Limits of Education

8/10/2019 Limits of Education

1/21

T h e Lim its o f Ed ucat ion: Siegfr ied Bernfe ld

on Ps yc h o logy Po l it ic a l T he or y and

E d u c a t i o n

R o b i n H o l l o w a y / O I S E

I n t h e e m e r g e n c e o f a n e w p o s t w a r g e n e r a t io n o f p s y c h o a n a l y s ts l ik e W i l h e lm

R e i c h , E r i c h F r o m m , a n d S i e g fr i ed B e r n f e l d , w e c a n d i s c e r n a p r o f o u n d t e n d -

e n c y , o r i g in a t in g i n t h e c o n c r e t e p r o b l e m s t h e y e n c o u n t e r e d in t h e i r c l in i c al

w ork wi th psyc h ica l ly i ll i nd iv idua ls , t o red i s cov e r the ra d ica l im p l i ca t ions o f

Fre ud ' s o r ig ina l concep t ion o f p sych oana lys i s ' mis s ion , wh i l e s imul t aneou s ly a t -

t e m p t i n g t o f r e e i t f r o m t h e a h i st o r ic a l d i st o r ti o n s w h i c h h a d s e r v e d u p t o t h e n

to ob scure the c r i t i c a l and soc io log ica l con ten t l a t en t w i th in i t. (B row n , 1973 ,

p p . 4 6 - 4 7 )

W h o w a s S i e g f r ie d B e r n f e l d ? W h y s h o u l d e d u c a t o r s i n t e re s t th e m s e l v e s i n h i m ?

H i s e a r l y w o r k h a d u n t i l r e c e n t l y b e e n a l l b u t f o r g o t t e n . B u t b e t w e e n 1 9 1 9 a n d

1935 , he wro te s eve rn dozen pape rs o f the g rea te s t va lue fo r a c r i t i c a l l e f t i s t

p e r s p e c t i v e o n e d u c a t i o n . T h e s e p a p e r s d i s a p p e a r e d d u r i n g t h e H i t l e r e r a a n d

w e r e n o t r e d i s c o v e r e d u n t i l t h e l a te 1 9 6 0s , w i t h t h e ir p u b l ic a t io n i n G e r m a n

u n d e r t h e t it le Antiautorittire Erzie hun g an d Psychoana lyse Antiauthoritarian

education and psychoanalysis). T he y a re st il l no t t r ans la t ed in to Eng l ish . Qu o t ing

the t it le s o f s ix o f them wi l l l oca te Be rn fe ld theo re t i c a l ly w i tho u t fu r th e r ex -

p l a n a t io n . A m o n g h i s m o r e i n te r e s ti n g a r e S o z i al is m u s a n d P s y c h o a n a l y s e

( Soc ia l i sm and Psych oana ly s i s , 192 6) , Soz ia l i st i sche Erz iehu ngskr i t ik ( So -

c ia li s t C r i t ique o f Ed uca t ion , 192 6) , ~eoersch~ itzung de r Schu le ( Ove re s t i -

m a t i o n o f t h e S c h o o l , 1 9 2 7 ) , D a s M a s s e n p r o b l e m i n d e r S o z i al is ti sc h e n

P~idogog ik ( Th e Prob le m o f the M asse s in Soc ia li s t Pedag og ic s , 192 7) ,

D i e S c h u lg e m e i n d e u n d i h r e F u n k f i o n im K l a s se n k a m p f ( T h e S c h o o l C o m -

m u n i t y a n d i ts F u n c t i o n i n C l a ss S t r u g g le , 1 9 2 8 ) , a n d Z u r F r a g e : P s y c h o -

a n a ly s e u n d M a r x i sm u s ( O n t h e P r o b l e m o f P s y c ho a n a ly s is a n d M a r x i s m ,

1 9 2 8 ) .

T h e f i rs t a n d m o s t i m p o r t a n t r e a s o n w h y B e r n f e ld i s o f e d u c a t i o n a l in t e r e st

i s c l e a r f r o m t h e s e t i t l e s ; h e w a s a F r e u d o - M a r x i s t w h o e x a m i n e d e d u c a t i o n

f rom th i s pe rspec t ive , x Second , he was invo lved in th eo re t i c a l con t rove rs i e s w i th

o t h e r F r e u d o - M a r x i s t s o f t h e t im e ( W i l h e l m R e i c h f o r e x a m p l e ) a b o u t e d u -

ca t iona l and o the r is sues . T h i rd , he was an e duc a to r in h is own r igh t and open ed

the ve ry f ir s t p sych oana ly t i ca l ly o r i en ted s choo l fo r ch i ld ren .2 F ina l ly , he was

a Z ion i s t and , th rou gh h i s pedagog ica l te ach ings , he h ad a s t rong in f luence on

t h e k i b b u t z s t y l e o f e d u c a t i o n d e v e l o p e d i n I s r a e l . W e w i l l r e t u r n t o e a c h o f

the se po in t s o f in t e re s t .

iographical ackground

B e r n f e l d w a s b o r n i n 1 8 9 2 i n L e m b e r g , t h e n p a r t o f t h e A u s t r o - H u n g a r i a n

E m p i r e . H e d i e d i n t h e U n i t e d S t a te s in 1 9 5 3. H e s t u d i e d p e d a g o g y a n d p s y -

c h o l o g y a t t h e U n i v e r s it y o f V i e n n a , f r o m w h i c h h e r e c e i v e d h i s P h . D . W h i le

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s ti ll a s t u d e n t, h e j o i n e d y o u t h m o v e m e n t s a n d w a s i n v o l v e d w i t h b o t h s o c i a li s t

a n d Z i o n i s t c a u s e s . I n 1 9 1 2 , h e f o u n d e d t h e A c a d e m i c C o m m i t t e e f o r S c h o o l

R e f o r m ( A C S ) . S o c i al is t e d u c a t i o n a n d e l im i n a t io n o f m i d d l e c la s s d o m i n a t i o n

o f s c h o o l s w e r e p a r t o ~ a p r o g r a m t h a t a t t r a c t e d a l a r g e s t u d e n t m e m b e r s h i p .

T h e p o l i c e d is s o l v e d t h e A C S i n 1 9 1 4 .

B e r n f e t d c o o p e r a t e d w i t h t e a c h e r s a n d s t u d e n t s i n p r o m o t i n g s t u d e n t s e l f -

g o v e r n m e n t , c o n s i d e r e d r e v o l u t io n a r y a t th e t im e . E k s t e i n ( 1 9 7 7 ) , w h o w a s a

s t u d e n t o f B e r n f e ld , w r i te s t h a t w h a t w a s i m p o r t a n t a b o u t th i s m a n w a s t h e

i m m e n s e a p p e a l h e h a d a s a y o u t h l ea d e r, . . . O n e s e es i n h im s o m e o n e w h o

h a s i m m e n s e e x p e r ie n c e as a n e d u c a t o r , a y o u t h l e a d e r, a n d a s an a n a l y s t ( p . 2 ) .

B e r n f e l d b e g a n t o c o n t r i b u t e t o b o t h s o c ia l is t a n d Z i o n i s t p a p e r s a t t h e t im e

o f t h e F i r s t W o r l d W a r . H e w r o t e , f o r e x a m p l e , f o r M a r t i n B u b e r ' s j o u r n a l

Der Jude. I n 1 9 1 8 h e f o u n d e d a j o u r n a l c a l l e d Jerubbaal, i n p a r t a i m e d a t

b r i ng i ng t oge t he r Z i on i s t and s oc i a l i s t f a c t i ons wi t h i n Aus t r i an J ewr y . I n t he

s a m e y e a r h e f o u n d e d a n d w a s m a d e p r e s i d e n t o f t h e A s s o c i a t i o n o f t h e J e w i s h

Y o u t h o f A u s t r ia . H e w a s a l s o a f u n c t i o n a r y i n a n u m b e r o f J e w i s h o r g a n i-

za t i ons , inc l ud i ng t he J ewi s h Na t i on a l C ounc i l .

B e r n f e t d s e r v e d i n t h e F i r s t W o r l d W a r , b u t s p e n t a l m o s t a l l h i s t i m e i n

V i e n n a . A f t e r t h e w a r , V i e n n e s e J e w s w e r e t h r e a t e n e d b y t h e c r u m b l i n g o f th e

A u s t r i a n s o c ia l fr a m e w o r k a n d b y P o l i s h s o ld i e rs r e tu r n i n g h o m e . B e r n f e l d

f o r m ed dem ob i l i z ed J ewi s h s o l d i e r s i n t o a s e l f - de f ence f o r ce .

I n 1 9 1 9 , B e r n f e l d u n d e r t o o k h i s m o s t i m p o r t a n t e d u c a t i o n a l e x t ~ r i m e n t ,

t h e K i n d e r h e im B a u m g a r t e n ( B a u m g a r t e n C h il d re n 's H o m e ) . T h e F i rs t W o r l d

W a r h a d l e ft a la r g e n u m b e r o f P o l i s h J e w i s h c h i l d r en a s o r p h a n s a n d r e fu g e e s .

B e r n f e l d o p e n e d a r e s id e n t ia l s c h o o l f o r 2 4 0 o f t h e s e p r o l e t a r i a n w a r o r p h a n s ,

w h o r a n g e d i n a g e f r o m t h r e e t o s i x t e e n . T h e s c h o o l w a s e s t a b l i s h e d i n s o m e

f o r m e r m i li t a ry b a r r a c k s .

Be r n f e t d he l d h i gh ho pes f o r t h is s choo l . I t was t o pu t h is educa t i ona l t heo r i e s

i n to p r a c ti c e . T h e s c h o o l w a s c o - e d u c a t io n a l . T h e a i m w a s t o h e l p r a t h e r t h a n

con t r o l t he ch i l d r en . Ps yc ho l og i ca l d i ff icu l ti e s w e r e exp l o r ed r a t he r t h an s up -

p r e s s e d . S e x u a l p r o b l e m s w e r e a p p r o a c h e d i n a n e n l i g h t e n e d w a y , b a s e d o n

Fr e ud i a n l i b i d i na l theo r i e s . S t uden t s e l f - gove r nm en t o f t he s choo l wa s a t tem pt ed .

B e r n f e l d i n t e n d e d t h a t B a u m g a r t e n s h o u l d g r o w a n d b e t h e n u c l e u s f o r

o t he r s im i l a r e s tab l i s hm en t s . B u t a l t houg h he and h i s co l l e agues ach i eved g r ea t

s ucces s wi t h t he ch i l d r en , t he s c hoo l w as f o r ced t o c l o s e a f t e r s i x m o n t hs . I t w as

a l i t t l e t oo p r og r e s s i ve f o r i t s f i nanc i a l s pons o r , and s uppor t was wi t hd r awn .

T h e s p o n s o r w a s t h e A m e r i c a n J o i n t D i s tr i b u t io n C o m m i t t e e , w h i c h H o f f e r

( 1 9 6 5 ) c a ll s a n a r r o w - m i n d e d c h a r i ty o r g a n i z a ti o n ( p . 6 7 ) , a n d w h i c h P a r e t

( in B e r n f e ld , 1 9 7 3 ) s a y s h a d n o s y m p a t h y fo r p r o g r e s s iv e e d u c a t i o n fo r w o r k -

e r s ' c h i l d re n ( p . x x ) . T h e r e w a s a l s o a l a c k o f t r a in e d p e r s o n n e l i n t h e s c h o o l.

W i t h t h e e n d o f B e r n f e ld ' s K i n d e r h e i m c a m e a l s o t h e e n d o f h is a c t iv i ty

a s a p r ac t i s i ng pedagog i ca l r e f o r m er , and o f a l l h i s hopes o f i n f l uenc i ng con -

t e m p o r a r y e d u c a t i o n ( H o f f e r , 1 9 5 5 , p . 6 7 ) . T h e o n l y l as ti n g r e s u lt o f t hi s e x -

p e r i m e n t w a s t h e b o o k

Baumgarten Children s Home, a report on a serious

attempt at new education ( 1 9 2 1 ) .

A t t h i s t i m e , B e r n f e l d w a s a l r e a d y d e e p l y c o m m i t t e d t o p s y c h o a n a l y s i s . H e

h a d t a k e n a n u m b e r o f le c t u r e c o u r s e s a n d h e k n e w F r e u d . B y 1 9 2 2 , w i t h

F r e u d ' s h e l p , h e h a d e s t a b li s h e d h i m s e lf a s a p r a c ti s in g p s y c h o a n a l y s t in V i e n n a .

