Life Span DevelopmentLife Span Development

Developmental Psychology—Developmental Psychology—The study of age-related changes The study of age-related changes in behavior and mental processes in behavior and mental processes

from conception to death.from conception to death.

Major IssuesMajor Issues

Nature vs. NurtureNature vs. Nurture– Maturation—development governed by Maturation—development governed by

automatic, genetically predetermined automatic, genetically predetermined signalssignals

– Critical Period—a period of special Critical Period—a period of special sensitivity to specific types of learning that sensitivity to specific types of learning that shapes the capacity for future shapes the capacity for future developmentdevelopment

Major IssuesMajor Issues

Continuity or StagesContinuity or Stages– Does development happen at a relatively Does development happen at a relatively

uniform, continuous pace? Does adult uniform, continuous pace? Does adult thinking and intelligence differ from that of thinking and intelligence differ from that of children only quantitatively?children only quantitatively?

– Are there different periods of abrupt Are there different periods of abrupt change and rapid growth alternated with change and rapid growth alternated with periods of small change and little growth?periods of small change and little growth?

Major IssuesMajor Issues

Stability or changeStability or change– Do personal characteristics remain Do personal characteristics remain

constant from infancy through adulthood?constant from infancy through adulthood?– Does personality change drastically over Does personality change drastically over

time?time?

Interactionist perspectiveInteractionist perspective

Research MethodsResearch Methods

Cross-sectional Method—research Cross-sectional Method—research design that measures individuals of design that measures individuals of various ages at one point in time and various ages at one point in time and gives information about age differencesgives information about age differencesLongitudinal Method—research design Longitudinal Method—research design that measures a single individual or that measures a single individual or group of individuals over an extended group of individuals over an extended period and gives information about age period and gives information about age changeschanges

Advantages/DisadvantagesAdvantages/Disadvantages

Cross-sectionalCross-sectional+ Gives information Gives information

about age differencesabout age differences+ QuickQuick+ Less expensiveLess expensive+ Typically larger sampleTypically larger sample- Cohort effectsCohort effects- Restricted Restricted

generalizabilitygeneralizability

LongitudinalLongitudinal+ Gives information Gives information

about age changesabout age changes+ Increased reliabilityIncreased reliability+ More in-depth More in-depth

information per information per participantparticipant

- More expensiveMore expensive- Time consumingTime consuming- Restricted Restricted

generalizabilitygeneralizability

Culture and DevelopmentCulture and Development

Culture may be the most important Culture may be the most important determinant of developmentdeterminant of developmentHuman development, like most areas of Human development, like most areas of psychology, cannot be studied outside psychology, cannot be studied outside its sociocultural contextits sociocultural contextEach culture’s ethnotheories are Each culture’s ethnotheories are important determinants of behaviorimportant determinants of behaviorCulture is largely invisible to its Culture is largely invisible to its participantsparticipants

Physical Development—PrenatalPhysical Development—Prenatal

Germinal Period—first stage of prenatal Germinal Period—first stage of prenatal development that begins with conception development that begins with conception and ends with implantation in the uterusand ends with implantation in the uterusEmbryonic Period—second stage of prenatal Embryonic Period—second stage of prenatal development that begins after uterine development that begins after uterine implantation and lasts through the eighth implantation and lasts through the eighth weekweekFetal Period—third, and final stage of Fetal Period—third, and final stage of prenatal development characterized by rapid prenatal development characterized by rapid weight gain in the fetus and the fine detailing weight gain in the fetus and the fine detailing of body organs and systemsof body organs and systems

Prenatal Development—ThreatsPrenatal Development—ThreatsTeratogen—environmental agent that causes Teratogen—environmental agent that causes damage during prenatal development—from damage during prenatal development—from the Greek the Greek terasteras meaning “malformation” meaning “malformation”Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS)—a Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS)—a combination of birth defects, including organ combination of birth defects, including organ deformities and mental, motor, and/or growth deformities and mental, motor, and/or growth retardation, that results from maternal retardation, that results from maternal alcohol abusealcohol abuseOther threats include malnutrition, stress Other threats include malnutrition, stress exposure, exposure to X-rays, and diseases exposure, exposure to X-rays, and diseases such as German measles (rubella), herpes, such as German measles (rubella), herpes, AIDS, etc.AIDS, etc.

