. Seealso Communication; Pragmatics

Use Theory of meaning, 233–234,266

Utterance acts, 376, 396, 599recognition of, 375Uvula, 73

Valdman, A., 308Vanderveken, D., 412, 413Vargha-Khadem, F., 563, 565Variationdialectal (see Dialectal variation)free, 96, 586 (see also Allophones)idiolectal, 227, 262language, 4, 16phonetic (see Phonetic variation)positional, 94, 95–99, 124–125, 594 (seealso Allophones)sociolinguistic, 278–281, 308Velar speech sounds, 77, 87, 112–113, 119,599

Velarized speech sounds, 81, 94, 120Velum, 73, 79, 80, 81, 114, 117, 599Verb agreement, 217–218, 299Verbal compounds. See Syntheticcompounds

Verb þ particle construction, 182–183, 188,192

Verb phrases, 173, 177–178, 195, 215Verbs, 21–22, 171, 197, 599auxiliary, 158, 163, 178, 197, 203control, 205–206do, 158, 159, 160main and auxiliary, 157–161, 162, 342main and auxiliary, in questions, 157–159,161, 203meaning, 231modal auxiliary, 158, 342paradigms, 48performative, 394, 395phrasal (see Verb þ particle construction)raising, 205speech act, 413transitive and intransitive, with -able, 39–41

Vergnaud, J.-R., 146Vernacular, 301. See also SlangVerschueren, J., 412, 413Vietnamese, 344Vignolo, L., 543

628 Index

Viki, chimpanzee, subject of Englishacquisition study, 512

Violations of rules, 282, 290, 378, 556–558Vocabulary. See Lexicon; WordsVocal cords, 71, 72, 73, 78, 93, 116, 599Vocal tract, 69, 70, 72–73, 73, 81, 82, 87,119–120, 599of Neanderthal man, 314Vocatives, 390Voice box. See Larynx[voiced], 116, 144, 423, 424, 599Voicing, 71–72, 599in allophones, 94, 106and the Plural Rule, 90–91, 110–111[sonorant] and, 116voiced speech sounds, 71, 76, 79, 599voiceless speech sounds, 71, 76, 599von Eckardt, B., 468von Neumann machines, 427–429Vowel Centering rule, 144–145, 328–329Vowels, 81of American English, 81–87, 82, 85, 116back, 82, 85, 581before /¤/, 99–101central, 82diphthongs, 85, 86, 87, 118, 144–145, 339,585distinctive feature composition, 116epenthetic, 122front, 82, 85, 586high, 82, 84, 85, 587lax (short), 82–84, 82, 85, 99–101, 118,589length (duration), 82, 84, 85, 133, 138, 144low, 82, 85mid, 82, 85, 590‘‘pure,’’ 87r-colored, 82, 99–100reduced (unstressed), 82, 84, 100, 102,131–132, 138, 595rounded, 83, 119tense (long), 82, 84–87, 85, 99–101, 118,338–339, 590, 598

Vowel Sequence Condition, 133VP. See Verb phrasesVP-adverbs, 200–201

Wada, J., 533, 534, 564Wall, R., 195, 266Ward, A., Jr., 540Ward, G., 413Warren, R. M., 431Warren, R. P., 431Washoe, chimpanzee, subject of ASLacquisition study, 511–517, 524, 525

Watts, R., 469Waveform, 67, 68

Wedge (symbol), 83, 138Well-formedness. See JudgmentsWellman, B., 495Welsh, 332echo answer system, 248English borrowings from, 335Wernicke, C., 532Wernicke’s aphasia, 532, 548–550Wernicke’s area, 532, 533, 534, 537, 550,560, 599

Wettstein, H., 412Whitaker, H. A., 546Wh-movement, 221. See also QuestionsWh-questions. See QuestionsWh-words, 201, 494Wierzbicka, A., 413Williams, E., 64Williams, J. M., 43, 44Williams, J., 456Wilson, A., 344–345, 353Wilson, D., 403, 412, 413Windpipe. See TracheaWitelson, S., 534, 564Wittgenstein, L., 233–234, 363Wolpo¤, M., 345, 353Word-Final Vowel Condition, 133Word formation. See Derivationalmorphology; Inflectional morphology;Neologisms

Word order, 23, 247, 548basic, 218–219in child language, 488, 490–491, 492–493,494, 501, 504deviant, 556freedom and constraints, 152, 219–220and grammatical relations, in English,168, 331parameters, 210–211, 522–523represented in tree diagrams, 170, 171, 210in statement of syntactic rules, 152, 155,164, 165, 166, 175, 206–207, 501, 504variation, in Hawaiian Pidgin English, 295Word recognition, 433, 434, 435, 464–465,559, 599

Words, 13–18. See also Lexiconcategories (see Parts of speech)closed-class, 24–25, 426, 487, 582complex, 18–21, 582 (see also A‰xes;Derivational morphology; Inflectionalmorphology)content (see open-class)function (see closed-class)kinds of information encoded in, 14–16linear order of (see Word order)meaningless, 18, 234meaning properties, 234–236, 263, 441meaning relations, 236–238, 263

629 Index

Words (cont.)new (see Neologisms)number of, 13onomatopoeic, 17–18, 312open-class, 24–25, 426, 487, 592as pairings of sound and meaning, 17–18simple, 18, 21, 596in syntactic structure, 155Word superiority e¤ect, 434, 465, 599Wright, C., 267Wright, S., 432Writing, 67, 109Writing systems, 569–577. See also

Orthography; Transcriptionalphabetic, 67, 109, 576–577Chinese, 277, 560, 569, 570Egyptian, 571, 573, 574Greek, 109, 576ideographic, 562, 569, 587Japanese, 560, 561, 562, 576logographic, 560, 569–571, 576, 590Mayan, 576morphophonemic, 577, 591Phoenician, 109, 576phonemic, 97, 577pictographic, 569, 571, 594Semitic, 571, 574, 576syllabic, 562, 571–574, 576Wug test, 498

X-bar theory, 209–210, 522–523, 599Xhosa, clicks, 88

Yamada, J. E., 313, 506–507Yes/no answer systems, 248Yes/no questions. See QuestionsYiddish English, 274Yoruba, 344Yule, G., 412

Zadeh, L., 448, 449Zepeda, O., 219Zero symbol (j), 199Zukow, P. G., 506Zurif, E. B., 548Zwicky, A., 266

630 Index