I n 1 9 2 5 , B e r n f e l d p u b l i s h e d t w o s i g n i f i c a n t b o o k s . O n e w a s a p i o n e e r i n g

ef for t ca l l ed The Psychology of the Infant. T h e o t h e r w a s Sisyphus or The Limits

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of Education M u c h o f h is t h in k i n g i n t h e l a t te r w a s a r e s u lt o f h is B a u m g a r t e n

e x p e r im e n t . I t is B e r n f e l d ' s m o s t i m p o r t a n t e d u c a t i o n a l w o r k , a n d i s o n e o f th e

f e w o f h is b o o k s a v a i la b l e i n E n g li sh . E k s t e i n ( 1 9 6 6 ) s u m m a r i ze s t h e th e m e

o f

Sisyphus:

[ Be r n f e l d ] a t t a cks i dea l is t ic no t i ons o f educa t i on t ha t v i ew t he educ a t o r a s

o n e w h o m o l d s t h e c h i l d 's c h a r a c t e r , a s a s c u l p t o r tu r n s t h e m a r b l e b l o c k i n to

a p i e c e o f p e r fe c t io n . H e s p e a k s o f t h e s o c i o l o g ic a l a n d t h e p s y c h o l o g ic a l b o u n d a -

r i e s o f e d u c a t i o n . H e u s e s i n s i g h t s f r o m e c o n o m i c s a n d s o c i o l o g y , a n d f r o m

M a r x i s t p h i l o s o p h y t o s h o w t h e s o c ia / b o u n d a r i e s o f e d u c a ti o n , a n d h e u s e s

t h e t h e o r y o f t h e u n c o n s c i o u s t o d e m o n s t r a t e i n n e r b o u n d a r i e s . T h e s e b o u n d a -

ries

t u r n t he t e ache r i n t o a S i syphus , w ho see s t hem a s l i m i t s , a s cha i ns t ha t t i e

h i m d o w n a n d f o r c e u p o n h i m i m p o s s i b le ta s k s. B u t i f t h e s e b o u n d a r i e s a r e r e -

ga r d ed a s law f u l , t hey can l e ad t o i n si gh ts t ha t pe r m i t t he c r ea t i on o f educa t i ona l

t h e o r y , b a s e d n o t o n n a r c is s is ti c id e a l is m b u t o n s c i e n ce . ( p . 4 1 9 )

O n e f a s c i n a t i n g p a s s a g e i n

Sisyphus

- a s p e e c h g i ve n b y M i n i s te r o f E d u -

c a t i o n M a c h i a v e l l i - a t t e s t s t o B e r n f e l d ' s p o l it ic a l a s t ut e n es s . T h e p o l ic i e s

B e r n f e l d p u t s i n t h e M i n i st e r 's m o u t h w e r e v e r y c l o s e t o t h o s e i n s ti tu t e d b y t h e

N a z i s a d e c a d e l a t er . B e r n f e l d h a s h i m p r o p o s e t h e c h o i c e o f th e J e w s a s a

n a t i o n a l s c a p e g o a t , m a i n t e n a n c e o f c o n t r o l o f e d u c a t i o n i n t h e h a n d s o f th e

r u l ing pa r t y , r e s t r i c t ion o f edu ca t i on t o ce r t a i n g r oups an d so f o r t h . Be r n f e l d ' s

M i n i s te r o f E d u c a t i o n M a c h i a v e l l i w a s a n a c c u r a t e l y p r e d i c t e d f a n t a s y f o r e -

r u n n e r o f G o e b b e l s ( E k s te i n , 1 9 66 , p . 4 2 0 ) .

A f t e r t h e r u i n o f h i s B a u m g a r t e n e d u c a t i o n a l e x p e r i m e n t i n 1 9 1 9 , B e r n -

f e l d becam e pes s i m i s t i c abou t educa t i ona l i s sues , and a f t e r t he pub l i ca t i on

o f Sisyphus i n 1925 , he l o s t i n t e r e s t i n t hem .

I n 1 9 2 6 h e m o v e d f r o m V i e n n a t o B e r l i n w h e r e h e w o r k e d a s a p s y c h o -

a n a l y s t u n t il 1 9 3 2 . H e p u b l i s h e d a n u m b e r o f p a p e r s d u r i n g t h is t im e , i n c lu d i n g

o n e o n P e s t a lo z z i a n d s e v e r a l o n a d o l e s c e n ts . H e c o n t i n u e d t o b e a c t iv e l y i n -

vo l v ed in po l i t i c a l i s sues and l e c t u r ed t o w or ke r s ' g r oups . H i t l e r ' s e lec t i on

v i c t o r y i n 1 9 3 2 p r o m p t e d h i m t o l e a v e B e r li n . H e r e t u r n e d f o r a s h o r t w h i l e t o

V i e n n a , b u t , f o r e s e e in g w h a t w a s t o c o m e , s o o n l e f t.

A t t h i s t i m e , B e r n f e l d ' s i n t e r e s t s b e g a n t o s h i f t . H e w r o t e n o m o r e p a p e r s

f r o m a F r e u d o - M a r x i s t s t an d p o i n t . I n s t e a d , h e t u r n e d h i s a t te n t i o n t o n a t u r a l

s c i e n c e a s p e c t s o f p s y c h o a n a l y s i s , s u c h a s t h e q u a n t i f i c a t i o n a n d m e a s u r e m e n t

o f l i b ido .

F r o m V i e n n a , B e r n f e l d w e n t t o s o u t h e r n F r a n c e a n d t h e n t o E n g l a n d ; i n

1 9 3 7 h e e m i g r a t e d t o t h e U n i t e d S ta t es . A f t e r e m i g ra t in g f r o m G e r m a n y , B e r n -

f e l d l e f t t he f i e l d o f educa t i on en t i r e l y . I t w as i m poss i b l e f o r h i m t o con t i nue

w i t h hi s w o r k i n G e r m a n y u n d e r H i tl er , a n d w h e n h e c a m e t o A m e r i c a h e w a s

d i s il lu s io n e d w i t h s o c i a li s m ( B u x b a n m , 1 9 6 6 , p . 8 ) . B e r n f e l d w o r k e d a s a

p s y c h o a n a l y s t i n S a n F r a n c i s c o u n t il h e d i e d in 1 9 5 3 .

Freudo M arxist Disputes

H a v i n g s k e t c h e d t h e f a c t s o f B e r n f e l d ' s l i f e , w e c a n r e t u r n t o t h e r e a s o n s p r e -

v i o u s l y s u g g e s t e d f o r h i s i n t e r e s t t o e d u c a t o r s . O n e o f t h e s e w a s t h e c o n t r o -

v e r s ie s i n w h i c h h e e n g a g e d w i th o t h e r M a r x i s t s a n d F r e u d o - M a r x i s t s. T h e

i n t e r e s t i n Mar x i s t t hough t i n Eur ope o f t he t i m e w as s t r ong . Theor e t i c a l d i f f e r -

ences a r ose w h i ch a r e r em i n i s cen t o f t he Mar x i s t , Len i n i s t , T r o t sky i t e , Mao i s t

d i spu t e s o f r ecen t yea r s .

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O ne o f the r ea s on s f o r t he i n tens i t y o f th i s deba t e w as t he ex i s tence o f a s t r ong

p s y c h o a n a l y t i c s o c i e t y i n M o s c o w . T h i s is n o t g e n e r a l ly k n o w n . T h e r e w a s i n

f a c t a f l o u r i s h i n g p s y c h o a n a l y t i c a l m o v e m e n t i n R u s s i a d u r i n g t h e 1 9 2 0 s , a

m o v e m e n t t h a t e n j o y e d L e n i n ' s t o l e ra n c e a n d T r o t s k y ' s a c t iv e s u p p o r t. O n l y t h e

S t al in is ts t u r n e d ag a i n st p s y c h o a n a l y s i s ( W h e n D o g m a B i t e s , 1 9 7 1 , p . 2 5 ) .

E v e n t u a l l y , i n c r e as in g p r e s s u r e w a s p u t o n p s y c h o a n a l y s i s i n R u s s i a t o c o n f o r m

t o pa r t y t e ach i ngs , and wi t h t he r i s e o f S t a li n , i t d i s appea r ed .

I n t h e e a r l y 1 9 2 0 s , W i l h e l m R e i c h w a s i n t e r e s t e d i n t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f

p s y c h o a n a l y s i s i n R u s s i a . L a t e r , h e b e c a m e b i t t e rl y d i s il lu s io n e d . V e r a S c h m i d t

h a d , i n 1 9 2 1 , e s t a b l is h e d in M o s c o w a p s y c h o a n a l y t ic a l l y b a s e d c h i l d r en ' s h o m e .

Re i ch v i s i t ed i t i n 1929 , and r epo r t s on i t a t s om e l eng t h i n The Sexual Revo

lution ( 1 9 4 5 , p p . 2 4 0 - 2 4 7 ) . R e i c h ( 1 9 4 5 ) r e fe r s t o i t a s t h e f ir st a t t e m p t in t h e

h i s t o r y o f edu ca t i on t o g i ve t he t h eo r y o f i n f an t il e s exua l i t y a p r ac t i c a l con t en t

( p . 2 4 7 ) . T h e c h i ld r e n w e r e e n c o u r a g e d t o d e v e l o p se l f- r eg u l a ti o n w i t h o u t a n

a t m o s p h e r e o f m o r a l is t ic a u t h o ri ta r ia n i sm . T h e y w e r e n o t g iv e n o r d e rs . T h e y

wer e a l l owed t o expe r i m en t wi t h t he i r s exua l i m pu l s e s , i nc l ud i ng m as t u r ba t i on ,

w i t h o u t p u n i s h m e n t o r c o n d e m n a t i o n , a n d t o m u t u a l l y s a t is f y t h e ir s e x u a l c u ri -

o s i t i e s . Gi ven t he s e obs e r va t i ons by Re i ch , i t i s o f i n t e r e s t t ha t one o f h i s f o l -

l owe r s wa s A. S . Ne i l l o f Sum m er h i l l f am e .

T h e i m m e d i a t e r e a s o n f o r t h e c o n t r o v e r s y b e t w e e n R e i c h a n d B e r n f e l d

w a s a p a p e r b y R e i c h e n ti tl ed T h e M a s o c h i st ic C h a r a c t e r ( t 9 3 2 ) . I n t hi s

p a p e r R e i c h d e n i e d t h a t t h e r e w a s s u c h a t h in g a s F r e u d ' s d e a t h i n s ti n ct . F r e u d

p o s t u l a t e d t h e d e a t h i n s ti n c t a s a f o r m o f p r i m a r y m a s o c h i s m . R e i c h s a i d th a t

m a s o c h i s m w a s o n l y a s e c o n d a r y d e v e l o p m e n t , b a s e d o n a p l e a s u r e a n x i e t y

r e s ul ti n g f r o m l a c k o f f u ll o rg a s ti c p o t e n c y ( 1 9 6 7 , p . 2 4 9 ) . R e i c h a l s o r e j ec t e d

t he no t i on o f agg re s s ive o r de s t r uc t i ve d ri ve s . H e c l a im ed t ha t c r ue l and

aggr e s s i ve cha r a c t e r t r a i t s we r e t he r e s u l t o f au t ho r i ta r i an , s exua l l y r ep r e s s i ve

c h i ld - r ea r in g p r a c t ic e s ( S p ri n g , 1 9 7 5 , p . 8 3 ) . B e r n f e l d w a s c o m m i s s i o n e d t o

w r i t e a r e p l y t o R e i c h ' s p a p e r . T h e r e s u l t w a s T h e C o m m u n i s ti c D i sc u s s io n

C o n c e r n i n g P s y c h o a n a l y s i s a n d R e i c h ' s ' R e f u t a t i o n o f t h e D e a t h I n s t i n c t H y -

p o t h e s i s ' ( 1 9 3 2 ) . I n th is p a p e r , B e r n f e l d a c c u s e d R e i c h o f b e in g m o t i v a te d

by em ot i ona l and po l i t i c a l b i a s e s . Em ot i ona l l y , Re i ch was t r y i ng t o pa s s o f f

h i s p r iv a t e i d e a l o f a w o r l d w i t h o u t / i m i t a t i o n s o n t h e s e x u a l d r iv e a s t h e g o a l

o f p s y c h o a n a l y s i s ( P a r e t i n B e r n f e ld , 1 9 7 3 , p . x x ii i) . P o l it ic a ll y , R e i c h w a s

r e s pon d i ng t o t he p r e s s u r e on ps y choan a l ys i s i n Rus s i a by re s t r ic t i ng it to t he

s t u d y o f t h e i n d iv i d u a l p a t ie n t a n d e x c l u d in g i t f r o m c o m m e n t a r y o n s o c ia l o r

p o l i t i c a l i s s u e s . B e r n f e t d a t t a c k e d t h e w o r k o f a n a l y s t s s u c h a s J u r i n e t z w h o

s up por t ed t he pa r t y l i ne a s be i ng s upe r f ic i a l and c r ude . Sc i en ti f ic s t a t em en t s

a r e j u d g e d i n R u s s i a , s a i d B e r n f el d , n o t b y t h e ir a c c u r a c y b u t b y t h ei r c o n f o r m -

i ty w i t h p a r t y d o c t r in e . I n v i e w o f w h a t i s k n o w n a b o u t t h e f a t e o f sc i e n c e ( e .g .

g e n e t ic s ) i n R u s s i a u n d e r S t al in , t h e s e c o m m e n t s m a k e s e ns e .