Physical Development—Early Physical Development—Early ChildhoodChildhood

Brain Development—by age 2Brain Development—by age 2– Brain and nervous system grow faster than any Brain and nervous system grow faster than any

other part of the bodyother part of the body– Brain is about 75% of its adult weightBrain is about 75% of its adult weight– Synaptic pruning and myelination occurSynaptic pruning and myelination occur

Motor DevelopmentMotor Development– Child movement develops from reflex to walkingChild movement develops from reflex to walking

Sensory and Perceptual DevelopmentSensory and Perceptual Development– Senses of smell and hearing are well developed Senses of smell and hearing are well developed

by birthby birth– Vision reaches near-adult level acuity by age 2Vision reaches near-adult level acuity by age 2

Physical Development—Physical Development—Adolescence and AdulthoodAdolescence and Adulthood

Adolescence—loosely defined period Adolescence—loosely defined period between childhood and adulthood—some between childhood and adulthood—some cultures do not have this transitional periodcultures do not have this transitional period– Onset of Onset of PubertyPuberty—biological changes during —biological changes during

adolescence that lead to an adult-sized body and adolescence that lead to an adult-sized body and sexual maturitysexual maturity

– Primary sexual characteristics—i.e., development Primary sexual characteristics—i.e., development of sex organs, onset of menstruation, ejaculation, of sex organs, onset of menstruation, ejaculation, etc.etc.

– Secondary sexual characteristics—i.e., growth of Secondary sexual characteristics—i.e., growth of facial and pubic hair, deepening of the voice, facial and pubic hair, deepening of the voice, growth of breasts, etc.growth of breasts, etc.

Physical Development—Physical Development—Adolescence and AdulthoodAdolescence and Adulthood

Middle Age—for women, primary physical Middle Age—for women, primary physical development is menopause. For men, development is menopause. For men, physical development is less obvious—physical development is less obvious—decline in production of sperm and decline in production of sperm and testosterone, weight gain, decline in sexual testosterone, weight gain, decline in sexual responsiveness, muscle strength and responsiveness, muscle strength and graying or loss of hair.graying or loss of hair.Late Adulthood—most changes are gradual Late Adulthood—most changes are gradual and occur in cardiovascular system and and occur in cardiovascular system and sensory receptorssensory receptorsAgeism—prejudice or discrimination against Ageism—prejudice or discrimination against an individual based on physical age.an individual based on physical age.

Cognitive DevelopmentCognitive DevelopmentSchema—cognitive structures or patterns Schema—cognitive structures or patterns consisting of a number of organized ideas consisting of a number of organized ideas that grow and differentiate with that grow and differentiate with experienceexperience

Assimilation—in Piaget’s theory, Assimilation—in Piaget’s theory, absorbing new information in to existing absorbing new information in to existing schemasschemas

Accommodation—in Piaget’s theory, Accommodation—in Piaget’s theory, adjusting old schemas or developing new adjusting old schemas or developing new ones to better fit with new informationones to better fit with new information

Piaget’s Stage Theory of Piaget’s Stage Theory of DevelopmentDevelopment

Sensorimotor Stage (birth to age 2 Sensorimotor Stage (birth to age 2 years)years)

Preoperational Stage (ages 2-7)Preoperational Stage (ages 2-7)

Concrete Operational Stage (ages 7-11)Concrete Operational Stage (ages 7-11)

Formal Operational Stage (ages 11 and Formal Operational Stage (ages 11 and up)up)

Sensorimotor StageSensorimotor Stage

First stage (birth to approximately age First stage (birth to approximately age two) in which schemas are developed two) in which schemas are developed through sensory and motor activitiesthrough sensory and motor activities– Object permanence—infant’s Object permanence—infant’s

understanding that objects (or people) understanding that objects (or people) continue to exist even when they cannot continue to exist even when they cannot be seen, heard, or touched directlybe seen, heard, or touched directly

Preoperational StagePreoperational Stage

Second stage characterized by the Second stage characterized by the ability to employ significant language ability to employ significant language and to think symbolically, but the child and to think symbolically, but the child lacks operations (reversible mental lacks operations (reversible mental processes), and thinking is egocentric processes), and thinking is egocentric and animisticand animistic– Egocentrism—the inability to consider Egocentrism—the inability to consider

another’s point of viewanother’s point of view– Animism—the belief that all things are Animism—the belief that all things are

living (or animated)living (or animated)

