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Life in Samsara: Torment, Torture and Tolerance in Buddhist Hell Life in Samsara: Torment, Torture and Tolerance in Buddhist Hell

Maya Shari MacLaughlin Bard College, mm6382@bard.edu

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Life in Saṃsāra: Torment, Torture and Tolerance in Buddhist Hell

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i

Dedication

Iwouldliketodedicatethisprojecttothosewhohavebeenthroughroughtimes.

FürMama,DaddyundOma.

InGedenkenanMelody

ii

Acknowledgements

ItwasinKristinScheible’sclassaboutBuddhistThoughtandPracticethatIfirst

gotinterestedintheideaofBuddhisthell.Oneofthehomeworkreadingswasaboutthe

BuddhistconceptofhellanditstruckmeasoddbecauseIdidn’tevenknowthat

Buddhistshadahell.Iwasreading,andtheonepartthatstuckwithmethemostwas

abouthellbeingsbeingcookedinmassivevatsofboilingcopper.Thatimageremained

withmeforalongtime.WheneverIdescribetheideaofaBuddhisthelltosomeone,

whoisequallysurprisedaboutitsexistenceasIwas,Imentionthisexample(seeFigure

1).

SowhenIgottoclassIwasquiteexcitedtohearmoreaboutthisgrotesquehellI

hadreadabout.Butnooneelseinclasswasasintriguedbythesehellsasme,andIwas

confusedaboutthat.Ithinksomepeoplethoughtmyinterestaboutthehellswasweird.

Comingbacktothistopicisawonderfulopportunitybecauseitcertainlyissomething

thatshookmyworldviewinmanyaspects.Itgavemeanewperspectiveoncosmic

orderandtheuniverse,ontheconceptofanunfortunaterebirth1andtheideaof

flexibletimeanditchallengedmydeep‐rootedwesternviewofBuddhism.Thechance

towriteaboutsomethingthatcouldsodestabilizemywayofthinking,somethingthatis

bothmysteriousandfascinatingtome,isanhonor.

Iwanttothankmyfamilyforbeingsosupportiveandlovinginthisstressful

timeandalways.DankeMama,dankeOma,thankyouDaddy!Iloveyouallsomuch.I

alsowanttothankmyfriendswhohavebeenmorethanwonderfulandhelpful.Andof

1Rebirth–Thecertaintyofareincarnationafterthepresentlifetime,regardlessoftypeofexistence.

iii

courseKristin,withoutwhosehelpthiswouldneverhavebeenaproject.Thankyouso

muchforbeingthemostamazingadviserandmentorIcouldeverdreamof.Ialsowant

tothankJimandRobforalwayshelpingmeoutandgivingbrilliantfeedback.

Itfeelsverystrangetobecompletingthisproject.Notonlyisitconcludinga

year’sworthofwork,butalsomytimeatBard.Ihavehadafairshareofunpleasantand

miserabletimeshere,butlookingback,ithasbeenthemostamazingtimeofmylifeso

far.ThenumberofgreatexperiencesIhavehadandwillcherishfortherestofmylife

seemcountless.NotonlyhaveIfoundfriendsforlife,butalsolearnedmorethanI

thoughtIcouldaboutmyself.BardistheclosestthingtohomeoutsideofMannheimI

havehadinthepastsixyears,andwhatagreatoneitwas.Theluckofhavingmyfamily

livingsoclosetomeisindescribable,andwithoutthemnearby,mylifeatBardwould

havebeenfarlessenjoyable.

ThanksforeverythingBard,you’recoolandI’llmissyou.

iv

2Figure1

2Figure1,http://bit.ly/15o6HAo,December2012

v

Preface

The Personal Hell

Itmayseemthathelliseverywhereandinevitable.Livinginthisworld,

saṃsāra,3becomesinseparablefromexperiencingdis‐ease,duḥkha,4and

impermanence,anitya5inwhateverlifeform.Thereasonhumanscancreatehellin

theirmindsisduetotheconstantrepetitionstheyconstruct.Usuallythemomentof

distress,sadnessorterrorthatdrivespeopleintodespairisrelativelyshort.Humansdo

notgetoverbadeventsasquicklyastheyhappen.Humanshavebecomemastersat

makingthedays,weeks,monthsandevenyearsafteratraumaticeventintoapersonal

hellofrepetition.Eventhoughanityawillprevailintheendandpermitsonetomove

on,theimmediatestateofdespaircreatedinthemindishellinitspurestform.Instead

oflettingdemonsinflictphysicaltorments,theindividualinflictstheworstandmost

personalpainsontohimorherselfbyrelivingtraumathroughmemory.

Knowingthatapainfuleventisovershouldhelphealemotionalwoundsassoon

asitends.Thesewounds,however,seemtodeepenandbecomemorepainfulafterthe

actualincident.Onceleftalonewithpainfulthoughts,hellreallybegins.Theminddoes

notallowonetomoveon,butratherforcestheindividualtodwellendlesslyonthepain

previouslyexperienced.Relivingpasteventsandimaginingwhatthefuturecouldhave

heldisplayedoverandoverinthemindlikeamovieonanendlessrepeatloop.This

3saṃsāra­(Sanskrit):literally,‘wandering’,thebeginninglesscycleofbirth,deathandrebirth,composedoftherealmsofgods,demigods,humans,animals,ghostsandhellbeings.TheultimategoalofBuddhismisliberationfromsaṃsāra.4duḥkha–dis­ease,suffering5anitya­impermanence

vi

repetitionintheheadisthehellthatnooneelsecanberesponsibleforbutoneself.

Controlseemslostsince,consciously,noonewouldchoosetoexperiencethesehorrors.