Be r n f e l d ' s a r gu m e n t s l ed t o con f l ic t s wi t h o t he r s oc i a li s ts . Edw i n H oe r n l e ,

o n e o f t h e fo u n d e r s o f t h e G e r m a n C o m m u n i s t P a r t y a n d i ts c h ie f s p o k e s p e r s o n

on educa t i ona l m a t t e r s , c r i t i c i zed h i m f o r h i s a t t em pt t o i m pr ove educa t i ona l

t e chn i ques . Al l t h i s d i d was t o he l p p r op up t he ex i s t i ng bour geo i s r eg i m e . The

t a s k w a s n o t t o r e f o r m b o u r g e o i s c a p it a li s t so c i e t y b u t t o d e s t r o y it . B e r n f e l d

w a s a c c u s e d o f b e i n g a s u p p o r t e r o f c a p i ta l is m a n d a p r o p o u n d e r o f s h a m -

r e v o l u t i o n a r y p e d a g o g i c i d e a l is m .

A n o t h e r c o n f li c t t h a t B e r n f e l d h a d w a s w i t h A l f r e d A d l e r - o r r a t h e r w i th

h i s i n d i v id u a l p s y c h o l o g y . A d l e r w a s a s o c ia l is t a n d a n e a r l y f o l l o w e r o f

F r e u d , b u t h e l a te r b r o k e a w a y f r o m F r e u d a n d f r o m p s y c ho a n a ly s is . B e r n f e l d

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( 1 9 6 9 b , p p . 1 4 0 - 1 4 1 ) c l a im e d t h a t M a r x i s m c o u ld u s e o n l y s c i en t if i c p s y -

cho log ie s in the sense o f a ma te r i a l i s t i c sc i en ti f ic p syc ho log y . Psych oana lys i s

was such a m a te r i a l is t i c sc i en ti f ic p sych o logy ; bu t A d le r i an ind iv idua l p sycho log y

m ixed sc i en t if i c p syc ho log y wi th ph i lo so phy ( spec if i ca l ly , a pe t i t -bourgeo i s ph i -

l o s o p h y o f l i f e ) w h i c h m a d e i t p a r t o f c a p i ta l is t id e o l o g y .

B e r n f e l d , h o w e v e r , c e r t a i n l y d i d n o t d i s a g r ee w i th a l l t h e F r e u d o - M a r x i s t s

o f the t ime . On seve ra l po in t s , h i s v i ews were ve ry c lose to those o f Wi lhe lm

R e i c h . R e i c h , f o r e x a m p l e , a t t a c k e d t h e a u t h o r i t a r i a n c o m p u l s i v e f a m i l y s t ru c -

tu re a s i t ex is t s i n cap i t a li s t soc ie ty (1945 , pp .7 1 -7 9) . Th e fami ly i s pa t r i a rcha l ,

a n d w o m e n a n d c h i l d r e n h a v e n o r i g h ts i n it . T h e a u t h o r i t a r i a n f a m i l y i s f o r

R e i c h ( 1 9 4 5 ) a f a c t o r y f o r a u t h o r i t a ri a n i d e o lo g i e s a n d c o n s e r v a ti v e [ c h a r -

a c t e r] s t r u c t u r e s ( p . 7 2 ) . T h e m a i n p u r p o s e o f t h e f a m i l y i s p o l it ic a l - t o p r o -

d u c e t h e k i n d o f p e r s o n w h o w i l l s u p p o r t t h e e x p l o i t a t i o n a n d d o m i n a t i o n o f

cap i t a l i s t soc ie ty . Be rn fe ld a l so c r i t i c i zed wha t he ca l l ed the bourgeo i s f ami ly .

Wha t i s de s t ruc t ive abou t such a f ami ly i s t he ind iv idua l posse ss ive pa ren t and

t h e k i n d o f O e d i p u s s i t u a t i o n t h i s e n c o u r a g e s . T h e o n l y w a y t o o v e r c o m e t h i s

k ind o f in t ense Oed ipa l r e l a t ionsh ip , he though t , was th rough co l l ec t ive edu-

c a t i o n u n d e r s o c ia li sm . H e r e , t h e c h i l d r e n w o u l d b e a b l e t o i d e n t i f y w i t h t h e i r

t e ache rs , o lde r s tuden t s , and pee r s , i n s t ead o f ju s t t he i r pa ren t s . As we sha l l

see , th i s no t ion o f co l l ec t ive educa t ion was rea l i z ed in the k ibbu tz .

B e r n f e l d a n d R e i c h s h a r e d o t h e r v i ew s - i n p a r t i c u l a r M a r x ' s m i s c o n c e iv e d

n o t i o n t h a t t h e h u m a n s c ie n c e s w e r e p a r t o f t h e n a t u r a l s c i en c e s . R e i c h w a s f o r

a long t ime in t e re s t ed in the econ om ics o f the l ib ido an d i t s quan t if i c a t ion , and

f ina lly fou nd th i s m a te r i a l so r t o f l i b ido in the o rgo ne . Be rn fe ld too a t -

t e m p t e d t o i n t r o d u c e q u a n t i f ic a t io n i n t o p s y c h o a n a l y t i c i n s ti n c t t h e o r y

( E k s te i n , 1 9 6 6 , p . 4 2 4 ) , a n d w a s i n te r e s t ed in t h e m e a s u r e m e n t o f li b id o . H e

sha red the pos i t iv i s t i dea o f the V ienna C i rc l e tha t quan t i f i c a t ion mus t be a

g o a l o f sc i en t if ic t h e o r y . O n e p a p e r h e w r o t e w a s e n t i tl e d C o n c e r n i n g P s y c h i c

E n e r g y , L i b id o , a n d t h ei r M e a s u r e m e n t ( 1 9 3 0 ) . A n o t h e r p a p e r, w h i c h h e c o -

a u t h o r e d , w a s en t i tl e d T h e P r i n c i p le o f E n t r o p y a n d t h e D e a t h I n s ti n c t

( 1 9 3 1 ) . T h e l a t t e r a tt e m p t e d t o b a s e t h e d e a t h i n s ti n c t o n a n u m b e r o f p r i n -

c ip le s o f phys ic s , spec i f ic a l ly tha t o f inc rea s ing e n t ropy .

Be rn fe ld was , i n f ac t , i nvo lved wi th ea r ly ph i lo soph ica l pos i t iv i sm. He d i s -

c u s s e d h is t h e o r i e s w i t h M o r i t z S c h l ic k a n d H a n s R e i c h e n b a c h , b o t h n o t e d p o s i -

t iv is ts . Th rou gh ou t h i s wr i tings , he s t re sse s tha t ped ago gy mus t be com e a

s c ie n c e. H e h a s t h e m o d e l o f a n a t u r a l s c i e n c e i n m i n d . B u t h i s i d e a s a r e b a s e d

o n t h e p o s it iv i s t s e lf - m i s u n d e r s ta n d i n g o f M a r x , a n d M a r x ' s c o n c e p t i o n o f t h e

h u m a n s c ie n c e s a s f o r m s o f n a t u r a l s c ie n c e . I f , fo l lo w i n g M a r x a n d B e r n f e l d ,

p s y c h o a n a l y s i s a n d p e d a g o g y a r e c o n c e i v e d o f a s n a t u r a l s c i e n ce s , t h e n t h e

d im ens ion o f / ib e ra t ion th ro ugh se l f -re f lec t ion i s l o s t. Th i s is a c ruc ia l limi t a t ion

t o B e r n f e l d ' s c o n c e p t i o n o f p e d a g o g y a n d p s y c h o a n a ly s i s , a n d i t m u s t b e k e p t

i n m i n d w h e n h i s t h e o r ie s a r e e x a m i n e d .

O n e t h i n g e m e r g e s f r o m a s u r v e y o f t h e c o n t r o v e r s i e s i n w h i c h B e r n f e l d

w a s i n v o l v e d . T h e s o c i a li s t s a n d F r e u d o - M a r x i s t s o f t h e t i m e w e r e p a s s i o n a te l y

in te re s t ed in theo ry . The d i scuss ions o f i t we re w idesp read and in t ense .

ducational Imp act

A n o t h e r r e a s o n c i te d f o r i n t e r e s t i n B e r n f e l d w a s h i s p r a ct i c a l i n v o l v e m e n t i n

e d u c a t i o n . B e r n f e l d w a s c l e a r ly a n e d u c a t o r h i m s e lf , a n d h i s i n f lu e n c e e x t e n d e d

f a r b e y o n d t h e K i n d e r h e i m B a u m g a r t e n . I n p a r t i c u l a r , h e h a d a s t r o n g i m p a c t

o n J e w i s h e d u c a ti o n . A Z i o n is t, h e s a w P a l e s ti n e a s a J e w i s h h o m e l a n d a n d a t

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o n e t i m e i n t e n d e d t o e m i g r a t e t h e r e , z H e w a s i n v o l v e d w i t h Z i o n i s t y o u t h

g r o u p s , b u t m o r e i m p o r t a n t l y , h e f o u n d e d i n V i e n n a a p r o g r e s si v e t e a c h e r t r a i n -

ing co l l ege ca l l ed the J ewish Paedagog ium. Through th i s in s t i tu t ion , Be rn fe ld

s p r e a d h i s i d e a s o n p r o g r e ss i v e e d u c a t i o n t o y o u n g t e a c h e r s ; s o m e o f t h e s e

t e a c h e r s e n d e d u p i n I s ra e l .

B e r n f e l d w r o t e s e v e r a l b o o k s o n J u d a i sm , i n c lu d i n g o n e e n t i t le d The Jewish

People and Its Youth

( 1 9 1 9 ) . P a r e t ( i n B e r n f e l d , 9 73 ) c o m m e n t s t h a t i n t h is

b o o k , B e r n f e l d :

ou t l ine d a sys tem o f educa t io n in a c l a s sl e ss soc ie ty , in wh ich the s choo l bec am e

a cen t ra l conce rn o f the en t i re communi ty . H i s p roposa l s show s imi la r i t i e s to

t h e e d u c a t i o n a l p r a c t ic e s o f s o m e o f t h e k i b b u t z im , w h i c h , i n d e e d , B e r n f e l d i n -

f l u e n c e d b o t h b y h i s w r i ti n g s a n d t h r o u g h h i s w o r k i n t h e Paedagogium (p .xv i i l )

Thus , th rough h i s a c t iv i t i e s in the t r a in ing o f t e ache rs and th rough h i s edu-

ca t iona l wr i t ings , Be rn fe ld w as ind i rec t ly ve ry in f luen t ia l in the s e t ting up o f the

k i b b u t z s t y le o f e d u c a t i o n . H i s p r o p o s a l t o b r e a k d o w n t h e b o u r g e o i s f a m i l y b y

r e m o v i n g t h e c h i l d r e n a n d p r o v i d i n g t h e m w i t h c o l l ec t iv e e d u c a t i o n h a s b e e n

pu t in to p rac t i c e on the k ibbu tz im. Indeed , s ince the k ibbu tz sys tem i s in l a rge

measure the rea l i z a t ion o f h i s idea s , a c r i t ique o f k ibbu tz educa t ion wi l l a l so

h igh l igh t weaknes se s in h i s th ink ing .