Concrete Operational StageConcrete Operational Stage

Third stage in which the child can Third stage in which the child can perform mental operations on concrete perform mental operations on concrete objects and understand reversibility objects and understand reversibility and conservation, but abstract thinking and conservation, but abstract thinking is not yet presentis not yet present– Conservation—understanding that certain Conservation—understanding that certain

physical characteristics (such as volume) physical characteristics (such as volume) remain unchanged, even when their remain unchanged, even when their outward appearance changesoutward appearance changes

Formal Operational StageFormal Operational Stage

Fourth stage characterized by abstract Fourth stage characterized by abstract and hypothetical thinkingand hypothetical thinking– Adolescents in early formal operational Adolescents in early formal operational

stage demonstrate a type of egocentrismstage demonstrate a type of egocentrismPersonal fable—adolescents conclude that Personal fable—adolescents conclude that they alone are having certain insights or they alone are having certain insights or difficulties and that no one else would difficulties and that no one else would understand or sympathize—the rules don’t understand or sympathize—the rules don’t apply to themapply to themImaginary audience—adolescents picture all Imaginary audience—adolescents picture all eyes focused on their behaviorseyes focused on their behaviors

Critique of Piaget’s TheoryCritique of Piaget’s Theory

Piaget underestimated the abilities of Piaget underestimated the abilities of children when it comes to cognitive children when it comes to cognitive developmentdevelopment

Piaget’s model, along with other stage Piaget’s model, along with other stage theories, did not sufficiently take into theories, did not sufficiently take into account genetic and cultural account genetic and cultural differencesdifferences

Information Processing Information Processing (computer) Model(computer) Model

Compares the workings of the mind to that of Compares the workings of the mind to that of a computer (remember encoding, storage, a computer (remember encoding, storage, retrieval) focuses on areas of attention and retrieval) focuses on areas of attention and memorymemory– Attention span—as children develop cognitively, Attention span—as children develop cognitively,

their attention span increases and they learn to their attention span increases and they learn to discriminate between what is and is not important discriminate between what is and is not important to concentrate onto concentrate on

– Memory, like attention, increases through Memory, like attention, increases through childhood and adolescence due to increased childhood and adolescence due to increased ability to use processing strategiesability to use processing strategies

Social-Emotional DevelopmentSocial-Emotional Development

Attachment—a strong affectional bond with Attachment—a strong affectional bond with special others that endures over time.special others that endures over time.– John Bowlby—Attachment theoryJohn Bowlby—Attachment theory

Imprinting—an innate form of learning within Imprinting—an innate form of learning within a critical period that involves attachment to a critical period that involves attachment to the first large moving object seen.the first large moving object seen.– Konrad Lorenz—imprinting of baby geeseKonrad Lorenz—imprinting of baby geese

Harlow’s monkeys—contact comfort is a Harlow’s monkeys—contact comfort is a powerful contributor to attachmentpowerful contributor to attachment

Attachment LevelsAttachment LevelsMary Ainsworth, et.al., studied levels of Mary Ainsworth, et.al., studied levels of attachment by observing infants in the attachment by observing infants in the presence of their mother and a strangerpresence of their mother and a stranger– Securely attached—mother is safe base from Securely attached—mother is safe base from

which to explore the unknownwhich to explore the unknown– Avoidant—infant does not seek closeness or Avoidant—infant does not seek closeness or

contact with the mother, treats mother much like contact with the mother, treats mother much like a stranger, rarely cries when mother leaves the a stranger, rarely cries when mother leaves the roomroom

– Anxious/Ambivalent—infant becomes very upset Anxious/Ambivalent—infant becomes very upset as mother leaves and seeks close contact when as mother leaves and seeks close contact when she returns, however, then squirms angrily to get she returns, however, then squirms angrily to get awayaway

Attachment Problems/DisordersAttachment Problems/Disorders

May exhibit the following characteristics: May exhibit the following characteristics: seldom cry, coo or babble, become rigid seldom cry, coo or babble, become rigid when picked up, few language skillswhen picked up, few language skills