Itbecomesveryclearthatsaṃsāratrulyisaplaceofpainandanguish,andescapeis

nearlyimpossible.Hellismanifestedwhereveranindividualchoosestomakeit.Unable

toescapeoneself,theonlyoptionistolivewiththispersonalhellonearth.Nooneelse

canmakethoughtsgoawayorchangethem.Atbest,peopletryingtohelpfromthe

outsidecanalleviatesomepainandsuffering,butwillneverbeabletoeradicate

everything.Eventhoughinfullcontrolofalllifechoices,theindividualhasabsolutely

nochoicewhenitcomestothehellinthemind.Whenhellbecomesmorepermanent,as

inadepression,helpfromtheoutsideisessential,butwillnotbeabletocureanything

withouttheindividualcuringhimorherself.

Relivingpasteventsbindstothepain.Theconstantrepetitionsinthemindof

thingssuchasconversations,imagesandemotionsfromthepastarehurtful.The

enormouscapabilityofthehumanbraintocreatewonderfulthingsalsogivesthe

capabilitytoimagineandrelivehorriblethingsasrealisticallyasiftheywereactually

happening.Mostofitstaysinthesubconscious,butintimesofvulnerabilityand

sufferingthesethoughtscometothesurfaceandmakethehealingprocessevenmore

difficult.Onememoryleadstothenext,whichleadsdeeperintothespiralofthe

personalhellinthemind.

Repeatingshortclipsofmemoriesandexcerptsfromaconversationthat

happenedbeforeaterribleeventstaytrappedinthemind,makingdetachmentfrom

thesememoriesmoredifficult.Insteadoflettingthesememoriesgotomakespacefor

newones,theindividualclingstothem.Itisasifthemindwereaprison,inwhich

vii

oneselfisboththepunishedandthepunisher.Oncealoneinthemind,nooneelseis

theretotorturebuttheself.Theselfaloneistheevildoer,hurtingfromwithin.Ifitwere

possibletomastertheartofnotthinkingemotionallywiththeheart,butratheronly

logicallywiththebrain,thesepainswouldbesignificantlylessandwoundswouldheal

muchfaster.AchievingBuddhahood6entailsexactlythis:freedomfromsufferingand

attachment.Everyactiontakeninlifeisachoice.Whencreatingthepersonalhellsit

seemsasifcontrolislostoverthoughtsandonebecomestheirhelplessvictim.The

choicebetweenthinkingandnotthinkingthesethoughtsseemscompletelyannihilated.

Keepingabravefacetotheworldoutsidemaybeeasierforsomethanothers,

butontheinsidehellcanbetearingtheindividualapart.Thedividebetweenwhatis

feltandhowoneactscanbeameanstoovercomesuffering.Thepersonal,mentalhells

createdbytheselfaretheworstbecausenooneknowsbetterandwithmoredetail

whatexactlyhurtsthemostandhowthesepainsaretriggered.Otherpeople’sactions

areoutoftheindividual’scontrol.Onecanhopetoinfluencethemandtheirdecisions,

butultimatelymustlivewithotherpeople’sdecisionsandactions.Oneindividual

cannotchangeanother’sthoughts,feelingsorhopes.Everypersonisuniqueinhisor

heremotionsandothersmustlearntolivearoundthem.Sometimespeoplemustlearn

todealandlivewithunwantedeventsandthings.Thisisverychallengingbecause

humansmakeplansandimaginetheirlivesacertainway.Disappointmentispartof

saṃsāra,sincetheindividualhasnocontrolaboutwhathappensoutsideofhisorher

ownactions.

6Buddhahood–havingattainedenlightenment,becomeaBuddha.

viii

ImagesofhellareessentialinBuddhismbecausetheyareameanstoshow

suffering.Notonlyaretheyvisualaids,butalsoserveasaunifyingtool.Thedidacticuse

ofimagesistocreateacommunalhellfortheviewers.Theinterpretationthrough

representationofhellthroughimagesandliteraturecanbeshared.Acomfortingfactor

amongstallthepainandsufferingoneexperiencesisknowingthatthisisnotaunique

feeling.Thefactthatotherssuffertoodoesnoteliminateorlessenthepersonalpains;

however,itissomewhatconsolingtoknowthatothersalsoexperiencehardships.

Thefeelingsofpainandsadnesscannotbeeliminatedbyreason.Theonlything

thatcanhelptoeasethepainawayandslowlyrecoveristime.Time,aswellasduḥkha,

isimpermanent.LivingaccordingtoBuddhistidealsandrulesentailsacceptanceof

eventseveniftheymayhurt.Knowingthateventheworstpainwillsubside,evenifit

neverfullygoesaway,canbecomforting.Itcanalwaysbereasonedandlogically

explainedthatsufferingisimpermanent;theactualsufferinginthatmoment,however,

isveryreal.Almostnothingcanbedoneintheshorttermtoactuallylessenthepain

triggeredbyterribleevents.Thereisnootherwaytogetoverthesefeelingsthantolive

throughallthepainandlearntolivewithit,knowingthatitwillnotalwaysbeasbad.

Thepainfulmemoryofahappyeventthatcanneverhappenagainduetopersonalloss

hauntsmany,likenightmaresthatneverseemtocometoanend.Knowingthatnothing

willchange,themindinstinctivelyrelivesandrepeatseverythingimaginablethatdoes

notallowlettinggoandmovingon.Buddhistsunderstandthisconceptofcontinuous

repetitionthatcausessomuchpersonalagonyandcallithell.

Nomatterwherethebodygoes,themindfollowsiteverywhere.Physical

locationscanbechanged,butneverwillonebeseparatedfrommemoriesandthoughts.

ix

Thisprisoncreatedfortheselfisthepersonalhellfromwhichnoonebuttheselfcan

salvagefrom.Evenifgettingsupportfromfamilyandfriends,theactualhealingand

recoverycanonlybedonebytheself.Eventhoughanityaisusuallynegative,inthis

relationshipwithduḥkhaknowingthatnothingispermanentcanbereassuring.Even

thoughinvoluntary,everyhumanwillatsomepointexperiencethepiercingpainofthe

deathofsomeoneloved,anunwantedbreakupandinnumerableotherthingsthatcause

irreversiblepain.Theseexperiencesareallcausedbyimpermanence,luckilythepain

theycause,isalsoimpermanent.