S u c h a c r i t iq u e is p r o v i d e d b y t h e p s y c h o a n a l y s t D a v i d R a p a p o r t . R a p a p o r t

( 1 9 5 8 ) n o t e s t h a t t h e k i b b u tz m o v e m e n t :

a r o s e f r o m t h e Z i o n i s t - S o c i a l i s t y o u t h m o v e m e n t o f E a s t e r n E u r o p e , t h e m a i n

t e n e t s o f w h i c h w e r e : ( a ) Z i o n i st i d e o l o g y ; ( b ) s o c ia l is t i d e o l o g y . . . . [ I t] a r o se

a s a r e b e l li o n a g a i n s t th e r e l ig i ou s , p a t e r n a l i s t i c - f a m i l i a l . . , li fe o f E a s t E u r o -

p e a n J e w r y . ( p . 5 8 8 )

I n t h e k i b b u t z im , t h e u p b r i n g in g o f c h i l d r e n b y p a r e n t s in t h e i r h o m e is

r e p l a c e d b y a n u p b r i n g i n g i n c o m m u n a l c h il d r e n 's h o u s e s ( p . 5 8 9 ) . T h i s is

e x a c t l y B e r n f e l d ' s p r o g r a m . E v e n m o r e s p e c if ic a ll y , t h e a i m i s t o d i s p e n se w i t h

the in s t i tu t ion o f the bourgeo i s fami ly , wh ich re su lt s in the pa t r i a rcha l po s i t ion

o f t h e f a t h e r - p r o v i d e r ( p . 5 9 0 ) . T h i s s o u n d s a s i f i t w a s w r i t te n b y B e r n f e l d

h imse l f .

R a p a p o r t m a k e s t h e f o l l o w i n g o b s e r v a t i o n s a b o u t k i b b u t z c h i l d r e n . T h e

b io log ica l pa ren t s s ti ll p l a y a n e x t rem e ly im por ta n t ro le in the y ou ng ch i ld ' s l if e .

J e a l o u s y is i n t en s e , f o r e x a m p l e , i f t h e p a r e n t s h a v e t h e t a s k o f c a r i n g f o r o t h e r

k ibbu tz ch i ld ren . The mul t ip le pa ren t f igu re s , i nc lud ing the rea l pa ren t s , t e ache rs ,

and o the r ca re take rs , d iv ide the sou rce s o f a f fec t ion and d i s c ip l ine fo r the ch i ld ,

and th i s d iv i s ion l e ads to pa tho log ica l behav io r because o f c l a sh ing loya l t i e s

and inc rea sed conf l i c t s . By h igh s choo l age , howeve r , t he ma in iden t i f i c a t ion

is w i t h t h e p e e r g r o u p , a n d t h e p e e r g r o u p i s t h e m a i n s o u r c e o f s e c u ri ty .

Ra pap or t no te s a h igh inc idence o f enure si s , ma s tu rba t ion , na i l -b it ing ,

thum b-suck ing , f eed ing d if fi cu lt ie s, and unm i t iga ted aggre s s ion am ong the

y o u n g e r c h i ld r e n . H e c o n c l u d e s t h a t s u c h p a t h o l o g y r e su l ts f r o m e a r l y s e p a r a -

t i o n f r o m t h e p a r e n t s a n d f r o m c o l le c ti v e e d u c a t i o n .

C o l l e c t i v e e d u c a t i o n , b y e n f o r c i n g s e p a r a t i o n o f t h e c h i l d f r o m t h e p a r e n t s ,

b r in g s t h e s e p h e n o m e n a a b o u t , a n d t h e y s h o u l d t h e r e f o r e b e c o n s i d e r e d p a t h o -

log ica l symptoms o f s epa ra t ion . Mass upbr ing ing , l a ck ing ind iv idua l c a re and

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a f f e c t i o n , i s r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e s e p h e n o m e n a , w h i c h m u s t t h e r e f o r e b e c o n -

s i d e r e d p a t h o l o g ic a l . ( p . 5 9 4 )

B e r n f e l d , o f c o u r s e , d i d n o t h a v e s o m e o f t h e i n f o r m a t i o n p o s s e s s e d b y

c u r r e n t p s y c h o a n a l y t i c t h e o r y a b o u t e a r ly m o t h e r - c h il d a t t a c h m e n t a n d t h e c o n -

s e q u e n c e s o f e a r l y s e p a r a ti o n . A p p a r e n t l y n e i th e r t h e n u c l e a r f a m i ly n o r t h e

O e d i p u s s i t u a ti o n a r e a s e a s y t o e l i m i n a te a s B e r n f e l d t h o u g h t t h e y w e r e .

R a p a p o r t ( 1 9 5 8 ) c o n c l u d e s h is p a p e r o n a c o n s e r v a t iv e n o t e . I t is l ik e l y

t ha t a s oc i e t y , w ha t ev e r i ts cons c i ou s i n t en t ions , m or e o r l e s s i nev i t ab l y p r o du ces

a m eth od of upbr ing ing w ho se c r i ses and d if fi cu lt ies , as we l l as asse t s , con t r ibu te

t o t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f h u m a n b e i n g s a d a p t e d t o t h a t so c i e t y ( p . 5 9 6 ) . I n t e r -

e s t i n g l y e n o u g h , B e r n f e l d e n d o r s e s a v e r y s i m i l a r n o t i o n a b o u t t h e c o n s e r v a -

t iv e n a t u r e o f e d u c a t i o n .

F reu d o M arxi s t V iew of Ed u cat ion

I n S i s y p h u s o r T h e L i m i t s o f d u c a t i o n ( p u b l i s h e d i n G e r m a n i n 1 9 2 5 a n d

i n E n g l is h in 1 9 7 3 ) B e r n f e l d c h o o s e s F r e u d a n d M a r x a s p a t r o n s a in t s o f t h e

n e w e d u c a t i o n ( p . 4 6 ) . F o r B e r n f e l d ( 1 9 7 3 ) , p o l i ti c a l s o c i o l o g y . . . i n i ts

m o s t s o l i d - M a r x i s t - f o r m s u p p l e m e n t s th e d e p t h a n d v i t al it y o f F r e u d i a n p s y -

c h o l o g y ( p . 4 6 ) . H e s e es h i s t h e o r y a s a n a t t e m p t t o c o n s t r u c t a b r i d g e

a n c h o r e d i n b o t h p i ll a rs [ M a r x a n d F r e u d ] , f r o m w h i c h a b r o a d v i e w o f t h e

e x t e n si v e e d u c a t i o n a l l a n d s c a p e m a y b e o b t a i n e d ( p . 4 5 ) .

B e r n f e l d s t a t e s c l e a r l y t h e r e l a t i o n h e s e e s h o l d i n g b e t w e e n p s y c h o a n a l y s i s

a n d M a r x i s m i n h is p a p e r O n t h e P r o b l e m o f P s y c h o a n al y si s a n d M a r x i s m

( 1 9 2 8 ) . M a r x i s m i s s u p e r o r d i n a t e t o a n y p s y c h o l o g y . M a r x i s m i s t h e b a si s f o r

a w or l d v i ew o f t he p r o l e t a r i an s tr ugg le . I t i s no t a ques t i on o f t he m e l d i ng o f

M a r x i s m w i t h p s y c h o l o g i c a l t e a c h i n g , n o r o f c o m p l e m e n t i n g M a r x i s m w i t h a

p s y c h o l o g i c a l t h e o r y ; t h i s w o u l d s i m p l y e n d i n t h e r e p l a c e m e n t o f M a r x i s m

w i t h s o m e k i n d o f v e i l e d b o u r g e o i s p h i l o s o p h y . R a t h e r p s y c h o l o g y , i n c l u d i n g

p s y c h o a n a l y s is , i s a n o b j e c t o f M a r x i s t t h o u g h t a n d n o t i ts p a rt n e r . M a r x i s m

w i ll u s e p s y c h o l o g y f o r i ts o w n p u r p o s e s o n c e t h e t r u t h o f th e p s y c h o l o g i c a l

a s s e r t i ons a r e e s t ab l i s hed . Mar x i s m can be s t u s e a m a t e r i a l i s t s c i en t i f i c p s y -

cho l ogy . Ps y choa na l ys i s is s uch a p s ycho l ogy .

B e m f e l d n o t e s t h a t p s y c h o l o g y c a n e n t e r d i r e c tl y in t o t h e c la s s st ru g g l e a s a n

i ns t r um en t o f bou r ge o i s exp l o i t a ti on . I t i s u s ed a s s uch i n t he i n t e l le c t ua l t e s ti ng

o f s c h o o l c h i ld r e n a n d w o r k e r s , i n t h e p r o v i s i o n o f p u b l i c a s s i st a n ce a n d s o o n .

T h i s i s a v e r y c l e a r a s s e ss m e n t o f t h e r e la t io n s h i p b e t w e e n M a r x i s m a n d

p s y c h o a n a l y s is . M a r x i s t t h o u g h t i s b a s ic . M a r x i s m c a n u s e p s y c h o a n a l y s i s i n i ts

praxi s insofar as psychoanalys i s i s sc ient i f i c . As noted , i t was th i s sc ient i f i c v iew

o f p s y c h o a n a l y s i s t h a t l e d B e m f e l d i n t o e r r o r.

I n h i s p a p e r O v e r e s t im a t i o n o f t h e S c h o o l ( 1 9 2 7 ) , B e r n f e l d a r g u es t h a t

t he s cho o l s , th r oug h c l eve r po l i ti c a l m an i pu l a t i on , s e r ve t he po l it i cs o f the r i gh t

w i n g p a rt ie s . E d u c a t i o n i s a n a w f u l m a c h i n e w h i c h f u n c t i o n s b y i n t im i d a t in g

t h e c h i ld . I t p r o d u c e s o n l y m e d i o c r i ty . T h e s c h o o l is th e d o m a i n o f t h e b o u r -

g e o i s i e . B e r n f e l d a s k s w h e t h e r w e r e q u i r e c o m p e t i t i v e e x a m i n a t i o n s . D o w e

e v e n h a v e t o h a v e s c h o o l s ? H i s a n s w e r i s t h a t n e i t h e r e x a m i n a t i o n s n o r s c h o o l s

a r e n e c e s s a ry . R e a l e d u c a t i o n i s a g a in s t t h em . W e h a v e t h e p r e s e n t s y s t e m f o r

p o li ti ca l r e as o n s. M a n y o f th e s e c o m m e n t s s o u n d v e r y m o d e m .

B e r n f e l d c r it ic i ze s p e d a g o g y i n t w o p a p e r s . H e c o n s i d e rs i t f r o m a p s y c h o -

a n a l y ti c p e r s p e c t iv e in th e p a p e r C r i ti c is m o f t h e M a n n e r i n w h i c h P s y c h o -

a n a l y si s h a s h it h e r to b e e n a p p l i e d t o P e d a g o g i c s ( 1 9 2 4 ) a n d f ro m t h e M a r x i s t

p e r s p e c t iv e i n S o c i a li s t C r i ti q u e o f E d u c a t i o n ( 1 9 2 6 ) .