Social-emotionally—for shallow or anxious Social-emotionally—for shallow or anxious relationships, withdrawn, uninterested in relationships, withdrawn, uninterested in caregivers OR insatiable need for affectioncaregivers OR insatiable need for affection

Intellectual, physical, and perceptual Intellectual, physical, and perceptual retardation; increased susceptibility to retardation; increased susceptibility to infection; isolationinfection; isolation

Parenting StylesParenting Styles

PermissivePermissive– Permissive-indifferent—sets few limits, little Permissive-indifferent—sets few limits, little

attention, interest or emotional support (children attention, interest or emotional support (children have poor self-control becoming demanding and have poor self-control becoming demanding and disobedient)disobedient)

– Permissive-indulgent—highly involved but places Permissive-indulgent—highly involved but places few demands or controls on the child (children fail few demands or controls on the child (children fail to learn respect for others becoming impulsive, to learn respect for others becoming impulsive, immature and out of controlimmature and out of control

Parenting StylesParenting StylesAuthoritarian—rigid and punitive, value Authoritarian—rigid and punitive, value unquestioning obedience and mature unquestioning obedience and mature responsibility while remaining aloof and responsibility while remaining aloof and detached. Children are easily upset, moody, detached. Children are easily upset, moody, aggressive, and generally have poor aggressive, and generally have poor communication skillscommunication skillsAuthoritative—tender, caring and sensitive Authoritative—tender, caring and sensitive but set limits and enforce them, encourage but set limits and enforce them, encourage increasing responsibility. Children become increasing responsibility. Children become self-reliant, self-controlled and high self-reliant, self-controlled and high achieving. Also, more content, goal-oriented, achieving. Also, more content, goal-oriented, friendly and socially competentfriendly and socially competent

Parenting Styles--critiqueParenting Styles--critique

Child temperament—results may reflect Child temperament—results may reflect child’s unique temperament—parents may child’s unique temperament—parents may develop style based on child’s behavior develop style based on child’s behavior rather than vice versarather than vice versa

Child expectations—how the child expects Child expectations—how the child expects parents to act may affect how s/he responds parents to act may affect how s/he responds

Parental warmth—this may be the strongest Parental warmth—this may be the strongest factor regardless of parenting style—warmth factor regardless of parenting style—warmth vs. rejection.vs. rejection.

Moral DevelopmentMoral DevelopmentKohlberg’s Stages of Moral DevelopmentKohlberg’s Stages of Moral DevelopmentThree Levels:Three Levels:– Preconventional Level—Kohlberg’ first level in Preconventional Level—Kohlberg’ first level in

which morality is based on rewards, punishment, which morality is based on rewards, punishment, and exchange of favorsand exchange of favors

– Conventional Level—Kohlberg’s second stage Conventional Level—Kohlberg’s second stage where moral judgments are based on compliance where moral judgments are based on compliance with the rules and values of societywith the rules and values of society

– Postconventional Level—Kohlberg’s highest level Postconventional Level—Kohlberg’s highest level in which individuals develop personal standards in which individuals develop personal standards for right and wrong, and define morality in terms for right and wrong, and define morality in terms of abstract principles and values that apply to all of abstract principles and values that apply to all situations and societiessituations and societies

Kohlberg’s StagesKohlberg’s Stages

Punishment-Obedience OrientationPunishment-Obedience Orientation

Instrumental-Exchange OrientationInstrumental-Exchange Orientation

Good Child OrientationGood Child Orientation

Law-and-Order OrientationLaw-and-Order Orientation

Social-Contract OrientationSocial-Contract Orientation

Universal Ethics OrientationUniversal Ethics Orientation

Carol Gilligan’s PerspectiveCarol Gilligan’s Perspective

Justice Perspective—Gilligan’s term for Justice Perspective—Gilligan’s term for moral reasoning based on moral reasoning based on independence and individual rightsindependence and individual rights

Care Perspective—Gilligan’s term for Care Perspective—Gilligan’s term for moral reasoning that emphasizes moral reasoning that emphasizes interdependence and interpersonal interdependence and interpersonal responsibilityresponsibility