ExactlythisideaofanityaiswhyBuddhisthell,inallitshorribleandgrotesque

forms,issoimportanteventhoughitisonethatisoftenoverlooked.Tocontinueonthe

pathtowardsenlightenment,onemustsufferforallthewrongdoingsfromprevious

statesofbeing.Atonementthroughsuffering,retributionthroughpain,andthe

seeminglyendlesstortureofthebody,soulandmindistheonlywaytofurtheroneself

onthewaytoachievingenlightenment.Justaslifeisnotapermanentstateofbeing,hell

isalsoatemporarysituation.Regardlessofthelengthoramountofsuffering,onewill

eventuallybereleasedfromthepersonalhellinwhichoneisconfrontedtocontinuethe

processofpersonalbetterment.Thisprojectwillexplorethecreativityandstructureof

theBuddhistimaginationofhellthroughimagesandtexts.

x

Table of Contents

Dedication iAcknowledgments iiPreface vIntroduction 1

Chapter One: Time 10 MeasurableEternity 10 UnitsofTime 23 RebirthandRevival 25 PermanenceandImpermanence 30 HellishCharacteristics:Repetition 33

TheHellofNeverEndingTorment–Avīci 37

Chapter Two: Location 44 AHellofaLocation 44

FluidityofanImaginedLocation 51 DepictionofHellasaPrison 55 ResidentsofHell 59

TheMindasaLocation 63

Chapter Three: Community 64 AnimalsandVengeance 64 PunishmentandRelease 69 OccupantsofHell 72 TheLackofHappiness 79

Conclusion 88Bibliography 92

1

Introduction

A Place of Torment

InthisprojectIwanttointroducethesubjectofBuddhisthell,itsinterpretation

oftime,location,itscommunitiesanditsrepresentationinart.Thisisasurveyoftexts

aboutBuddhisthellfromvariousBuddhistcultures,includingimagesfromSoutheast,

EastandCentralAsia.Theimageswillhelptoorientthereader,visualizingsomeofthe

intensetormentsthatexistthere.Theseimagesareafleshy,visceralandvisual

introductiontoBuddhisthells.TheyenhancetheintensityofBuddhisthellsbecause

theyarebasedontheperceptionthattheseimagesaregoingtocreateaspecialhellfor

theviewer.Theimagesareshockinglyviolentandgory,andtheologically,theyserveto

bothscaretheviewerintogoodactionandavoidanceofbadactionsandtherefore

becomememorable.Traditionally“it[was]hopedthattheseluriddescriptionswould

serveasencouragementforbeingstotraversetheproperpathofconduct,escapingthe

devastationdepictedinthehells.”1Furthermore,“these[hellimagery]scrollshintatthe

usageofhellimagerywithinapublicsphere.Monkswouldedifylaitywithvisionsofthe

tormentsofhellthatawaitedthem[…].”2Partofancientteachings,theimagesIusein

thisprojectarenotonlysupposedtoshowthenon‐BuddhistreaderwhatBuddhisthell

reallylookslike,butalsotoemphasizeitsintensityandtoserveasadidactictool.

1Prebish,CharlesS.HistoricalDictionaryofBuddhism.TheScarecrowPress,Inc.,Metuchen,NJ&London1993.p.1372Buswell,Jr.,RobertE.EncyclopediaofBuddhism:VolumeOneA‐L.MacMillanReference,p.318

2

ImageshelptoorientthediversityofBuddhistdepictionsofhells.Theyvisually

representtheBuddhistfearsandtormentsinafuturelife.“TheBuddhisthellisaplace

oftormentinwhichformersinsareexpiated,butitisonlyatemporarystateandmay

beimmediatelyfollowedbyre‐birthinoneofthehigherdevalokas.3”4Itisalsoargued

that“theoriginalfunctionofhellinBuddhismwastoillustratetheworkingsofkamma;5

thelaterBuddhisttraditions[…]largelybuiltonthesameprinciplesastheideasabout

hellinearlyBuddhism.”6Variousrealmsofhellaredescribedingreatdetail,eachwith

onespecificfeaturethatisuniquetoeveryindividualhell.Inthisdescriptionofhell,the

CrushingHellisillustratedindetail.Thestorytellshowandwhythesehellbeingsare

torturedinthewaytheyare:

TheCrushingHellInthishell,beingsbythemillionarethrownintovastmortarsofironthesizeofwholevalleys.ThehenchmenofYama7,theLordofDeath,raisetheirhugehammersofred‐hotmetal,asbigasMountMeru8,abovetheirheadsandpoundtheirvictimswiththem.Thesebeingsarecrushedtodeath,screamingandweepinginunimaginableagonyandterror.Asthehammersarelifted,theycomebacktolife,onlytosufferthesametormentsoverandoveragain. Sometimes,themountainsonbothsidesofthevalleyturnintotheheadsofstags,deer,goats,ramsandotheranimalsthatthehellbeingshavekilledintheirpastlives.Thebeastsbuttagainsteachotherwiththeirhorn‐tipsspewingfire,andinnumerablehellbeings,drawntherebythepoweroftheiractions,areallcrushedtodeath.Then,once

3devalokas–worldofthegods4PaliDictionaryp.260,citedfromLaw,B.C.HeavenandHellinBuddhistPerspective.p.955kamma–(Pali;Sanskrit:karma):literally,‘action’,thelawofthecauseandeffectofactions,accordingtowhichvirtuousdeedsresultinhappinessinthefutureandnon‐virtuousdeedsresultinsuffering(Lopez,Jr.,DonaldS,eds.BuddhistScriptures.PenguinClassics.2004).6Braarvig,Jens.Numen56:“TheBuddhistHell:AnEarlyInstanceoftheIdea?”Brill2009.p.2817Yama–theLordofthedead8MountMeru–(Sanskrit):inBuddhistcosmology,[MountMeru]isthemountaininthecenteroftheuniverse.Godsinhabititssurfaceandsummit(DonaldS.Lopez,Jr.,BuddhistScriptures,PenguinClassics2004).InPaliliterature,nottheearth,butMountMeruisthesymbolofstability.