7 8


8/21

I n t h e f ir s t p a p e r , B e r n f e l d d e f i n es p e d a g o g y as t h e s u m o f t h e r e a c ti o n s

o f a d u l t s o c i e ty t o t h e f a c t o f o n t o g e n e t i c d e v e l o p m e n t ( p . 5 1 0 ) . I n d e a l i n g

w i t h p e d a g o g y , p s y c h o a n a l y s i s m u s t c o m e t o g r i ps w i t h t h e h i d d e n m o t i v e s f o r

e d u c a t i o n , w i t h t h e d i f f er e n t k i n d s o f p e d a g o g i c i d e o lo g u e s a n d t h e r a t i o n a l i -

z a t i o n s t h e y u s e . P s y c h o a n a l y s i s le a d s t o a d e c i d e d l y p e s s im i s ti c v i ew o f p e d a -

gogy . The ch i ld i s no t p l a s t i c and f l ex ib le . Ra the r , p sychoana lys i s :

g i v es u s n o o c c a s i o n t o r e g a r d c h i l d h o o d a s a p e r i o d o f p a r t ic u l a r p l a s ti c it y ; i t

s h o w s , o n t h e c o n t r a r y , t h a t t h e y o u n g e r t h e p e r s o n t h e m o r e h e is b o u n d b y

in f l ex ib le inhe r i t ed and in s t inc tua l t r ends , t he l e ss he i s a cce ss ib le to [ educa -

t iona l ] i n f luence . (p .510)

I n t h e s e c o n d p a p e r , B e r n f e l d i n si st s t h a t p e d a g o g y m u s t b e c o m e a s c i e n c e,

bu t aga in misco nce ives th i s k ind o f sc i ence as a na tu ra l sc i ence . H e says i t ha s

bee n t ac i t ly a ssum ed tha t p edag ogy i s a ne u t ra l sc i ence va lid fo r a ll. T h i s i s

n o t t h e c a s e. I n s t e a d , t h e r e i s b o u r g e o i s p e d a g o g y a n d s o c ia l is t p e d ag o g y . P e d a -

g o g y a s i t e x is ts i s r e a l l y c a m o u f l a g e d b o u r g e o is p e d a g o g y . B o u r g e o i s p e d a g o g y

i s no t a sc i ence and can n eve r bec om e one . I t ful fil ls i t s func t ion p rec i se ly be -

c a u s e o f i t s u n s c ie n t if i c n a t u r e . I t i s a n i n s t r u m e n t u s e d b y t h e b o u r g e o i s ie i n

the c lass s t ruggle .

B o u r g e o i s p o l it ic a l a n d e c o n o m i c s c i e n c e s e rv e s t o c o n c e a l t h e t r u e s t a te o f

a f fai r s . S imi la r ly , i n the gu i se o f a n eu t ra l an d u n ive r sa l ly va l id sc i ence , bou r -

geo i s pedagogy concea l s the fac t s o f educa t ion . I t en l i s t s i dea l i s t i c th ink ing in

sup por t o f eve ry in s t i tu t ion tha t se rves c l a ss dom inan ce : sch oo l , f ami l i a l ch i ld -

r e a ri n g , a n d s o o n . B u t f a m i l y a n d s c h o o l a r e n o t i n s ti tu t io n s t h a t d e v e l o p

e t e r n a l i d e a l h u m a n g o a l s i n c h i l d r e n , a s b o u r g e o i s p e d a g o g y a s s e r t s . R a t h e r

t h e y h a v e a r i s e n f r o m t h e e c o n o m i c c o n d i t i o n s o f b u s i ne s s a n d t h e y d e v e l o p

accord ing to the cu r ren t s t a t e o f the c l a ss s t rugg le . Bourgeo i s pedagogy , d i s -

g u i s e d a s s ci e nc e , is u s e d t o p r o v e t h a t s c h o o l a n d f a m i l y d o n o t s e r v e t h e

r u l i n g c la s s b u t a r e t h e o n l y w a y o f b r i n g in g u p , f o r e x a m p l e , a r e l ig i o us a n d

e t h i c a l p er s o n . B o u r g e o i s p e d a g o g y i s th e r e f o r e , f o r M a r x i s m , a n e x a m p l e o f

t h e i d e o l o g i c a l s u p e r s t r u c t u r e o f t h e c a p i t a l i s t e c o n o m i c s y s t e m . I t s e r v e s t o

cam ouf lage the c / ass s t rugg le .

S o c ia li st p e d a g o g y d o e s n o t r e a l l y e x is t y e t. T h e r e a r e o n l y m e a g r e s t a rt s a t

i t. Soc ia l is t pedag ogy wi l l be a sc i ence , and on ly soc ia l i s t peda gog y can b e a

s c ie n c e . I t is i m p o r t a n t i n t h e p r o l e t a r i a n s t ru g g l e to d e m o n s t r a t e t h a t b o u r g e o i s

ped ago gy is no t sc ien t if i c. A rad ica l soc ia l is t c r i t ique o f co n tem po ra ry edu-

ca t ion i s t he beg inn ing o f a fu tu re soc ia l is t peda gog y and educa t ion .

Th i s p o l i t ic a l ana lys i s o f pedago gy is t yp ica l o f Bem fe ld . I t i s a lso typ ica l

o f M arx i s t ana lys is . Bu t Be rn fe ld ' s no t ion o f a sc i en ti f ic soc ial is t pedag ogy i s

p rob lema t i c . Soc ia l i s t pedagogy i s t hough t o f a s a na tu ra l sc i ence a long pos i -

t iv i s t l ine s . An d ye t i t i s to b e fo un de d on c r i ti que . Pos i tiv i s t sci ence i s found ed

on measu remen t . I t exc ludes c r i t i c a l r e f l e c t ion and se l f - re f l ec t ion . Bu t c r i t i que

i s founded on ju s t such c r i t i c a l r e f l e c t ion and se l f - re f l ec t ion . Thus Be rn fe ld ' s

no t io n o f a sc i en ti f ic soc ia li s t ped ago gy con ta ins in t e rna l con t rad ic t ion . Th i s i s

no t su rp r i s ing s ince , a s p rev iou s ly no ted , Ma rx i s t t he o ry i t se lf con ta ins an iden t i -

ca l con t rad ic t ion .

ducat ional Limits

W e n o w t u r n t o B e r n f e l d ' s m a j o r w o r k ,

Sisyphus or The Limits of ducation

( 1 9 2 5 ) . B u t a s E k s t e i n ( 1 9 7 7 ) p o i n ts o u t, B e r n f e ld a t t h a t t im e w o r k e d w i th

7 9


9/21

p s y c h o a n a l y t i c th e o r i e s a n d m o d e l s o f t h e m i n d w h i c h w e c o n s i d e r t o d a y o u t -

da t ed , t he r e f o r e , o f cou r s e , [ t hey ] do no t l end t hem s e l ves we l l t o i n t eg r a t e

s o c i o lo g i c a l a n d p s y c h o lo g i c a l c o n c e p t s ( p . 2 ) .

T h e r e h a s b e e n m u c h r e s e a r c h d o n e i n p s y c h o a n a l y s i s s i n c e 1 9 2 5 . A t t h a t

t im e , t h e a n a ly s is o f c h il d re n h a d b a r e l y b e g u n . F r e u d ' s b o o k Th e E g o a n d Id

( 1 9 2 3 b ) , w h i c h f o r m u l a t e d t h e s tr u c tu r a l t h e o r y o f t h e m i n d n o w m o s t w i d e ly

u s e d i n p s y c h o a n a l y s i s , h a d b e e n p u b l i s h e d o n l y t w o y e a r s p r e v i o u s l y , a n d

B e m f e l d d o e s n o t u s e F r e u d ' s s t r u c t u r a l m o d e l . F u r t h e r m o r e , B e r n f e l d i s o n l y

c o n c e r n e d w i t h t h e O e d i p a t a n d n o t t h e p r e - O e d i p a l d e v e l o p m e n t o f t h e c h i ld

( i. e . be f o r e age f i ve ) . Seve r a l wr i te r s , e s pec i a l l y M e l an i e K l e in , ha ve s ho wn

t ha t t h i s pe r i od i s c r uc i a l f o r t he ch i l d ' s deve l opm en t and f o r t he p r e s ence o r

abs en ce o f i n t e l le c t ua l and l e a r n i ng i nh i b i ti ons . Be r n f e l d l a cked t he know l edge

w e n o w h a v e o f t h is e a r l y p e r io d . 4

Be r n f e l d was equa l l y r e s t r i c t ed i n t he s cope o f h i s po l i t i c a l t heo r y . By 1925 ,

t he Rus s i an po l i t i c a l expe r i m en t was l e s s t han a decade o l d . Be r n f e l d r e l i e s

c o m p l e t e l y o n M a r x f o r h i s p o l i t i c a l t h e o r y . M o d e r n c r i t i c a l t h e o r y h a d n o t

y e t a p p e a r e d . M a r x i s t a n d n e o - M a r x i s t w r it e rs s u c h a s Ji ir g e n H a b e r m a s , L u c i e n

G o l d m a n n , H e n r i L e f ~ b v r e , T h e o d o r A d o r n o , H e r b e r t M a r c u s e , M a x H o r k e n -

h e i m e r, a n d L o u i s A l t h u s s e r ( t o n a m e a fe w o f t h e m o r e im p o r t a n t o n e s ) h a d

no t s t a r t ed t o w r i te . G eor g Luk~ ic s had j u s t begun h i s w or k - History and Class

Consciousness

w a s p u b l i sh e d i n 1 9 2 3 . I n

Sisyphus

B e r n f e l d r e f e r s o n l y t o M a r x .

H i s p s y c h o a n a l y t i c th e o r i e s a n d h is M a r x i s m a r e t h e r e f o r e r e la t iv e l y cr u d e , a n d

a r e b o r r o w e d d i r ec tl y f r o m e it h er M a r x o r F r e u d . H e c o m m e n t s t h a t b o t h M a r x

a n d F r e u d a r e r ig h t, t h o u g h n o t t h e M a r x i s t s o r t h e F r e u d i a n s ( p . 6 4 ) . B u t i t

i s t he com bi na t i on o f t he s e t wo po i n t s o f v i ew d i r ec t ed s pec i f i c a l l y a t educa t i on

w h i c h m a k e s Sisyphus par t i cu la r ly in te res t ing .

B e r n f e l d d e f in e s e d u c a t i o n a s t h e r e a c t i o n o f s o c i e ty t o t h e f a c ts o f m a t u r a -

t i on and dev e l opm en t . Th i s de f in i ti on m a kes i t nece s s a r y t o l ook a t s oc i a l

s t ru c t u r e i n o r d e r t o t h e o r i z e a b o u t e d u c a t i o n . E d u c a t i o n i s f o r B e r n f e l d a

s oc i a l p r oce s s ; i t ex i s ts on l y wh en , bu t a l way s wh en , ch i l dho od i s expe r i enc ed in

s o c i e t y ( p . 3 2 ) .

T h e r e a r e t w o g r o u p s o f f a c t o rs - s o c i o p o l i t i c a l a n d i n d iv i d u a l p s y c h o l o g i -

c a l - wh i ch l i m i t t he pos s i b il it ie s o f educa t i on . Th e s oc i a l l i m i t i s tha t edu -

ca t i on i s i nhe r en t l y cons e r va t i ve . I n Mar x i s t t e r m i no l ogy , i t i s a s oc i a l i n f r a -

s t r u c tu r e w h o s e f u n c t io n i n g i s d e t e rm i n e d a n d l im i t e d b y t h e f u n c t i o n in g o f t h e

s o ci al o r d e r a s a w h o l e . B e r n f e l d ( 1 9 7 3 ) a r g u ed th a t e d u c a t i o n . . . w a s a t a ll

t im e s c o n s e r v a ti v e , a l w a y s d e v o t e d t o t h e p r e s e r v a t io n o f t h e s t a tu s q u o ( p . x x i ) .

T h e i d e a s o d e a r t o t h e h e a r t s o f m a n y A m e r i c a n e d u c a t o r s d u ri n g t h e 1 9 6 0 s

t h a t o n e c o u l d p r o m o t e s o c i a l c h a n g e t h r o u g h e d u c a t i o n a l r e f o r m i s t h u s s p e -

c i f ic a l ly den i ed by B e r n f e l d .