Personality DevelopmentPersonality DevelopmentTemperament TheoryTemperament Theory– Temperament—an individual’s innate Temperament—an individual’s innate

behavioral style and characteristic behavioral style and characteristic emotional responseemotional response

Easy children—happy most of the time, relaxed Easy children—happy most of the time, relaxed and agreeable; adjust easily to new situationsand agreeable; adjust easily to new situations

Difficult children—moody, easily frustrated, Difficult children—moody, easily frustrated, tense and over reactive to most situationstense and over reactive to most situations

Slow-to-warm-up children—mild responses, Slow-to-warm-up children—mild responses, somewhat shy and withdrawn, and need time somewhat shy and withdrawn, and need time to adjust to new situations or peopleto adjust to new situations or people

Erikson’s Psychosocial TheoryErikson’s Psychosocial Theory

Psychosocial Stages—Erikson’s theory Psychosocial Stages—Erikson’s theory that individuals pass through eight that individuals pass through eight developmental stages, each involving a developmental stages, each involving a crisis that must be successfully crisis that must be successfully resolved.resolved.

Erikson’s Stages 1 & 2Erikson’s Stages 1 & 2

Trust vs. Mistrust (0-1)—Infants learn to Trust vs. Mistrust (0-1)—Infants learn to trust that their needs will be met by the trust that their needs will be met by the world, especially by the mother; if not, world, especially by the mother; if not, mistrust developsmistrust developsAutonomy vs. Shame and Doubt (1-3)—Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt (1-3)—Toddlers learn to exercise will, to make Toddlers learn to exercise will, to make choices, to control themselves, if not, choices, to control themselves, if not, they become uncertain and doubt that they become uncertain and doubt that they can do things by themselvesthey can do things by themselves

Erikson’s Stages 3 & 4Erikson’s Stages 3 & 4

Initiative vs. Guilt (3-6)—Preschool Initiative vs. Guilt (3-6)—Preschool children learn to initiate activities and children learn to initiate activities and enjoy their accomplishments, if not, enjoy their accomplishments, if not, they feel guilty for their attempts at they feel guilty for their attempts at independenceindependenceIndustry vs. inferiority (6-12)—Industry vs. inferiority (6-12)—Elementary school age children Elementary school age children develop a sense of industry and learn develop a sense of industry and learn productive skills their culture requires, productive skills their culture requires, if not, they feel inferiorif not, they feel inferior

Erikson’s Stages 5 & 6Erikson’s Stages 5 & 6

Identity vs. Role Confusion (12-20)—Identity vs. Role Confusion (12-20)—Adolescents develop a coherent sense Adolescents develop a coherent sense of self and their role in society or they of self and their role in society or they face identity and role confusionface identity and role confusion

Intimacy vs. Isolation (20-30)—Young Intimacy vs. Isolation (20-30)—Young adults form intimate connections with adults form intimate connections with others; if not, they face isolation and others; if not, they face isolation and consequent self-absorptionconsequent self-absorption

Erikson’s Stages 7 & 8Erikson’s Stages 7 & 8Generativity vs. Stagnation (30-65)—Middle-Generativity vs. Stagnation (30-65)—Middle-aged adults develop concern for aged adults develop concern for establishing, guiding, and influencing the establishing, guiding, and influencing the next generation; if not, they experience next generation; if not, they experience stagnation (a sense of lifelessness)stagnation (a sense of lifelessness)

Ego Integrity vs. Despair (65+)—Older people Ego Integrity vs. Despair (65+)—Older people enter a period of reflection and life review. enter a period of reflection and life review. They either achieve a sense of integrity for They either achieve a sense of integrity for the lives they’ve lived and accept death, or the lives they’ve lived and accept death, or yield to despair that their lives cannot be yield to despair that their lives cannot be relivedrelived

Grief and DeathGrief and Death

Grief—a natural and painful reaction to Grief—a natural and painful reaction to a significant loss.a significant loss.– Four major stages: numbness, yearning, Four major stages: numbness, yearning,

disorganization/despair and resolution.disorganization/despair and resolution.

Elizabeth KElizabeth Kübler-Ross proposed a five übler-Ross proposed a five stage process of facing deathstage process of facing death– Denial, Anger, Bargaining, Depression and Denial, Anger, Bargaining, Depression and

AcceptanceAcceptance