3

more,asthemountainsseparate,theyreviveonlytobecrushedagain. TwohundredhumanyearsareequivalentofonedayforthegodsoftheHeavenWithoutFighting.TwothousandyearsinthatrealmcorrespondtoonedayintheCrushingHell,andthebeingsinthathelllivetwothousandyears.9

Inmanyhellsthesufferersareexperiencingveryprecisepunishmentsthat

relatedirectlytotheevildeedstheyhavecommittedintheirpastlives.TheCrushing

Hellillustratesthiswiththeuseofanimalsaspunishers.Thisstoryencompassesall

aspectsofclearlyidentifyingBuddhisthell.Inthefirstsectionitdiscussesthe

physicalityandappearanceofhell.Eventhoughitdoesnotgivearoadmapofwhere

thishellcouldbelocated,itcanbeassumedthatitisaverylargeareasincethereneeds

tobespacefor“vastmortarsofironthesizeofwholevalleys.”Notonlyisitenormous,

butalsothenumberofhellbeingspunishedthere.Thepunishersaretheretoinflict

“agonyandterror”ontothehellbeingsinorderforthemtoremaininastateoffearat

alltimes.

Theotherbeingsresidinginthishellareanimalsthatwerepreviouslyabused

andusedbythehellbeings.Thehellbeings’karmicactionshaveledthemtothis

unfortunaterebirthinwhichtheyexperiencethepainstheyhavepreviouslycaused

others.InFigure2,animageofJapaneseBuddhisthell,thestampedeofanimals

tramplingoverthehellbeingsillustratestheintensity,dangerandvisualizationofthis

hell.Thecommunityofhellinhabitantsishereillustratedashellbeings,animalsand

henchmenofYama.Eventhoughnotallhellsincludeanimalsinthisparticularformas

primarypunishments,manyotherBuddhisthellsalsomentionanimalstearingathell9PatrulRinpoche.TheWordsofmyPerfectTeacher.p.64

4

beingsaspartoftheirpunishment.Thefinalsectionofthishell‐storydiscussestime.

Insteadofdecidingafinitenumberofyearstodescribethishell,anumberofsimilesare

usedtoattempttodefinethisincalculablenumberofyears.

Contrastingtootherreligionsandexplanationsforabirthinhell,Buddhismdoes

notblamearebirthinhellononeindividual’sbadactions.Theconceptofselfin

Buddhismisverycomplex;hencetheselfisnotonlywhatisexperiencedinasingle

lifetime.Theexistenceisstretchedovermillionsofyears,variousbirthsincluded.The

selfiscomprisedofbirthsashumans,animals,godsandotherformsofexistence.Every

singlebadactioninanyoneofthoselivesaccumulatestoanall‐encompassingbad

karmicpotential.Asopposedtohumans,“animals,ghostsandhellbeingshavelittle

freedomforintentionalgoodorbadactions.”10Sincetheselifeformshaveverylittle

personalagency,accumulatinggoodkarmainoneofthelowerrealmsismuchmore

difficultthan,forexample,inahumanbirth.

10PeterHarvey,AnIntroductiontoBuddhism,CambridgeUniversityPress,p.41

5

11Figure2

11Figure2,http://bit.ly/ZBmrba,December2012

6

Inthefirstchapterofthisproject,IwillconsiderthewayBuddhistsunderstand

timeinhell.Thesinglelifetimethatisremembered,experiencedandoneismost

involvedin,isnotsoimportantonalargerscaleoftimeandthegreateruniverse.This

ideaemphasizestherelativityandbrevityofthehuman(oranimal)lifespanand

supportstheBuddhistviewofinfiniterebirthsandthereforeaninfiniteexistence.If

thereareaninfinitenumberofrebirthstoawaitandaninfinitenumberoflivestolive

whiletheuniversecollapsesandreconstructsitselfinnumerabletimes,onesinglelifein

helldoesnotseemassignificantandlongasitdoestoahuman.Viewinghellasa

temporarystatefurtherstheconceptofatransitoryexistenceineitherhell,human,

deva12,preta13oranimalrealms.Ifnorebirthisevereternal,thevisionofarebirthin

hellismoretolerablethanknowingthatoncereborninhell,thisstatewilllastforever.

InBuddhism,theaspectoftimeiscrucial,impermanencebeingoneofthemost

importantconceptsofthereligion.Impermanenceistheexplanationforwhynoone

willeverbetrulyhappyinsaṃsāra,andwhyashorthumanlifetimeisalmostnegligible

inrelationtothenumberofrebirthsexperienceduntilhopefullyonedayreaching

nirvāṇa.14Nothinginanyrealmofexistenceispermanent,andeventhehells

themselves,asthehell‐dwellers’existencesinthehells,areimpermanent.Asahuman

onearth,followingtheBuddhisttraditionsandconsciouslytakingcareoftheirgood

karma,theknowledgeofnothavingtospendeternityinhellismildlyreassuring.12deva–deity13preta–hungryghost14nirvāṇa–(Sanskrit;Pali:nibbana):literally‘blowingout’,thecessationofsufferingandhencethegoalofBuddhistpractice.ThenatureofnirvāṇaiswidelyinterpretedinBuddhistliterature,withdistinctionsbeingmadebetweenthevisionofnirvāṇathatdestroystheseedsoffuturerebirthandthefinalnirvāṇaenteredupondeath(DonaldS.Lopez,Jr.,BuddhistScriptures,PenguinClassics2004).