Ed uca t i on i s i nhe r en t l y co ns e r va t i ve and i t s o r gan i za t i on e s pec i a l l y s o . N eve r

h a s e d u c a t i o n p r e p a r e d c h a n g e s i n t h e so c i a l s t ru c t u re . A l w a y s - w i t h o u t e x c e p -

t i o n - i t w a s t h e r e su l t o f c ha n g e s th a t h a d a l r e a d y t a k e n p l a c e . . . . W e h a v e

n o w . . , a r e a l a n d i n s u r m o u n t a b l e li m i t o f e d u c a t i o n . A l l e d u c a t io n is c o n s e r -

va t i ve r e l a t i ve t o t he s oc i e t y t ha t does t he educa t i ng and i t i n t ens i f i e s and i n -

c r e as e s t h e p o w e r o f th e ed u c a ti n g g r o u p . . . I f y o u w a n t t o c h a n g e [ th e e d u -

ca t i ona l s ys t em ] o r s om e de t a i l o f i t , you m us t f i r s t change t he s oc i a l s t r uc t u r e

o r t he co r r e l a t ive de t a i l i n it . . . Th i s in s i gh t i n t o t he s oc ia l l im i t s o f educa t i on

n e g a t e s a n y e f f o r t to e f fe c t m a r k e d c h a n g e s i n e d u c a t i o n b e f o r e t h e s o c ia l s tr u c -

t u r e h a s b e e n c h a n g e d . ( 1 9 7 3 , p p . 9 0 ; 9 2 ; 9 3 )

8 0


10/21

C o m p a r e B e r n f e l d ' s s t a te m e n t w i th a s im i l ar c o m m e n t m a d e b y J o e l S p r in g

( 1 9 7 5 ) o n p r e s e n t - d a y e d u c a t io n . T h e g o a ls a n d m e t h o d s o f e d u c a t i o n h a v e

m i r r o r e d t h e g o a l s a n d i n t er e s ts o f t h o s e w h o h a v e p o w e r i n s o c ie t y . T h i s s it u -

a t i o n h a s r e s u l t e d i n p u b l i c e d u c a t i o n b e i n g u s e d p r i m a r i l y a s a c o n s e r v a t i v e

f o r c e f o r th e s o l u ti o n o f s o c ia l p r o b l e m s ( p . 1 3 1 ) . T h o u g h f i ft y y e a r s s e p a ra t e

t h e s e t w o c o m m e n t s , t h e ir s u b s t a n c e i s t h e s a m e .

I t is e a s y to s e e h o w t h e f a il u re o f t h e B a u m g a r t e n C h i l d r e n 's H o m e i n -

f l uenced B e r n f e l d ' s f o r m ul a t i on o f t h is p r i nc i p le . B u t i f s uch a l i m i t is va l i d , t hen

i t s i m p l i c a t i o n s a r e o f t h e g r e a t e s t i m p o r t a n c e . E d u c a t o r s m u s t e i t h e r b e c o m e

po l i t i c a l l y i nvo l ved o r e l s e r e s i gn t hem s e l ves t o t he f ac t t ha t educa t i ona l po l i cy

i s f o r ev e r t he p l ay t h i ng o f po l it i c a l f o r ce s and econ om i c change . Be r n f e l d ' s

c l a im h e r e i s bo r ne ou t by r ecen t h i s to r y . I n a t im e o f po li t ic a l l i be r a li s m and

e c o n o m i c p r o s p e r i ty ( t h e 1 9 6 0 s ) , e d u c a t i o n a l p o l ic y w a s l i b er a l a n d f u n d i n g

o v e r a b u n d a n t . W i th t h e r e t r e n c h m e n t o f th e c a p i ta l is t e c o n o m i e s a n d t h e a s s o -

c i a t ed i nc r ea s e o f po l i t i c a l cons e r va t i s m i n t he 1970s , educa t i on i s now r e -

s pond i ng to cons e r va t i ve , f undam en t a l i s t p r e s s u re s . Th i s i s t he ba ck t o t he

b a s ic s m o v e m e n t , a n d T h o m a s W e l ls ( 1 9 7 6 a ) , t h e O n t a r i o M i n i s te r o f E d u -

c a t io n , s u m m e d i t al l u p i n a s p e e c h o n O c t o b e r 6, 1 9 7 6 . I b e l i e v e t h a t i n s o m e

r e s p e c t s t h e p e n d u l u m o f c h a n g e i n e d u c a t i o n a l l a c r o s s N o r t h A m e r i c a s w u n g

a li tt le to o f a r d u ri n g th e 1 9 6 0 s. T o d a y . . . w e a r e e as in g t h e p e n d u lu m b a c k .

Th e pen du l um i n t h is c a s e wa s educ a t i ona l po l icy ; W e l l s wa s r e f e r ri ng s pec if i-

ca l l y t o h i s p r opo s a l s f o r t he i nc r ea s ed cen t r a li z a ti on , cod i f ic a t ion , an d r ig i d i-

f y i n g o f s c h o o l c u r ri c u la . B u t t h e s p r i n g w h i c h d r o v e t h e p e n d u l u m w a s p o l i -

t i c s and econom i cs .

The r e a r e a l s o p s ycho l og i ca l l i m i t s t o educa t i on , and t he s e r e s u l t f r om

h u m a n n a t u r e. B e m f e l d ( 1 9 7 3 ) c o m m e n t s th a t w h i l e t h e c h il d is b y n o m e a n s

as m a l l eab l e a s wax , i t i s f a r m or e p l a s t i c t han m e t a l . The p r ec i s e deg r ee and

l im i t s o f h is m a l l eab i li t y r em a i n an i m po r t an t p r ob l em , t o t he s o l u t i on o f wh i ch

t h e s c ie n c e o f e d u c a t i o n h a s s o f a r c o n t r ib u t e d l it tl e ( p . 1 1 1 ) .

Be r n f e l d ' s t heo r y o f hum an na t u r e and t he l i m i t s o f i t s m a l l eab i l i t y i s o f

c o u r s e b a s e d o n p s y c h o a n a l y t i c p o s t u l a t e s . B o t h t h e e d u c a t o r a n d t h e c h i l d

a r e l i m i t ed by t he i r inhe r i t ed n a t u r e s i n t he ex t en t t o w h i ch t hey can pa r t i c i pa t e

p r o d u c t i v e l y i n t h e e d u c a t i o n a l p r o c e s s . H e p o s t u l a te s t h r e e p s y c h o l o g i c a l l im i ts :

[ F i rs t ] i s t he l im i t de f i ned b y t he p s ych i c r ea l i ti e s wi t h i n t he edu ca t o r h i m s e l f.

A s e c o n d o n e , e n c o u n t e r e d l o n g a g o b u t n o w e x p li c it ly re c o g n i z e d a s s u ch , i s

f ound i n t he p s ych i c cons t an t s t ha t p l ace r e s t r i c t i ons on a l l g r and pedagog i ca l

p r o j e c ts . T h e t h i r d l i m i t . . , l ie s i n th e e d u c a b i l i ty o f t h e c h il d. ( 1 9 7 3 , p . 1 0 9 ) 5

Th e f ir s t and t h i r d l i m i ts a r e c lea r . The s e cond wi t h it s r e f e r ences t o p s ych i c

cons t an t s p l ac i ng r e s t ri c t ions on a l l g r and pedag og i ca l p r o j ec t s is obs cu r e .

Th i s i s Be r n f e l d ' s c r i t i que o f educa t i ona l i dea l i s m , wh i ch he r ega r ds a s e s s en -

t i a ll y na r c i ss i st i c i n na t u r e . U nb ou nd ed zea l and op t i m i s m i n educa t i ona l en -

d e a v o u r s , t h e k i n d o f t h in k i n g t h a t a s k s o n l y t h e o p p o r t u n i t y t o m o u l d t h e

ch i l d i n o r d e r t o chang e the wor l d , is , i n Be r n f e l d ' s op in i on , de t e r m i ne d by

u n c o n s c i o u s p r o c e s se s . U n l i m i t e d e d u c a t i o n a l o p t im i s m i s n o t r a ti o n a l. T h e

t h r ee p s ych o l og i ca l li m i ts o f ed uca t i on a r e , t hen , t he p s y ch i c li m i t a ti ons o f the

e d u c a t o r ( l a rg e l y d e t e rm i n e d b y h i s u n c o n s c i o u s m e n t a l p r o c e s s e s ) , t h e n e c e s -

s i ty o f r e st r ic t ing edu ca t i ona l a i m s t o a cco r d wi t h a r a t iona l app r a i s a l o f hum an

n a t u r e ( p s y c h i c c o n s t a n t s ) , a n d t h e l im i t e d e d u c a b i li t y o f t h e c h il d.

The ch i l d wi t h i n t he educa t o r , h i s uncons c i ous f unc t i on i ng , l i m i t s h i s ab i l i t y

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t o f unc t i on e f f ec t i ve ly a s an educa t o r . Says Be r n f e l d : M an i s a s lave o f h is

p s y c h i c p r o c e s s e s w h i c h a f te r a l l m a k e h i m w h a t h e i s ( 1 9 7 3 , p . 3 6 ) . T h i s a p -

p l i e s equa l l y t o t he ch i l d . The ch i l d i s no t ha p r i nc i p l e i n f i n i t e l y educab l e , a s

b e h a v i o r i s ts w o u l d h a v e u s b e l ie v e . N o r w o u l d B e r n f e l d h a v e a n y p a t i e n c e w i t h

t he l i tt l e f l owe r t heo r y o f ch i l d ren , t he t heo r y t ha t s ays ch i l d r en a r e j u s t l i ke

l it tl e f l o w e r s - c a r e f o r t h em , w a t e r t h e m a t t h e r ig h t t im e , g i v e t h e m e n o u g h

l igh t and s us t enance , and t hey wi l l g r o w s t r a igh t an d t a ll , even t ua l l y t o b l o s -

s om f o r t h . R a t h e r t he ch i l d is f u l l o f li b i d ina l a nd d e s t r uc t i ve pa s s i ons . The

s choo l s e t s i ts e l f s pec if i c a ll y aga i ns t s uch pa s s i ons - i t s j ob i s t o s oc i a li z e t hem .

T h u s , t h e s c h o o l :

i s com pe l l ed t o ac t coun t e r t o t he ch i l d r en ' s i nhe r i t ed u r ges and aga i ns t t he i r

s p o n t a n e o u s d e s i r e s a n d i n t e r e s t s . W h e t h e r m e t h o d s a r e b r u t a l o r h u m a n e , i t

i s f o r e v e r i n o p p o s i t i o n t o t h e p o w e r s o f n a t u r e . T o t h e c h i l d i t r e p r e s e n t s t h e

h a r s h n e s s a n d c o m p l e x i t y o f s o c i al r e a li ty . . . . ( 1 9 7 3 , p . 5 5 )

T h e a r g u m e n t s B e r n f e l d a d d u c e s i n s u p p o r t o f s u c h l i m i t s t o e d u c a t i o n

a r e

c o m p l e x . T h e y m u s t b e r e c o n s t r u c t e d a n d e x a m i n e d i n d e ta i l.

E d u c a t i o n a l T h e o r y a C r i t i q u e

Ber n f e l d beg i ns wi t h a c r i t i que o f educa t i ona l t heo r y a s i t ex i s t ed i n 1925

( an d p r ob ab l y st il l ex i st s t od ay ) - t ha t i t i s com pl e t e l y uns c i en ti f ic and am oun t s

t o l it tl e m o r e t h a n p e d a g o g i c a l s e r m o n s . T h e f u n c t i o n o f e d u c a t i o n a l t h e o r y

i s t o m a k e e d u c a t i o n a l p r a c t i c e r a t io n a l . B u t c l e a r ly b o u r g e o i s e d u c a t i o n a l

t heo r y ha s f a i l ed i n t h i s t a s k . As ev i dence , Be r n f e l d c i t e s t he wi de va r i a t i ons

i n e d u c a t i o n a l p r a ct ic e s . T h e s e p r a c ti c e s h a v e r u n t h e g a m u t f r o m l o v e t o

ha r s h d i s c i p l i ne , hav e em br ac ed bo t h ac t i v i ty and r e s t r a in t by t he t e ache r , and

hav e r equ i r ed f r ee exp r e s s i on f o r t he ch i ld ' s i m pu l s e s a s we l l a s t he i r r e -

p r e s s io n . T h e f a il u r e o f e d u c a t i o n a l t h e o r y i s a r e s u lt o f t h e s a m e p s y c h o l o g i c a l

and s oc i a l ba r r i e r s w h i ch l im i t educa t i on i n gene r a l .

T h e u n s c ie n t if ic c h a r a c t e r o f p e d a g o g y r e su l ts f r o m a n u m b e r o f p s y c h i c a n d

s oc i a l cond i t i ons and t ha t i n t u r n f i ts i t to be an i n s t r um en t o f c e r t a in p s y ch i c

and s oc i a l f o r ce s in ou r s oc i e t y . ( Be r n f e l d , 1923 , p . 2 9 )

Be r n f e l d , a s we hav e s een , ha s a pa r t i cu l a r no t i on o f a s c i en t i fi c educ a t i ona l

t heo r y . A s c i en t if ic pedag og y is pos s i b l e on l y i n a s oc i a l is t s ta t e , a s pa r t o f a

t heo r y o f d i a l ec t ic a l m a t e r i a l is m .

T h e u n c o n s c i o u s a n d t h e r e p r e s s e d a s t h e y o p e r a t e b o t h i n e d u c a t o r a n d

ch i l d p l ace s eve r e l i m i t s on educa t i on . The Oed i pa l f o r ce i s a l s o i m por t an t he r e .

