Linguistics hanoi university

LINGUISTICS

Staff: Assoc. Prof. Dr. Tung Thanh NguyenThe Department of EnglishHCMC University of Education

March 2013

PHONETICS AND PHONOLOGY

1. PHONETICS AND PHONOLOGY1.1 Segmental

PhonemesVowels

- Tongue height- Frontness or backness- Lip-rounding

Consonants- Place of articulation- Manner of articulation- Voice

Allophones1.2 Suprasegmental

- Syllable- Stress- Aspects of connected speech (rhythm, assimilation, elision, linking)- Intonation

Sound system in English

Sound system (44)

Consonants (24) Vowels (20)

Monophthongs (12)

Diphthongs (8)

p b t d k g

f v θ ð s z ʃ ʒ htʃ dʒ

m n ŋ

l

w r j

i: ɪ e æ ɜ: ə ʌ u: ʊ ɔ: ɒ ɑ:

ɪə eə ʊəeɪ aɪ ɔɪəʊ aʊ

.

ConsonantsChart of English consonant phonemes Place of articulation

Bilabial Labio-dental

Dental Alveolar Palato-alveolar (Post-alveolar)

Palatal Velar Glottal

Manner of articulation

Plosive p b t d k g

Fricative f v θ ð s z ʃ ʒ h

Affricate tʃ dʒ

Nasal m n ŋ Lateral l

Approximant w r j

(Roach, 1991, p. 62)

Fig. Bilabial articulation Fig. Alveolar articulation

Fig. Velar articulation

Plosives or stops (/p, b, t, d, k, g/): The air passage is completely closed (or stopped). The closure or stop is then suddenly released; the air escapes with an explosive sound.

Fricatives (/f, v, θ, ð, s, z, ʃ, ʒ, h/): The air passage is narrowed at some point to such degree that the air forcing its way past the obstruction produces audible friction.

Affricates: (/tʃ, dʒ/): A kind of plosive in which the release of the stop is immediately followed by the corresponding fricative. Affricates are represented by diagraphs (2 letters) in a phonetic transcription: the first indicates the stop, the second the fricative glide after stop.

Nasals (/m, n, ŋ/): The mouth is completely closed at some point, but the soft palate is lowered so that the air is free to flow out through the nose.

Lateral (/l/): The centre of the mouth passage is obstructed by the tongue, but the air is free to pass round both sides of the tongue. The soft palate is raised.

Semi-vowels or approximants: (/w, j, r/): They are phonetically like vowels but phonologically like consonants. From the phonetic point if view, the articulation of /j/ is practically the same as that of a front close vowel /i:/, but is very short. In the same way /w/ is closely similar to /u:/.

Fig. Sub-divisions of the tongue

Fig. Tongue position for i: and æ

Vowels

front central back

high i: ɪ

u: ʊ

mid e

ɜ: ə

ɔ:

low

æ

ʌ ɒ

ɑ: spread/unrounded rounded

1. English Front VowelsTongue position: It is only the front part of the tongue that is raised or lowered to produce the front vowels.Height of the tongue:

+ When the tongue is close to the palate and the air passage is narrow: /i:/ and /ɪ/+ When the tongue is very low and the air passage is very wide: /æ/

+ When the tongue is half between its high and low position: /e/Shape of the lips: spread.Length: /i:/ & /æ/ longer than /ɪ/ & /e/Muscle tension: /i:/ & /æ/: tense; /ɪ/ & /e/: relaxed

2. English Central VowelsTongue position: the middle part of the tongue is used.Height of the tongue: Mid position: /ɜ:/, /ə/ & /ʌ/ Shape of the lips: unrounded Length: /ɜ:/ long & /ə/ short Muscle tension: /ɜ:/: tense; /ə/ & /ʌ/: relaxed

3. English Back VowelsTongue position: the back part of the tongue is raised or lowered.Height of the tongue:

+ Lowest position: /ɒ/ & /ɑ: /

+ Highest position: /ʊ/ & /u:/

+ Mid position: /ɔ:/Shape of the lips: rounded for /ʊ/, /u:/, /ɔ:/Length: /u:/ & /ɔ:/ longer than /ʊ/ & /ɒ/Muscle tension: /u:/ & /ɔ:/: tense; /ʊ/ & /ɒ/: relaxed

. AllophonesAllophones are variants of phonemes that occur in speech.Reasons: the way a phoneme is pronounced is conditioned by the sounds around it or by its position in the word. For example: /t/

[th] tea

/t/ [to] stay

[ t ] get there

RULES FOR ENGLISH CONSONANT ALLOPHONES

1. Initial voiceless stops are aspirated. [h]

pie [phai] tea [thi:] key [khi:]

2. Voiceless stops are unaspirated after /s/ at the beginning of a syllable. [o]

stay [st˚ei] sky [sk˚ai] speak [sp˚i:k]

3. Stops are unexploded when they occur before

another stop. [o]

apt [æp˚t] rubbed [rʌb˚d] looked [luk˚t] stopped [stɔp˚t]

.