7

InmysecondchapterIwillconsiderwhereBuddhistslocatehell.InTibetan

BuddhismhellislocatedintheWheelofExistence,aphysicalrepresentationofsaṃsāra

heldupbyYama,theHenchmanofDeath.Here,hellisasimportantapartoflifein

saṃsāraasthehumanrealm.Viewinghellasmerelyanotherrealmofrebirthmakesit

seemlessunfairorunlikelytobereborninto.Therearemanydescriptionsand

interpretationsoftherealmofhell,mostverysimilarinthewaythehell‐dwellersare

beingpunished,butverydifferentintermsofthedescriptionofhell’slocation.Whereas

theNyingmaTibetantraditionexpressedbyPatrulRinpocheorganizesthehellsby

levelofintensityandevilkarmacommittedinapreviouslifeontopofeachotherlikea

building,othertraditionsdonotstructureitinthisway.Somedescriptionsdonotgive

anyguidelinesastowherethehellscouldbelocated.Thiscreatesaspaceinthemindof

thereader,allowingfortheindividual’simaginationtobethedesignerofwherehellis

takingplace.

EventhoughsomeBuddhisttraditionsteachthat“theprincipalHellsareeightin

number”andthatthereare“eighthothells[and]eightcoldhells,”15itisalsoargued

that“theoverallnumberofworldsystemsthatconstitutetheuniverseinitsentirety

cannotbespecified.”16Thinkingabouttheseindividualhellsindifferentlocations

broadenstheperspectiveonhellsingeneral.Sinceoneisnotboundtoimagineone

singlelocationunderneaththeearthasapossiblelocationbutratherhavetheentire

universetoplacethemmakesitmoredifficulttorealisticallyimagine.This,inturn,

allowsthetextstobetheprimaryagentincreatingthisimaginaryworldforthereader.

15B.C.Law,HeavenandHellinBuddhistPerspective,p.9416Buswell,Jr.,RobertE.,EncyclopediaofBuddhism,VolumeOneA‐L,MacMillanReference,p.184

8

Thevaguenessofpossiblelocationsinseparateuniversesisparalleledbyaveryclear

andorganizeddescriptionofwhatandhowthehellsareorganized.

Buddhistsbelievethattheuniverseconsistsofmanyspheres,eachofwhichhas

itsownearth,sun,moon,heavensandhells.Eachofthesespheresismadeupof

multiplerealmsofexistence.ConsideringthatinBuddhism,hellisnotafixedlocation

butfairlyfreeinitsmanifestationandlocationallowsforagreaterrangeofplacesand

individualuniversestobereborninto.Interestingly,“theuniversehasnospecific

creator;thesufficientcauseforitsexistenceistobefoundintheBuddhistcycleof

casualconditioningknownaspratityasamutpada(dependentorigination).”17

AnalyzingaspaceandplacesuchasBuddhisthellallowsforvarious

interpretationsfromanacademicperspective.Buddhisthell’sviewontime,location

anditscommunityissupportedbyimagesfromvariousBuddhisttraditionsacrossAsia.

Posingthepossibilityofhellonlyexistinginthemindinsteadofinaphysicallocation

alsoopensuppossibilitiesofinterpretingtheentireconceptofhellasmetaphorical.

Thesinsonehascommittedinthislifetimemaynotbetheonlycauseforone’srebirth

inhell.Accumulatedkarmaoverinnumerablebirthsalladdupuntilthekarmic

potentialhasreachedapointinwhicharebirthinhellisjustified.Ifoneselfisnotthe

onlycausefortherebirthinhell,whythen,musttheBuddhistsufferthepunishmentfor

“otherpeople’s”badactions?Buddhistsarguethat“everygod,humanbeing,animal,

restlessghostorhabitantofhellhasbeenborninexactlythatstatebecauseofhisorher

earlieractions,andnotbecausetheyarepunishedorrewardedbyagodordivine

17Buswell,Jr.,RobertE.,EncyclopediaofBuddhism,VolumeOneA‐L,MacMillanReference,p.183

9

being.”18Thismeansthatpreviouslivesareequallyasimportanttothecurrentlifeas

theactualcurrentlife.Oneshouldnotseparatepreviousbirthsfromnow,butview

themallasoneentity.

Understandingthatthislifetimeinhellisequallypartofexistenceinsaṃsāraas

thelifetimeasahumantakesalotofthefearawayandallowsforacceptanceoflifein

saṃsāra.Ratherthanscaringpeopleintogoodbehavior,goodbehaviorisencouraged

byreapingtherewardsofgoodkarma,namelyapositiverebirth.EvenifBuddhistsdo

goodthingsalltheirlife,theywillstillbereborninhelleventually.Noonecanescape

saṃsāra;hencenoonecanescapehell.Even“theBuddhasaysthattobelieveinthese

[karmic]principles,andsoliveamorallife,willleadtoagoodrebirth.”19This

encouragement,evenifitdoesnotguaranteeexclusionfromhell,doesgivelighttoa

positivefuture.Eventhemostmeritoriouspeoplewillexperienceabirthinhell;

thereforebeinggoodcannoteliminatethis,butitwilllessenitsintensity.Goodpeople

willbenefitfromthereapingoftheirgoodkarmabecauseawholelifeleadwithpositive

energyandgoodactionswillhavepositiveresults.Therefore,evenifreborninhell,it

willnot,forexample,beintoAvīci.20Thoughseverityanddurationofsufferingvaries

witheachreincarnation,thehellcycleeventuallyends,bringingtheindividualcloserto

attainingenlightenment.

18Braarvig,Jens,“TheBuddhistHell:AnEarlyInstanceoftheIdea?”Numen56,Brill2009,p.25519PeterHarvey,AnIntroductiontoBuddhism,CambridgeUniversityPress,p.4420Avīci–worstofallBuddhisthells;laterdiscussedinmoredetail.

10

Chapter 1

Time

Measurable Eternity

Buddhistconceptionsoftimeareabstractandfrequentlyimmeasurable.