R e p r e s s i o n e x p u n g e s f r o m m e m o r y t h e p a s s i o n a t e a n d v i o l e n t u r g e s o f c h i ld -

h o o d . N e v e r t h e l es s , t h e y c o n t i n u e t o o p e r a t e u n c o n s c i o u s l y i n t h e e d u c a t o r ,

m ak i ng ob j ec t i v i t y i n edu ca t i on ve r y d if la cu lt t o o b t a i n .

Fo r B e r n f e l d , e duc a t i on i n cap i t a l is t s oc i e t y i s e ss en t i a ll y a pa i r r e l a t i ons h i p

- t h a t i s , a b o n d b e t w e e n a s i n g l e e d u c a t o r a n d a s i n g l e c h i l d . T h i s d o e s n o t

m ean t ha t t he c / a s s s i z e i s one s t uden t . I t m eans t ha t e ach ch i l d f o r m s an em o-

t i ona l bond wi t h h i s own t eache r , and t he t e ache r s i m i l a r l y ha s a pe r s ona l

r e l a t i ons h i p wi t h each ch i l d . Th i s r e l a t i ons h i p ha s a num ber o f cons equences .

B e r n f e l d s t a te s th a t w h e n p e o p l e a r e in p a i r g r o u p s, w e w il l m e e t t h e e te r n a l

c o n s t a n t o f t h e u n i n h i b i te d o u t b r e a k o f a d u l t e m o t i o n ( p . 3 6 ) E d u c a t i o n a s a

p a i r - g ro u p a c t iv i ty c a n n o t s a t i sf y t h e a d u lt . E d u c a t o r s h a v e a p a r a d o x i c a l l o v e

8 2


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f o r c h i l d r e n , w h i c h i s b a s e d o n a p o w e r f u l u n c o n s c i o u s l o v e u r g e . T h i s i s n o t

s exua l l ove i n i ts f u l l f o r m , bu t goa l - de f l ec t ed l ove . Th e educ a t o r ' s l ove i s

g e n u i n e b u t s u b l i m a t e d .

B u t t h e g r e a t e s t p r o b l e m w i t h p a i r - g r o u p e d u c a t i o n i s t h e r e p r e s s e d u n -

c o n s c i o u s O e d i p a l w i s h i n b o t h e d u c a t o r a n d c h i ld . I f a n y re l a ti o n s h i p b e -

t ween ch i l d and educa t o r ex i s t s a t a l l , i t w i l l on bo t h s i de s deve l op i n t o t he

O e d i p a l t y p e ( p . 1 0 6 ) . H o w e v e r , t hi s O e d i p u s c o m p l e x a t t h e b a s e o f a ll p e r -

s ona l educa t i on a l r e l a t ions h i ps p r ev en t s t he i r be i ng con t r o l l ed by r a t i ona l pu r -

p o s e s ( p . l 1 4 ) . T h u s e d u c a t i o n a l r e la t io n s h i p s b e t w e e n e d u c a t o r a n d c h il d

f a ll unde r t he s w ay o f r ep r e s s ed de s i r e s . Co l l ec t i ve edu ca t i on i n a s oc i a l is t

s o c i e ty is d e s ig n e d t o o v e r c o m e p r e c i s e l y t h is p r o b l e m o f O e d i p a l d y n a m i c s .

T h e c h i l d f e e l s l o v e a n d / o r h a t e t o w a r d t h e e d u c a t o r a s i t d i d t o w a r d i t s

f a t h e r o r m o t h e r . T h e e d u c a t o r a c c e p t s t h i s r o l e w h i c h i s f o r c e d u p o n h i m a n d

c o n ti n u es t h e p ar e n ts ' w o r k - t h a t is , h e w o r k s t o w a r d t h e r es o l u ti o n o f t h e

c h i ld ' s O e d i p u s c o m p l e x . H o w e v e r , h e a l s o l o v e s th e c h i l d a n d a s s u m e s t h is r o l e

u n d e r t h e i n f l ue n c e o f h i s o w n O e d i p u s c o m p l e x . T h e c h i ld h e c o n f r o n t s i n t h e

s choo l i s p s ych o l og i ca l l y t he edu ca t o r ' s s e l f a s a ch i l d , wi t h t he s am e des ir e s ,

con f li c ts , and f a t e . Hi s o v e r t r e s p o n s e t o t h e c h i l d i s c o n d i t i o n e d b y w h a t h is

p a r e n t s d i d t o h i m , e v e n t h o u g h h i s o v e r t r e s p o n s e m a y b e o p p o s i t e . T h e e d u -

ca t o r t hus f i l l s a doub l e r o l e a s ch i l d and a s educa t o r . So , i n t he educa t i ona l

pa i r r e l a t i ons h i p , t he r e a r e t wo ch i l d r en p r e s en t : t he ch i l d be i ng educa t ed and

t h e r e p r e s s e d c h i ld o f th e e d u c a t o r . B o t h c h i ld r e n a r e t r e a t e d b y t h e e d u c a t o r

i n s i m i l a r f a s h i on .

T h i s s i tu a t i o n c a n e a s il y l e a d t o p ro b l e m s . B o t h c h i l d r e n w i s h t o r e -

e x p e r i e n c e t h e O e d i p u s r e l a ti o n s h ip b u t t h e e g o o f t h e e d u c a t o r t a k e s v e n g e a n c e

w h e n t h e e d u c a t o r ' s e g o r e j e c t s th e a c t u a l r e - c re a t io n o f th e O e d i p u s l o v e s i tu -

a t io n . T h i s v e n g e a n c e t a k e s t h e f o r m o f m i s t re a t m e n t o f t h e c h il d b e i n g e d u c a t e d

a n n o y a n c e , o v e r - s t ri c tn e s s a n d s o o n .

Hi s t o r i ca l D e v e l o p m e n t

B e r n f e l d p u t s f o r w a r d a r a t h e r c o n f u s i n g t h e o r y o f t h e h i s t o r i c a l d e v e l o p m e n t

o f e d u c a t i o n . I t i s b a s e d s q u a r e ly o n t h e p r i m a l h o r d e t h e o r y p r o p o u n d e d b y

F r e u d . F r e u d d e r i v e d h i s s p e c u l a ti v e t h e o r y f ro m w h a t h e c a l le d a c o n j e c t u r e

o f D a r w i n ' s t o t h e e f fe c t t h a t t h e p r i m i t iv e f o r m o f h u m a n s o c i e ty w a s t h a t o f

a h o r d e r u l e d d e sp o t i c a ll y b y a p o w e r f u l m a l e ( S E , V o l . 1 8 , p . 1 2 2 ) . F r e u d ' s

r e c o n s t r u c t io n o f w h a t w e fi n d i n t h e p r i m a l h o r d e i s a s f o l lo w s :

a v i o l en t and j e a l ous f a t he r who keeps a l l t he f em a l e s f o r h i m s e l f and d r i ve s

a w a y h i s s o n s a s t h e y g r o w u p . . . . I f t h e y ro u s e d t h e i r fa t h e r 's j e a l o u s y t h e y

w e r e k il le d o r c a s tr a te d o r d r iv e n o u t . . . . O n e d a y t h e b ro t h e rs w h o h a d b e e n

d r i v e n o u t c a m e to g e t h e r, k i l le d a n d d e v o u r e d t h e ir f a t h e r a n d s o m a d e a n e n d

o f t h e p a t r i a rc h a l h o r d e . . . . C a n n i b a l s a v a g e s a s t h e y w e r e , i t g o e s w i t h o u t

s ay i ng t ha t t hey devour ed t he i r v i c t i m a s we l l a s k i l l i ng h i m . ( SE , VoL13 , pp .

1 4 1 - 1 4 2 ; V o i . 2 3 , p . 8 1 )

F r e u d s p e c u l a t e s t h a t t h i s e v e n t c o v e r e d t h o u s a n d s o f y e a r s a n d w a s r e -

pea t ed coun t l e s s t i m es . H e re f e r s t o i t a s a j u s t - s o s t o r y and a s a s c i en t if i c

m y t h . W h a t h e a p p e a r s t o b e d o i n g is g i vi n g a d e s c r ip t i o n o f p s y c h i c r e a li ty

r a t he r t han h i s t o r i ca l r e a l i t y . Howeve r , he wave r s on t h i s po i n t , s i nce t he r e a r e

t h r e e

d i f f e ren t ve rs i ons o f t he p r i m a l h o r d e t heo r y .

T h e s e q u e n c e t h e n i s t h is : D a r w i n h a s a c o n j e c t u r e o r h y p o t h e s i s a b o u t

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e a r l y h u m a n k i n d l iv i ng i n h o r d e s ; F r e u d b u i l d s o n t h i s th e h y p o t h e s i s o f t h e

p r i m a l h o r d e ; a n d B e r n f e l d c o n s t r u c t s o n F r e u d ' s h y p o t h e s i s a n o t h e r s e r i e s o f

h y p o t h e s e s a b o u t e d u c a t i o n a l d e v e l o p m e n t . I n e f fe c t, B e r n f e l d h a s a h y p o t h e s i s

b u i l t o n a h y p o t h e s i s b u i l t o n a h y p o t h e s i s . T h i s p e r m i t s o n e t o a d o p t a s y m -

pa t he t i c a l l y s kep t i ca l a t t i t ude t owar d Be r n f e l d ' s a r gum en t s . As we l l a s con -

s i d e r i n g t h e p r i m a l h o r d e , B e r n f e l d c o m b i n e s a t h e o r y o f p r i m i t i v e e d u c a t i o n

( a s exp r e s s ed i n pube r t y r i t e s i n t r i ba l s oc i e t i e s ) wi t h a t heo r y o f m a l e ve r s us

f e m a l e e d u c a t io n . B y m a l e a n d f e m a l e e d u c a ti o n , B e m f e l d m e a n s t h e d i ff e re n t

a t ti t u d e s o f t h e m o t h e r a n d f a t h e r t o w a r d b r i n g in g u p t h e c h il d.

I n t h e F r e u d i a n p r i m a l h o r d e , t h e b r o t h e r s w i s h t o p o s s e s s t h e ir m o t h e r a n d

d o a w a y w i th t h e p r i m a l f a t h e r - t h e O e d i p u s c o n f li ct . T h e r e a c t i o n o f t h e p r im a l

f a t he r i s t o k i l l h i s sons . I t is f o r t h is r e a s on t ha t B e r n f e l d wr i t e s o f t he o r ig i na l

m a l e r e a c t io n t o w a r d c h i l d d e v e l o p m e n t , th e p ro p e n s i t y f o r i n f a n ti c id e ( 1 9 7 3 ,

p . 6 0 ) .

T h e p r i m a / h o r d e t h e o r y i s t o d a y u n i v e r sa l ly r e j e c te d b y a n t h r o p o l o g i st s . 6

B u t s u c h a t h e o r y b e c o m e s m u c h m o r e c o g e n t i f i t i s i n t e n d e d s i m p l y t o r e p r e -

s en t uncons c i ous p s ych i c r ea l i t y . None t he l e s s , one s hou l dn ' t f o r ge t t ha t t h r ough-

o u t m o s t o f h u m a n h i s to r y , a t le a s t u n t il t h e e n d o f t h e R o m a n E m p i r e , i n -

f an t i c i de w as a pe r f ec t l y acc ep t ab l e p r ac ti c e , r Th e abus e o f ch i l d r en i n f ac t o r i e s

i n m o d e r n t im e s i s a l so w o r t h y o f n o te . C l e a rl y , th e r e a r e i n h i s t o r y m a n y e x -

a m p l e s o f B e r n f e l d ' s p u t a t i v e m a l e r e a c t i o n to w a r d c h i ld d e v e l o p m e n t .