4. Approximants /w, r, j/ and the lateral /l/ are devoiced

when they occur after initial /p, t, k/. [o]

play [plOei] queen [kwOi:n] twin [twOi:n]

5. Voiceless stops become glottal stop plus voiceless

stops when they are syllable final and after a vowel.

tip /tiʔ/ kick /kiʔ/ pit /piʔ/

6. Voiced obstruents (stops and fricatives: /b, d, g, v, ʒ,

z/) are devoiced when they occur at the end of an

utterance or before a voiceless sound. [ o]

improve /impru:vO/ big /biɡO/ add two /ædOtu:/

. 7. Voiced stops and affricate /b, d, g, dʒ/ are voiceless

when syllable initial, except when immediately

preceded by a voiced sound. [ o]

dog /dOɔɡ/ big dog

8. /n/ becomes syllabic [.] at the end of a word when

immediately after obstruents (stops + fricatives).

garden /SɡɑdnT/ listen /SlisnT/ reason /Sri:znT/

Notes: /n/ does not become syllabic after /m, n, tʃ/

e.g. question /Skwestʃən/ salmon /Ssæmən/

.9. The lateral /l/ becomes syllabic [.] at the end of a word

when immediately after a consonant.

paddle [SphædlT] castle [Skhɑ:slT] noble [SnəʊblT]

Note: /l/ does not become syllabic after /dʒ/ and /tʃ/.

satchel [Ssætʃəl] angel [Seindʒəl]

10. Alveolars become dentalized [ G ] before dentals.

eighth [eitVθ] tenth [thenVθ] wealth [welVθ] get there [ɡetVðeə]

11. Velar stops become more front as the following vowel

in the same syllable becomes more front. [+ ] [+] [-] [-]

cat [khæt] get cook good

12. The lateral /l/ is velarized when after a vowel or

before a consonant at the end of a word. [ɫ]

well [weɫ] dealt [di:ɫt]

13. Vowels become shorter before voiceless

consonants in the same syllable.

neat [ni:t] pace get back

14. Vowels become nasalized before nasals [ I ]

song [sɔ[ŋ] ban [bæ[n]

Syntagmatic relationshippre-initial

initial post-initial

VOWEL pre-final

final post-final

post-final

post-final

1 2 3

ONSET CODA

pre-initial

initial post-initial

VOWEL pre-final

final post-final1

post-final2

post-final3

‘fifths’ fɪ - f θ s -

‘prompts’ prɒ m p t s -‘sixths’ sɪ‘texts’ te

--

kk

ss

θt

ss

(Roach, 1991, p. 72)

Topics in phonological contrastive studies:According to Lado, three types of questions can

be asked about individual sounds compared in isolation:

(1) Does the native language have a phonologically similar phoneme?

(2) Are the variants of the phonemes similar in both languages?

(3) Are the phonemes and their variants similarly distributed?

(as cited in Krzeszowski, 1990, p. 52)

1. RHYTHM

1 2 3 4 5

Walk 'down the 'path to the 'end of the ca'nal

English: stress-timed rhythm stressed syllables tend to occur at relatively regular intervals

Aspects of connected speech

2. ASSIMILATION A significant difference in natural connected speech is the way that sound belonging to one word can cause changes in sounds belonging to neighbouring words More likely to be found in rapid, casual speech and less likely in slow, careful speech Assimilation of

(1) place of articulation(2) manner of articulation(3) voicing

1. Assimilation of place of articulation alveolar t becomes p before a bilabial consonant:

+ that person ðæp + light blue laɪp+ meat pie mi:p

t becomes k before a velar consonant:

+ that case ðæk+ bright colour braɪk+ quite good kwaɪk

2. Assimilation of manner of articulation A final plosive becomes a fricative or nasal:

+ that side ðæs+ good night gʊn

A word-initial ð follows a plosive or nasal at the end of a preceding words:

+ in the ɪn ðə ɪnnə + get them get ðəm gettəm

+ read these ri:d ði:z ri:ddi:z

3. Assimilation of voice

+ cats

+ jumps

+ Pat’s

+ dogs

+ runs

+ pams

3. ELISION Loss of weak vowel after p, t, k

+ potato, tomato, canary, perhaps, today ph th kh ph th

Weak vowel + n, l, or r becomes syllabic consonant+ tonight tnaɪt, police pli:s, correct krekt

Avoidance of complex consonant clusters+ George the Sixth’s throne sɪksθrəʊn

In clusters of three plosives or two plosives plus a fricative, the middle plosive may disappear:

+ acts æks; looked back lʊk bæk; scripts skrɪps Loss of final v in ‘of’ before consonants: lots of them, waste of money Contractions of grammatical words

Questions1. What are the criteria for classifying English consonants? Give examples for illustration.

2. What is assimilation in the English language? State the types of assimilation with examples for illustration.

3. What is the difference between the monophthongs and diphthongs in the English language? Give examples for illustration.

4. What is a phoneme? How many phonemes are there in the English language? How many types are they often divided into? Give examples of each type.

5. Write the English words represented in the transcriptions below:

6. What is elision in English? Give examples.

7. State the differences between affricatives and fricatives in English in terms of manner of production.

8. Copy these words to your test paper and mark their stress(es).

Economically referee impact (noun) consecutive opportunity obstacle hello legitimate circuit helicopter

9. What makes an English plosive different from an English fricative? Give examples for illustration.

10. What are the criteria for classifying English vowels? Give examples for illustration.

11. What is liaison in the English language? State the types of liaison and give examples for illustration.

12. Give narrow transcription of the following sentence:

They demanded that the health-insurance negotiation start on Tuesday.

13. What does “manner of articulation” refer to? Describe in brief the manner of articulation in producing stops and affricates. Give one or two examples of each.

14. State the functions of intonation in English.

15. What is the difference between the voiced and voiceless consonants in the English language? Give your examples for illustration.

16. Give the phonetic transcription of the following sentence: Mrs. Margaret and her husband are leaving for Hong Kong tomorrow.

They have seen that interesting film for years.

17. Define the patterns of simplification in informal spoken English. Give two examples of each.

18. What does a “distinctive feature” refer to? What is the distinctive feature between the two sounds /p/ and /b/ in English?

19. What is the difference between fortis and lenis consonants in English? Give examples.

20. What often happens to the voiceless alveolar stop /t/ when it is followed by the nasal sound /n/? Give two examples of the phenomenon.

21. There are two mistakes in the following sentence which gives the definition of a diphthong. Copy the sentence to your test paper, circle and correct the mistakes.

A diphthong is a pure vowel sound consisting of one vowel elements, pronounced so as to form a single syllable.

23. What is a minimal pair in English? Give at least 3 examples for illustration.

1. What are the criteria for classifying English consonants? Give examples for illustration.

Criteria:

1. Voicing

2. Manner of articulation

3. Place of articulation

1. Voicing

Voiceles

s

p t

k

f θ s ʃ tʃ h

Voiced b d

g

v ð z ʒ dʒ m n ŋ w r j l

2. Manner of articulation

1 Plosives/stops: 6 p b t d k g2 Fricatives: 9 f v θ ð s z ʃ ʒ h3 Affricates tʃ dʒ

4 Nasals m n ŋ 5 Lateral l6 Semi-vowels /

approximantsw j r

3. Place of articulation

1 Bilabial p b m w2 Labio-dental f v3 Interdental θ ð

4 Alveolar t d s z n l5 Alveo-palatal ʃ ʒ tʃ dʒ

6 Palatal j7 Velar k g ŋ 8 Glottal h

2. What is assimilation in the English language? State the types of assimilation with examples for illustration.

Definition:

Assimilation may be defined as a phonetic process in which one speech sound is changed to become resemble or identical with a neighbouring soud.

Examples: news /z/ but in newspaper /s/

butter /t/ /d/

There are three types of assimilation:

1. Assimilation of place

2. Assimilation of manner


Two words are combined; the first ends with a single consonant (Cf); the second starts with a consonant (Ci ). Cf Ci

Regressive assimilation: Cf is affected by Ci

Progressive assimilation: Ci is affected by Cf


Examples:

1. length /ŋ/ /n/

2. congress /n/ /ŋ/

3. that person /t/ /p/

4. quite good /t/ /k/

5. this shoe /s/ /ʃ/

6. those years /z/ / ʒ /


Examples:

1. length /ŋ/ /n/ (velar alveolar)

2. congress /n/ /ŋ/ (alveolar velar)

3. that person /t/ /p/ (alveolar bilabial)

4. quite good /t/ /k/ (alveolar velar)

5. this shoe /s/ /ʃ/ (alveolar palato-alveolar)

6. those years /z/ / ʒ / (alveolar palato-alveolar

.