Mindfulnessteachestopayattentiontothemoment,andnotonlymeasuretimein

minutesanddays.Differentfromtimemeasurementinothertraditions,thenumbers

usedtodescribedistanceandtimeintheBuddhistsūtras21andcommentariesare

imaginarynumbersusedonlytodescriberhetoricallyverylongduration,andnottobe

takenasaccuratenumbers.Furthermore,Buddhistthoughtaboutlifecontinuesfar

beyonddeath.Insteadofbeingboundeternallytoeitherheavenorhellafterdeath,one

simplyreenterstherealmofexistenceforever,oruntilnirvāṇaisreached.“Allbeings

arecontinuallyreborninthevariousrealmsinaccordancewiththeirpastkarma;the

onlyescapefromthisendlessroundofrebirth,[…]saṃsāra,istheknowledgethat

constitutestheattainmentofnirvāṇa.”22

Theimmediacythatisemphasizedwiththebrevityofhumanlifeisthatafter

onehassufferedforkalpas23oraeons24inhell,onehasthepossibility,eventhoughnot

theguarantee,toimmediatelyberebornintoahigherrealm.Rebirthinahigherrealm,21sūtra–(Sanskrit;Pali:sutta):literally,‘aphorism’,adiscoursetraditionallyregardedashavingbeenspokenbytheBuddhaorspokenwithhissanction(DonaldS.Lopez,Jr.,BuddhistScriptures,PenguinClassics2004).22Buswell,Jr.,RobertE.,EncyclopediaofBuddhism,VolumeOneA‐L,MacMillanReference,p.18323kalpa–measureforaperiodoftime24aeon–extremelylongtimeperiod

11

thatofthegodsorofhumans,showsthatone’skarmicpotentialhasbeensubstantially

lessenedafterthetimesufferedinhell.Thepossibilitiesofsuchanimprovementin

rebirth,fromhell‐dwellertohuman,couldbeworththetimespentinhell.Realizingthe

rarityandunlikelihoodoftheprivilegeofbeingbornasahumanemphasizesthatthis

opportunityissupposedtobeusedtodogoodinthislife,andintentionallynourish

goodkarma.Understandinghowuniqueitistobeborninthehumanrealmisenhanced

bytheextremetimeperiodswithwhichtheotherrealmsaredescribed.Thehuman

birthisofmostimportancebecauseitistheonlystateinwhichnirvāṇacanbeattained.

Besidestheincalculableyearsspentinhell,anotherreasonwhyhellissohorrific

isthateverythinghappensonarepetitivebasis.Everypunishmentisshortinitself,but

itwill,however,berepeatedwithimmediacyforwhatseemslikeaneternityinhuman

perspective.Thisconceptofrepetitionisusedasapunishmentinitself.Sincethehell

beingsareawarewhatawaitsthemassoonastheyareslicedapart,skinnedoreaten

alive,thiscausesadifferenttypeofpainandanxietyincontrasttohavingdifferent

tormentsinflictedonthemcontinuouslywithoutwarning.Repetitionisacentralaspect

ofthepunishmentsinhell.Thebeingsrebornintheirspecifichellshavebeenreborn

thereforactionstheyhavecommittedinthepast.Thepunishmentsarealsospecificto

eachhell,andbeingsarecondemnedtosufferintheirhelluntiltheirnextrebirth.

Spendinganimmeasurabletimesufferingthesametorturesonlyintensifiestheir

punishmentsbecausetheyhaveabsolutelynootheroption.

Thecreaturesdwellinginhellarenevercompletelydestroyed.Theyaremerely

murderedandtorturedinawaythatallowsthemtoreviveagain,withoutactually

beingreincarnated.Thetotaldestructionofthehell‐dwellerswouldbepointlesssince

12

thatwouldmeantheycouldberebornintoadifferentrealmwithoutcompletingtheir

accruedtimeinhellanderadicatingtheirevilkarma.Therefore,thereis“nototal

destructionoftheinhabitantsofhell.”25Framinghell‐dwellersasinhabitantsand

statingthattheymayneverbetotallydestroyedsuggeststhatthereisaforceorsome

sortofpowerthathascontrolandthatoverseesthisprocessofdestruction.In

Buddhism,thereisacosmicorderinwhichalluniversessymbioticallycoexist,

thereforethewaysinwhichhellworksisanaturalpartofthisexistencethatdoesnot

needasingledecidingforce,whicheliminatestheneedforoneallencompassing,

almightyGod.“Buddhismseesnoneedforacreatoroftheworld,asitpostulatesno

ultimatebeginningtotheworld,andregardsitassustainedbynaturallaws,”26thereis

nootherforcebutkarmatogovernallknownandunknownuniverses.Interestingly

andquiteoppositetoallotherreligions,“iftherewereacreatoroftheworld,hewould

beregardedasresponsibleforthesufferingwhichisfoundthroughoutit.”27

DepictedinFigure3isaTibetanthanka28oftheWheelofExistence,allformsof

existencearerepresentedhere.Thethankaisadetailedpaintingonfabricinwhichall

stagesofexistencearedepicted.Yama,atthetopofthewheel,istheHenchmanof

Death.Heholdsthewheeloflifeinhisarms.Thenever‐endingcycleoflifeandrebirth

isdepictedhere.Thecapturedhellbeingscannotescapethiscycleunlesstheyreach

enlightenment,andthereforeentertheeternalnirvāṇa.“Onsomeaccountsthewheel

representsamirrorheldupbyYamatoadyingpersonandrevealingthevarious

25Law,B.C.HeavenandHellinBuddhistPerspective.Delhi.p.10226PeterHarvey,AnIntroductiontoBuddhism,CambridgeUniversityPress,p.3627Jat.v.238,citedfromPeterHarvey,AnIntroductiontoBuddhism,CambridgeUniversityPress,p.3628thanka–TibetanBuddhistreligiouspaintingonascroll

13

possibilitiesforthenextrebirthopentothem.”29EverysectionofYama’scircleisa

differentrealmofrebirth.Hellisthebottom‐mostsection,equallyapartofthecycleas

humans,animals,devasandpretas.Describingtheimage:

Inthecirculardiagramofthebhavacakra,30[…]therearethreerealmsbelowthelineandthreeabove.Thissimpledivisionreflectsaqualitativedifferenceinthatthethreerealmsbelowthemiddleline(hell,theghosts,andanimals)areparticularlyunfortunateplacestobereborn,whilethoseabovetheline(heaven,asuras,31andthehumanworld)aremorepleasant.32

TheWheelofExistencedepictsallofthelifeformsthatcanbeattained.Thehell

realmsarelocatedinsidethewheel,butstillatthebottom.However,eventhoughthey

arethelowestrealm,theyarenotseparatedfromotherrealms.Amidsthungryghosts

andanimals,hellbeingsarepartofthecirclethatrevolvesendlessly.Continuously

circlingaroundintheWheelofExistencebeingsmigratefromonestateofexistenceto

thenext.