P u b e r t y r i te s a r e f o r B e r n f e l d t h e b e s t e x a m p l e o f p r im i t iv e e d u c a t io n . T h e y

a r e a l s o a m o d i f i e d a n d s y m b o l i c r e - e n a c t m e n t o f w h a t h a p p e n e d i n F r e u d ' s

m y t h i c a l p r i m a / h o r d e . I n t h e p r im i t iv e s t a te , e d u c a t i o n b y t h e m o t h e r is e s s e n -

t i a l l y nu r t u r i ng . I t i s ba s ed on na t u r a l r e s pons es and i s c a r r i ed on i n t he pa i r

g r o u p w i t h n o e x t e r n a l o r g a n iz a t io n . T h e c h i ld i s k e p t c l o s e t o t h e m o t h e r ' s

b o d y , i s l o v e d a n d p r o t e c t e d . T h e f e m a l e a r c h e t y p a l re a c t i o n i s t o i n te n s if y

t e n d e r e m o t i o n s a n d m o d e r a t e a g g r es s iv e o n e s . T h e m a l e r e a c t io n i s t h e p o l a r

op pos i t e o f t h is . I n t he p r i m a l ho r de , t he f a t he r k il l ed t he s ons . I n pube r t y

r it e s , f a t he r s s ym bo l i ca l l y k i ll t he i r s ons and r eaw aken t hem t o a new l if e , t he

l if e o f m e n ( p . 4 1 ) . 8 B u t i n a c t u a l p u b e r t y r it e s t h e f a t h e rs m a y i n d u lg e i n a n

aggr e s s i ve o r gy aga i ns t t he i r s o n s - bea t i ngs , pa i n f u l tr ia l s o f s t reng t h , and

s o on . Th e m a l e r eac t i on r e s u l ts i n co l l e c t i ve educ a t i on i n a m a j o r i t y g r oup ,

o r g a n i z e d i n a n d b y so c i e t y . T h e m a l e a r c h e t y p a l r e a c t i o n is t o k e e p th e

c h i ld a w a y f r o m t h e m o t h e r ' s b o d y , t o in h i b i t t e n d e r n e s s a n d t o r e i n f o rc e

aggress iveness .

No t i ce t ha t educa t i on a s an i n s t i t u t i on de r i ve s f r om t he m a l e r eac t i on . Be r n -

f e l d c o m m e n t s t h a t th e h u m a n s p e c i e s h a d a n e d u c a t i o n a l i d e a o n l y o n c e a t

t h e v e r y b e g in n i n g a n d h a s h e l d o n t o i t e v e r s in c e : t o e x t e n d a n d e l a b o r a t e t h e

o r i g ina l m a l e reac t i on i n t o an aux i l i a ry s upp l em en t a r y i n s t i tu t i on ( p . 5 6 ) . Ev en

t h o u g h t h e b e g i n n in g o f e d u c a t i o n ( n u r t u r e b y t h e m o t h e r ) i s w h o l l y f e m a l e ,

B e r n f e l d c o m m e n t s th a t h i s t o r y r e c o r d s n o e d u c a t i o n a l i n s ti tu t io n t h a t c a n b e

a s c r i b e d t o t h e f e m a l e r e a c t i o n ( p . 5 1 ) .

T h i s m a l e m o d e l o f e d u c a t i o n a s i n s ti tu t io n a l iz e d i n p u b e r t y r it e s h a s a n

i m por t an t cu l t u r a l f unc t i on : i t i s de s i gned t o p r e s e r ve t he i nce s t ba r r i e r . The

i nces t ba r r i e r i s t he g r ea t e s t cu l t u r a l i nc r em en t t o t he o ri g i na l b i op s ych i c

s t at e o f m a n . 9 F r e u d s p e c u la t e s t h a t i t c r e a t e d c u l t u r e - t h e b r o t h e r s o f t h e

p r i m a l h o r d e w e r e c o m p e l l e d t o e n g a g e i n r e l a t i o n s a m o n g t h e m s e l v e s i n t h e

c o n s p i r a c y t o d o a w a y w i th t h e p r im a l f a th e r . T o p r e v e n t in c e st , th e m a n t a k e s

t h e b o y s a w a y fr o m t h e m o t h e r i n p u b e r t y r it es a n d , t o p r e v e n t t h e m u r d e r o f

t he f a t he r , t h e bo ys a r e s u b j ec t ed t o t he i n i ti a t ion r i te . Th us f ea r o f i nce s t and

8 4


14/21

t he s ens e o f gu i lt a r e pu r e l y s oc i a l i nven t i ons w hos e p r e s e r va t i on s oc i e t y en -

t r u s t s t o edu ca t i on .

A c o n s e q u e n c e o f t h e in c e s t p r o h i b i t io n i s t h a t e d u c a t i o n [ is ] i n a c c o r d a n c e

w i t h t h e o r ig i n al m a l e r e a c t i o n ( p . 5 7 ) , a n d t h e s o c i a l f u n c t i o n o f m a l e e d u -

c a t i o n i s t o p r e s e r v e t h e c u l t u r a l i n c r e m e n t r e p r e s e n t e d b y t h e i n c e st p r o h i -

b i t io n i n t h e n e w g e n e r a ti o n .

So pube r t y r i t e s a r e h i s t o r i ca l l y t he o r i g i na l exam pl e o f m a l e educa t i ona l

p r a c t i c e s . B u t a l t h o u g h p u b e r t y r i t e s t h e m s e l v e s a r e g e n e r a l l y r e s e r v e d f o r

b o y s , B e r n f e ld d o es n o t m e a n b y m a l e e d u c a t io n e d u c a t i o n o f b o y s b u t e d u -

c a t io n o f c h il d re n i n a c c o r d a n c e w i th t h e m a l e r e a c t io n . P u b e r t y r it es a r e a

t o n e d - d o w n v e r s i o n o f t h e h y p o t h e t i c a l h a p p e n i n g s i n t h e p r i m a l h o r d e . B e r n -

f e l d s ee s m ode r n educa t i on a s an i n s t i t u t i ona l i z ed s ys t em s i m i l a r i n qua l i t y t o

pu be r t y r i te s . Re ca l l t ha t s ad i s m a l be i t i n s ym bo l i c f o r m i n f li c ted by t he f a t he r s

on t he s ons i s an e s s en t i a l pa r t o f pube r t y r i t e s . Be r n f e l d s ee s t h i s s ad i s m i n

m o d e r n e d u c a t io n . S o m e o f t h e a n c i e n t s a d is m a n d o f t h e o r g y o f a g g r es s io n

i n whos e s hadow t he s choo l was f i r s t i nven t ed r em a i ns and t r ans f i gu r e s i t s t i l l

t o d a y ( p . 5 5 ) . E d u c a t i o n a s ty p i f ie d i n p u b e r t y ri te s i s t h u s o n e o f t h e o ld e s t

and m os t e s s en t i a l s oc i a l s tr uc t u r e s .

Be r n f e l d ' s v i ews a r e ne i t he r s i m p l i s t i c no r s ex i s t . H i s v i s i on o f m ode r n edu -

ca t i on a s pa r t o f a con t i nuum beg i nn i ng wi t h pube r t y r i t e s i s a com pe l l i ng t he s i s

w h i c h d o e s n o t r e q u i r e t h e p r i m a l h o r d e t h e o r y t o b u t tr e s s i t. H e n o t e s t h a t :

The f i r s t educa t i ona l a r r angem en t s had t he i r p s ycho l og i ca l o r i g i n s i n t he l ove

o f wom en f o r t he i r o f f s p r i ng and i n t he de s t r uc t i ve u r ge and f ea r o f r e t a l i a t i on

o f t he m en . T hes e p s ycho l og i ca l m o t i ve s a r e s ti ll a c t ive t oday , t hou gh m od i f i ed

a n d o v e r la i d . ( p . 5 0 )

T h e m a l e a n d f e m a l e a r c h e t y p a l r e a c t i o n s a r e p r e s e n t i n e v e r y o n e , m e n a n d

w o m e n , i n t h e f o r m o f u n c o n s c i o u s i n d iv i d u a l c o n s t a n t s . ( p . 4 9 ) T h e p ri m a l

h o r d e r e p r e s e n t s t h e s e r e a c t i o n s i n t h e i r p r i s t i n e f o r m . B u t b o t h m a l e a n d f e -

m a l e r eac t i ons a r e p r e s en t i n eve r y hu m an be i ng . Fu r t he r m or e , i n rea l it y , t he

m a l e a n d f e m a l e m o d e s o f e d u c a t i o n a r e c o m b i n e d a n d t o g e t h e r e n s u r e t h e

p r e s e r v a t i on o f c i v i li z a ti on i n t he ne x t gene r a t i on .

O f c o u rs e , t h e r e a r e d if f er e n c e s b e t w e e n t h e e d u c a t i o n o f p u b e r t y r it es

a n d m o d e r n e d u c a t i o n . T h e m o s t im p o r t a n t d i f f e re n c e f o r B e r n f e l d is t h e c r e -

a t i on o f ado l e s cence a s a l m o s t a cu l tu r a l a r t i f a c t. Pu be r t y r i te s o f a f ew wee ks '

d u r a t i o n h a v e d e v e l o p e d i n to a n e d u c a t i o n a l p r o c e s s o f te n la s ti n g a d e c a d e o r

t w o . T h e c o n s e q u e n c e i s t h a t p s y c h i c m a t u r i t y m a y b e d e l a y e d m o n t h s a n d y e a r s

b e y o n d t h e a d v e n t o f p h y s i c a l m a t u r i t y ( p . 6 2 ) . l o

I n w h a t w a y d o e s B e r n f e l d ' s t h e o r y e l u c i d a t e a l i m i t o f e d u c a t i o n ? I t i s

c l e a r h o w p u b e r t y r i t e s , i n s e p a r a t i n g t h e b o y s f r o m t h e i r m o t h e r s a n d s u b -

j ec t i ng t hem t o t he i r f a t he r ' s agg r e s s i ons , ens u r e t he con t i nu i t y o f t he i nce s t

p r oh i b i t i on . Th i s i s, i n t u r n , t he p s ycho l og i ca l ba s i s o f t he pos s i b i l i t y o f s oc i e t y .

F o r B e r n f e l d , m o d e r n e d u c a t i o n h a s t h e s a m e f u n c t i o n : i t i s a n e c e s s a r y s o c i a l

i n s ti tu t i on . I n s p i t e o f i ts i m m ens e cu r r i cu l a r ap pa r a t us , m ode r n ed uca t i on pe r -

f o r m s t he e s s en t i a l f unc t i on o f m a i n t a i n i ng t he i nce s t Woh i b i t i on and t he s ens e

o f g u i l t . I t m u s t t h e r e f o r e c o n t a i n s o m e e c h o o f t h e a g ~ e s s i v e n e s s a n d s a d i s m

of pu be r t y ri te s . Th i s e s s en ti a l, p r i m ar y , bu t un r ecog n i zed f unc t i on o f educa t i on

t hus s e ve r e l y l im i t s the t y pe o f hum an r e l a t ions t ha t a r e pos s i b l e wi t h in i t . A s

an e s sen t i a l ly m a l e r eac t i on , edu ca t i on a s an i n s t it u t ion is cons t r a i ned i n t he

pos s i b l e s co pe o f i ts r e ac t i ons t o ch i l d r en .

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Political and Social onsiderations

Ber n f e l d ' s po l i t i c a l s t a t em en t s a r e i nc i s i ve . They a r e ba sed on Mar x i s t t heo r y ,

a l t hough he does no t r e f e r exp l i c i t l y t o any Mar x i s t w r i t i ngs . Pe r haps t he m os t

i n t e r e s t i ng pa r t i s h i s i dea o f t he f unc t i on i ng o f educa t i on unde r a f u t u r e so -

c ia l i s t soc ie ty .

Th e psych o l og i ca l and t he soc i o - po l i ti c a l a r e c / o se l y r e l a t ed f o r Be r n f e l d

( 1 9 7 3 ) . H e n o te s t h a t:

T w o g r o ups o f f o r ce s , i t seem s , co - ope r a t e i n i n st i tu t i ng an y spec i fi c t ype o f edu -

c a t i o n a n d e d u c a t i o n i n g e n e r a l : t h e s e a r e th e p s y c h o l o g i c a l a n d t h e s o c ia l. W e

s a w h o w e d u c a t i o n a s a f a c t o f n a t u r e o r i g in a t e d i n f e m a l e a n d m a l e f o r m s i n

t h e b i o p s y c h i c p r i m a l r e a c t i o n o f th e m o t h e r s a n d t h e f a th e r s o f t h e h o r d e t o

o n t o g e n e t i e d e v e l o p m e n t . ( p . 8 7 )

B e r n f e l d h e l d t h a t t h e s e n s e o f g u i lt t h r o u g h t h e e r e c t i o n o f t h e i n c e s t b a r -

t i e r w a s t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n

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