Examples

1. that side /t/ /s/

2. good night /d/ /n/

3. in the /ð/ / n/

4. get them /ð/ /t/

5. read these /ð/ /d/


Assimilation of manner is much less noticeable and is only found in the most rapid speech.

Examples

1. that side /t/ /s/ (plosive fricative)

2. good night /d/ /n/ (plosive nasal)

3. in the /ð/ / n/ (fricative nasal)

4. get them /ð/ /t/ (fricative plosive)

5. read these /ð/ /d/ (fricative plosive)


Assimilation of voice is found but only in a limited way. Regressive assimilation is found across word boundary.

Examples

news /z/ newspaper /s/

north /θ/ northern /ð/

have /v/ have to /f/

it /t/ It is /d/

good /d/ Good girl /g/

word/combination

without assimilation

assimilation trigger type of change

(Lancashire) hotpot

[hɒt|pɒt] [hɒppɒt] bilabial plosivealveolar plosive

⇒ bilabial plosive

apprenticeship [əpɹɛntɪs|ʃɪp] [əpɹɛntɪʃʃɪp]palato-alveolar

fricative

alveolar fricative ⇒

palato-alveolar fricative

good bye [gʊd|baɪ] [gəbbaɪ] bilabial plosivealveolar plosive


good point [gʊd|pɔɪnt] [gəbpɔɪnt] bilabial plosivealveolar plosive


good night [gʊd|naɪt] [gənnaɪt] alveolar nasalalveolar plosive

⇒ alveolar nasal

ten points [tɛn|pɔɪnts] [tɛmpɔɪnts] bilabial plosivealveolar nasal

⇒ bilabial nasal

thin coat [θɪn|kəʊt] [θɪŋkəʊt] velar plosivealveolar nasal ⇒ velar nasal

give me [gɪv|miː] [gɪmmi] bilabial nasallabio-dental fricative ⇒

bilabial nasal

http://www9.english.cityu.edu.hk/martin_weisser/phonetics/connect/assimilation.html

3. What is the difference between the monophthongs and diphthongs in the English language? Give examples for illustration.

A diphthong is a combination of two vowels produced within one syllable. The first element is stronger and much longer than the second element, so the loudness of the sound decreases.

4. What is a phoneme? How many phonemes are there in the English language? How many types are they often divided into? Give examples of each type.

Definition:

The phoneme is the smallest segment of speech sound that can make a difference in meaning among forms.

/sɪn/ and /sɪŋ/

/n/ and /ŋ/ contrast in the same emvironment, so /n/ and /ŋ/ are two different phonemes.

Sound system in English

Sound system (44)

Consonants (24) Vowels (20)

Monophthongs (12)

Diphthongs (8)

p b t d k g

f v θ ð s z ʃ ʒ htʃ dʒ

m n ŋ

l

w r j

i: ɪ e æ ɜ: ə ʌ u: ʊ ɔ: ɒ ɑ:

ɪə eə ʊəeɪ aɪ ɔɪəʊ aʊ

5. Write the English words represented in the transcriptions below:

1.

a. /kɜ:nəl/ b. /sɜ:fɪs/ c. /pɜ:pəs/

d. /saɪkaɪətrɪ/ e. /prəʊtəkɒl/ f. /ʌvn/

g. /nɒkaʊt/ h. /lepəd/

2.

a. /medsn/ b. /weɪ/ c. /gædʒɪt/

d. /leʒə/ e. /nɒb/ f. /lɔ:fl/

g. / wɔ:/ h. /eksɪt/

6. What is elision in English? Give examples.

Elision means under circumstances in speaking sounds disappear. Phonologically speaking, in certain circumstances a phoneme may be realised as zero, or have zero realisation, or be deleted. Elision is typical of rapid, casual speech.

So, elision is the omission or slurring over of a vowel or a consonant when we are speaking quickly.