Hellbeings,hungryghosts,animals,men,anti‐gods,andsixclassesofgodsdwellinthefirstrealm(desire).Inthesecondrealm(forms)dwellgodswhohavepracticedcertaindhyānas33ormeditations.Inthefinalrealm(formless)dwellthosebeingswhohaveattainedthefourstagesofformlessness.34

29Keown,Damien,EncyclopediaofBuddhism,Routledge,LondonandNewYork,p.24730bhavacakra–symbolicrepresentationofsaṃsāra 31asura–anti‐god,demon32Keown,Damien,EncyclopediaofBuddhism,Routledge,LondonandNewYork,p.24733dhyāna–meditativeabsorption;steady,mindfulconcentrationinasinglephysicalsensationormentalnotion.Sometimesusedtodenotemeditationingeneral,ratherthanspecificstatesofabsorption(Robinson,RichardH.andJohnson,WillardL.TheBuddhistReligion.WadsworthPublishingCompany).34Prebish,CharlesS.,HistoricalDictionaryofBuddhism,TheScarecrowPress,Inc.,Metuchen,NJ&London1993,p.97

14

35Figure3

35Figure3.WheelofExistence.Tibet,19thcentury.Pigmentsoncloth.C2006.66.131,HAR,78.Rubin

15

36Figure4

36Figure4.Detail.WheelofExistence.Tibet,19thcentury.Pigmentsoncloth.C2006.66.131,HAR,78.RubinMuseumofArt,NewYorkCity

16

“Attheverycenterofthewheelareshownthreeanimals(seeFigure4):acock,a

pigandasnake,whichrepresentthe‘threepoisons’ofgreed(raga),hatred(dveṣa)and

delusion(moha).Itistheseforcesthatcreatebadkarmaandfueltheendlesscycleof

rebirth.”37Theuseoftheseanimalsandattributestoillustratetheuniverse’sbad

karmicpossibilitiesshowshowimportantthesethreeconceptsareinBuddhistthought

andpractice.Definingallfuelforthecycleofrebirthwithgreed,hatredanddelusionis

supposedtoilluminateaboutthecourseofnatureandhowlivingbeingsfunction,

whetherhumanornot.

Thecirclesurroundingthethreecenteranimalsdepictsthenever‐endingcycle

ofrebirthsandconstantfluctuationbetweenpositiveandnegativereincarnations.

Alwaysinfluxfromupwardtodownwardandviceversa,reincarnationsoccurbasedon

theindividual’skarmicpotentialandwhereinthecycleofrebirththeyarecurrently

located.Theonlyescapefromthis“endlessroundisthedirectunderstandingofthe

FourNobleTruths38–suffering,itscause,andthepathleadingtoitscessation–andthe

attainmentofnirvāṇa.”39Otherlifeformsbesideshumanandanimalincludethepreta,

godandasura.Theseotherlifeformsarealldescribedinparticularways.Furthermore,

allrealmsofexistencehaveverydistinctrestrictions:

Someoftherealms[ofexistence]arevisibletoushereandnow,whileothersarenot.Theoneswecanseearethehumanandanimalrealms,andtheoneswecannotseearethoseofthegods,theTitansorasuras,andhell.Ontheborderlineistherealmoftheghosts,beingswhohoveron the fringes of the humanworld andwho are occasionally caughtsightofastheyflitbetweentheshadows.40

37Keown,Damien,EncyclopediaofBuddhism,Routledge,LondonandNewYork,p.24738FourNobleTruths–consideredthemainteachingsoftheBuddhisttraditions.TheFourNobleTruthsareduḥkha,realizingthecauseofduḥkha(attachment),endingduḥkha(practicingnon‐attachment)andthepathtoendingduḥkha(learningthepracticeofnon‐attachment)39Buswell,Jr.,RobertE.,EncyclopediaofBuddhism,VolumeOneA‐L,MacMillanReference,p.18640Keown,Damien,EncyclopediaofBuddhism,Routledge,LondonandNewYork,p246

17

Theasurasareusuallydescribedasjealousgods,andthepretasashungry

ghosts.Therebirthasapretaisdescribedlikethis:“[One]willbebornasawandering

hungryghostandafterathousandkalpasbecomeananimal.Afterathousandkalpas

morehewillagainbecomeaman.”41Therebirthisduetoevilkarmicpotentialand

shouldsufficeasapunishment.Abirthintherealmsofthehungryghostscanbe

anything,suchasabeingwithamouthassmallasaneedletipbutastomachaslargeas

awholecountry,orathirstybeingdamnedtowanderingtheearthwithoutevereven

hearingthementionofwater.42Afterlivingasahungryghostforathousandkalpas,

whichisaslongasittakesfortheuniversetocollapseandreformitselfmultipletimes,

animmeasurableamountoftimeinhumanyears,thebeingwillthenbereborninthe

animalrealm.Thatmanyyearsandlifetimesinalowerrealmofthehungryghostsand

animalrealmissupposedtolessentheevilkarmathathadbeenaccumulatedover

thousandsofbirthsinthepastwhichcanthenfinallyleadtoarebirthasahuman.

