People & Organization2. Individual Behavior

Lim Sei Kee @ cK

IntroductionConsidering individual level variables

(Characteristics and Ability) affect on performance and satisfaction.

Biological CharacteristicsAgeGenderMarital StatusTenureAbilityIntellectual AbilitiesPhysical AbilitiesThe Ability- Job FitPersonality

Personality Determinants

HeredityEnvironmentSituation

LearningLearning: Any relatively permanent change in

behavior that occurs as a result of experienceTheories of learning:

Classical conditioning – Individual responds to some stimulus that would not ordinarily produce such a response.

Operant Conditioning – Desired voluntary behavior leads to a reward or prevents a punishment.

Social Learning – Individual learn through observation and direct experience.

4 Processes which determines the influences that a model will have on a individual (observational learning):Attentional Processes : We tend to be most influenced

by models that are attractive, repeatedly available, important to us, or similar to us in our estimation.

Retention Processes : A model’s influence will depend on how well the individual remembers the model’s action after the model is no longer readily available.

Motor Reproduction Processes : The watching must be converted to doing and this will demonstrate if the individual can perform the modeled activities.

Reinforcement Processes : Individuals will be motivated to exhibit the modeled behavior if positive rewards or incentives are provided.

Shaping Behavior: Systematically reinforcing each successive step that moves an individual closer to the desired response

Methods of Shaping Behavior:Positive Reinforcement – Following a response

with something pleasant.Negative Reinforcement – Following a response

by the termination or withdrawal of something unpleasant.

Punishment – attempts to decrease the probability of specific behaviours being exhibited (eliminate undesirable behavior.)

Extinction – Eliminating any reinforcement that is maintaining a behavior.  its purpose is to reduce unwanted behavior.

Examples of Negative Reinforcement:Loud buzz in some cars when ignition key is

turned on; driver must put on safety belt in order to eliminate irritating buzz (Gredler, 1992) the buzz is a negative reinforcer for putting on the seat-belt.

Running from the building when the fire alarm sounds (Domjan & Burkhard, 1993). Fire alarm as negative reinforcer for leaving building.

Examples of Punishment:Giving an employee 2 days suspension from work

without pay for causing a bad scene at work.

Schedules Of Reinforcement : The timing of the behavioural consequences that follow a given behavior.Reinforcement

ScheduleNature Of Reinforcement

Effects On Behavior Example

Continuous Reward given after each desired behavior

Fast learning of new behavior but rapid extinction

Compliments

Fixed Interval Reward given at fixed time intervals

Average and irregular performances with rapid extinction

Weekly Paychecks

Variable Interval

Reward given at variable time intervals

Moderately high and stable performance with slow extinction

Pop Quizzes

Fixed Ratio Reward given at fixed amounts of output

High and stable performance attained quickly but also with rapid extinction.

Piece-rate Pay

Variable Ratio Reward given at variable amounts of output

Very high performance with slow extinction

Commissioned Sales

Some Organization’s application of Reinforcement :Rewards for attendanceWell pay Vs Sick payEmployee disciplineDeveloping Training programsCreating mentoring programsSelf management : Learning techniques that allow

individuals to manage their own behavior so that less external management control is necessary.

People & Organization3. Attitudes & Job satisfaction

Lim Sei Kee @ cK

ATTITUDESEvaluating statements or judgments

concerning objects, people or events. Reflection of how one feels about something.

Component:Cognitive – The opinion or belief segment of an

attitude.Affective – The emotional or feeling segment of

an attitude.Behavioral – An intention to behave in certain

way towards someone or something.

Types of attitudes:Job satisfaction – Collection of feelings that an

individual holds toward his or her job.Job involvement – The degree to which a person

indentifies with his or her job, actively participates in it, and considers his or her performance important to self-worth.

Organizational commitment – The degree to which an organization identifies with a particular organization and its goals, and wishes to maintain membership in the organization.

Cognitive Dissonance Theory.Dissonance : inconsistency.Cognitive Dissonance : Any incompatibility

between two or more attitudes or between behavior and attitudes.

Desire to reduce dissonance would be determined by the importance of the elements creating the dissonance, the degree of influence the individual believes he or she has over the elements and the rewards that maybe involved in dissonance.

JOB SATISFACTIONDeterminant :

Mentally Challenging workEquitable RewardsSupportive Working ConditionsSupportive ColleaguesPersonality – Job FitGenetics?

Effect of Job Satisfaction:ProductivityAbsenteeismTurnover

Expressing dissatisfaction:Exit : Leaving the organization.Voice : Active and constructive attempts to

improve conditions.Loyalty : Passively waiting for conditions to

improve.Neglect : Allowing conditions to worsen.