Possibilities of elision:

1. Loss of weak vowels // or // after /p/, /t/, /k/

potato /phtheɪthəʊ/

perhaps /phhæps/

tomorrow /thmɒrəʊ/

today /thdeɪ/canary /khneərɪ/

2. Weak vowel + /n/, /l/, or /r/ becomes a syllabic consonant

tonight /thnaɪt/

police /phlɪs/

correct /khrekt/

3. Avoidance of complex consonant clusters

George the Sixth’s throne/ks θr/

acts /ks/

looked back /k b/

scripts /ps/

4. Loss of /v/ and /l/ before consonants

lots of them /ts ə(v)/

waste of money /t ə(v)/all right /ɔ: (l) r/

5. In contractions

I had I’d It is It’s She has She’s

do not don’t We are we’re

word/combination no elision elision

asked [ɑːskt] [ɑːst]

lecture [ˈlɛktʃə] [ˈlɛkʃə]

desktop [ˈdɛskˌtɒp] [ˈdɛsˌtɒp]

hard disk [ˌhɑː dˈdɪsk] [ˌhɑːˈdɪsk]

kept quiet [ˌkɛptˈkwaɪət] [ˌkɛpˈkwaɪət]

kept calling [ˌkɛptˈkoːlɪŋ] [ˌkɛpˈkoːlɪŋ]

kept talking [ˌkɛptˈtoːkɪŋ] [ˌkɛpˈtoːkɪŋ]

at least twice [əˌtliːstˈtwaɪs] [əˌtliːsˈtwaɪs]

straight towards [ˌstɹeɪtˈtʊwoːdz] [ˌstɹeɪˈtəwoːdz]

next to [ˈnɛkstˌtʊ] [ˈnɛksˌtə]

want to [ˈwɒntˌtʊ] [ˈwɒnˌtə] or [ˈwɒnə]

seemed not to notice [ˈsiːmdˌnɒttəˈnəʊtɪs] [ˈsiːmˌnɒtəˈnəʊtɪs]

for the first time [foːðəˌfɜːstˈtaɪm] [fəðəˌfɜːsˈtaɪm]

http://www9.english.cityu.edu.hk/martin_weisser/phonetics/connect/elision.html

7. State the differences between affricatives and fricatives in English in terms of manner of production.

Affricates (/tʃ, dʒ/): A kind of plosive in which the release of the stop is immediately followed by the corresponding fricative (the fricative formed at the same place in the mouth as the stop). Affricates are represented by diagraphs (2 letters) in a phonetic transcription; the first indicates the stop, the second the fricative glide after the stop)


8. Copy these words to your test paper and mark their stress(es).

Economically referee impact (noun) consecutive opportunity obstacle hello legitimate circuit helicopter

9. What makes an English plosive different from an English fricative? Give examples for illustration.

Plosives or stops (/p, b, t, d, k, g/): The air passage is completely closed (or stopped). The closure or stop is then suddenly released; the air escapes with an explosive sound.


10. What are the criteria for classifying English vowels? Give examples for illustration.

Vowels may be classified according to the following principles:

1. Positions of the tongue

2. The height of the tongue

3. Lip positions

4. The length of the sounds

5. Muscle tension

Vowels

front central back

high i: ɪ

u: ʊ

mid e

ɜ: ə

ɔ:

low

æ

ʌ ɒ

ɑ: spread/unrounded rounded

11. What is liaison in the English language? State the types of liaison and give examples for illustration.

Definition:

Liaison or linking is the linking of the final sound of a word with the initial sound of the following word for the convenience of speaking.

There are two types of liaison:

1. Link consonant with vowel

2. Link vowel with vowel

1. Link consonant with vowel

1.1 The words ending in /p, t, k, b, d, g/ and followed by a word beginning with a vowel:

Drop it in this box.

A big umbrella

Red and white

1.2 Link /f, v, s, z, ʃ, tʃ, dʒ, θ/ to a vowel following them

I want to move into a flat with my friend.The bus is coming.

2. Link vowel with vowel

2.1 Introduce /r/ between two vowels

Here is Formula A Papa isn’t here

2.2 Link the words ending in /ɪ/ or /i:/ to a vowel following by using the sound /j/

Very interesting Mary and I are

2.3 Link the words ending in /ʊ/ or /u:/ to a vowel following by using the sound /w/ b/c it is the closest consonant to /u:/

I couldn’t do it Who is it?

It’s difficult to do it.

12. Give narrow transcription of the following sentence:

They demanded that the health-insurance negotiation start on Tuesday.

13. What does “manner of articulation” refer to? Describe in brief the manner of articulation in producing stops and affricates. Give one or two examples of each.

Stops or plosives (/p, b, t, d, k, g/): The air passage is completely closed (or stopped). The closure or stop is then suddenly released; the air escapes with an explosive sound.

Affricates (/tʃ, dʒ/): A kind of plosive in which the release of the stop is immediately followed by the corresponding fricative (the fricative formed at the same place in the mouth as the stop). Affricates are represented by diagraphs (2 letters) in a phonetic transcription; the first indicates the stop, the second the fricative glide after the stop)

14. State the functions of intonation in English.

Definition:

The primary function of intonation is to convey the meaning and attitude of the speaker

Forms in intonation:

Five tones:

Falling

Rising

Falling-rising Rising-falling

Level

Falling tone: It gives the feeling of ‘finality’ of the end of the sentence or of ‘definiteness.

Rising tone: This tone conveys an impression that something more is to follow or invitation to continue.

Falling-rising tone: The tone is used to describe as ‘limited agreement’ or ‘response with reservation’.

Rising-falling: used in alternative questions

Level tone: It conveys the feeling of saying something routine, uninteresting, or boring.

Falling

1. Statement or declarative sentence

This is the end of the news.

Have you seen Jane? - No.

2. Command

Go to your room.

3. Wh-questions

Who’s your friend?

4. Tag-question:

Doctor Boyle is very good, isn’t he? (The speaker is certain and expects the other person to agree.)

5. Correcting:

- Her birthday is on the tenth of December.

- No, it’s on the fifth of December.

Rising

1. Yes-no question in statement form: He’s gone?

2. Yes-no question in question form: Is it over?

3. ‘More to follow’: I phoned them right away (and they agreed to come).

4. Encouraging: It won’t hurt.

5. Listing: What time are the busses?

7 o’clock, seven thirty and eight

6. Impatient: Why not get a car?

7. Echo question: The speaker repeat sth said by another person while he thinks what to reply.

- Have you got any postcards?

-Postcards? Yes, they are in the drawers with the envelopes

Falling-rising

1. Uncertainty or doubt:

You may be right. –Really?

2. Requesting:

Can I borrow your car?

3. Reservation:

Will the children go?

4. Polite phrases:

Excuse me?

5. Correcting:

- Our English teacher is Jay Frazer.

- No. It isn’t Jay Frazer. It’s May Frazer.

Rising-falling

1. In alternative questions:

He’s a teacher of Mathematics or Physics?

2. To convey rather strong feelings of approval, disapproval or surprise:

- You wouldn’t do an awful thing like that, would you?

- No.

15. What is the difference between the voiced and voiceless consonants in the English language? Give your examples for illustration.

Voiceles

s

p t

k

f θ s ʃ tʃ h

Voiced b d

g

v ð s ʒ dʒ m n ŋ w r j l

Consonants are:Voiced: when the vocal words are brought together and voicing beginsVoiceless: the vocal words are separated and voicing ceases.

16. Give the phonetic transcription of the following sentences:

1. They have seen that interesting film for years.

2. Mrs. Margaret and her husband are leaving for Hong Kong tomorrow.

17. Define the patterns of simplification in informal spoken English. Give two examples of each.

18. What does a “distinctive feature” refer to? What is the distinctive feature between the two sounds /p/ and /b/ in English?

Distinctive feature between the two sounds /p/ and /b/ in English: voice

19. What is the difference between fortis and lenis consonants in English? Give examples.

With the exception of the glottal, each place of articulation has a pair of phonemes; one is fortis, and one lenis.

The fortis fricatives are said to be articulated with greater force than the lenis, and their friction noise is louder.

The fortis fricatives have the effect of shortening a preceding vowel as do fortis plosives

Labio-dental

Dental Alveolar

Alveo-palata

l

Glottal

Fortis (voicele

s)

f θ s ʃ h

Lenis (voiced)

v ð z ʒ

20. What often happens to the voiceless alveolar stop /t/ when it is followed by the nasal sound /n/? Give two examples of the phenomenon.

The voiceless alveolar stop becomes a glottal stop (or glottalized) when it is followed by the nasal sound /n/

beaten

fatten /fæʔn/ /t/ becomes /ʔ/ before /n/

kitten

button

mitten

23. What is a minimal pair? Give two examples for illustration.

A minimal pair is a pair of two forms that are identical in every way except for one sound segment that occurs at the same place in the sequence.

laugh /lɑ:f/ calf /kɑ:f/it /ɪt/ eat / i:t/mink /mɪŋk sink /sɪŋk/

tan /tæn/ pan /pæn/

.

p

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Linguistics hanoi university