InFigure5thepretarealmshowsthehungryghostsatthebottom,entangledin

fireandexperiencingduḥkha,movingwithdis‐ease.Intheverycenterofthisdetaila

hungryghostisshownwithflaringarms,hopelesslywanderinghisrealm.Thehuge

stomachsandtinythroatsofthehungryghostsaretheirpunishmentforgluttonyand

greedinpreviousbirths.Theregularlifetimeofahungryghostcouldlastthousandsof

kalpas.Oncebornapretaoranimalitismoredifficulttoascendtoahumanrealmbirth.

Arebirthintheserealmscanleadtoinnumerablefurtherrebirthsintheserealmsas

well,withoutleavingorenteringotherrealmsofrebirth.Sincekarmaistheall‐ruling

41B.C.Law,HeavenandHellinBuddhistPerspective,p.10442PatrulRinpoche,TheWordsofmyPerfectTeacher,p.72

18

force,“everygod,humanbeing,animal,restlessghostorhabitantofhellhasbeenborn

inexactlythatstatebecauseofhisorherearlieractions,andnotbecausetheyare

punishedorrewardedbyagodordivinebeing.”43Sinceeachactioninanyprevious

liveshasaneffectonfuturerebirths,thecycleofrebirthiscategorizedsothat“bad

deedsmakeyouananimalorahungryghost,butareallybaddeedbringsyoutohell–

thesethreestatesarecalledbadstages(duggatti44).”45

43Braarvig,Jens,“TheBuddhistHell:AnEarlyInstanceoftheIdea?”Numen56,Brill2009,p.25544duggatti–unfortunateformofrebirth45Braarvig,Jens,“TheBuddhistHell:AnEarlyInstanceoftheIdea?”Numen56,Brill2009,p.256

19

46Figure5

46Figure5.Detail.WheelofExistence.Tibet,19thcentury.Pigmentsoncloth.C2006.66.131,HAR,78.RubinMuseumofArt,NewYorkCity

20

InBuddhism,themostvalueandattentionisgenerallypaidtothehumanbirth.

BornasahumanisconsideredtobethemostfavorablerebirthamongstBuddhist.Even

thoughtherearemanyhardshipstoendureinthehumanbirth,itistheonlybirthin

whichenlightenmentandBuddhahood47canbeattained.Manytextsemphasizethe

rarityandimportanceofthehumanbirth.AsmostconceptsinBuddhismaredescribed

withsimiles,soisthehumanbirthanditsextremerarity:

Amanthrowsayokewithaholeinitintotheseaanditfloatseverywhere:itismoredifficultforabeingborninthelowerstatesofexistencetoattainhumanbirththanitisforablindturtlecomingtothesurfaceoftheoceaneveryhundredyearstoputitsneckthroughtheholeoftheyoke.48

Thehumanbirthisagoodrebirth,sinceitallowsforaccumulatingmeritand

givingofferings,learningthedharma49andbecomingpartofthesaṇgha.50Amonk’s

lifetimecanbeutilizedtocomeclosertoenlightenmentandeventuallyreachnirvāṇa,

asopposedtoalaypersonthatistryingtoavoidabadrebirth,suchasoneinthehells.

Thisconceptisillustratedinthefollowingexcerpt:

Inthehumanstateoneisable–thatis,ifonehearstheteachingsoftheBuddha–torealize,throughinsightandmeditation,thateverythingisimpermanentandselfless,emptyandbringsonlysuffering;then,onedoesnotseekrebirthagainneitherashumans,gods,orforthatsakeasanimalsorinhell,becausehavinggivenupattachmentstoaself,andthusanyattachmenttolifeinthefive[orsix]statesofexistence,insaṃsāra,onewillreachfinalextinctioninnibbana.51

47Buddhahood–attainmentofenlightenment,becomingaBuddha48Braarvig,Jens,“TheBuddhistHell:AnEarlyInstanceoftheIdea?”Numen56,Brill2009,p.270,SNI.5.7‐849dharma–(Sanskrit;Pali:dhamma):althoughdifficulttotranslate,thetermhastwogeneralmeaningsinBuddhism.ThefirstistheteachingordoctrineoftheBuddha,bothasexpoundedandasmanifestedinpractice.Thesecond(intheplural),perhapsrenderedas‘phenomena’,referstothebasicconstituentsofmindandmatter(DonaldS.Lopez,Jr.,BuddhistScriptures,PenguinClassics2004).50sangha–(Sanskrit):literally,‘community’,atermmostcommonlyusedtorefertotheorderofBuddhistmonksandnuns,itcanbeusedmoregenerallyforanycommunityofBuddhists,includingfullyordainedmonks,fullyordainednuns,malenovices,femalenovices,laymenandlaywomen(DonaldS.Lopez,Jr.,BuddhistScriptures,PenguinClassics2004).51Braarvig,Jens,“TheBuddhistHell:AnEarlyInstanceoftheIdea?”Numen56,Brill2009,p.256

21

Thelifespansofhumansandgodsareverydifferent,andthatofhellbeingsis

oneofthelongestofthemall.Therelativitybetweenthebrevityofahumanlifein

comparisonbetweenthelifetimesspentinhellissurprising.Somuchbadkarmawas

accruedoverinnumerablelifetimesthatarebirthinhellwasjustifiedandaccountedfor

withpreviousbadactions.Realizingtherarityandslimprobabilityoftheprivilegeof

beingbornasahumanemphasizesthatthisopportunitytodogoodandnourishour

goodkarmamustbeused.Onceoneisananimal,itismoredifficulttoascendtoa

humanrealmbirth:“Thereiseveryreasontoavoidtheduggattis,astheyareextremely

hardtogetoutof:itisverydifficulttoagainattainhumanbirth–whichofcourseisa

greatprivilege,becauseyouthenmayreceivetheteachingoftheBuddhaandbe

liberatedfromthehorrorsofsaṃsāra.”52

Animalrebirth,however,isoneofthethreelessfavorablelifeforms.Since

animalsareunabletobenefitfromBuddhistteachingsorattainenlightenment,this

stateofexistenceisproblematic.Theanimalbirthisconsideredoneofthelowerbirths,

alongsidethehungryghostsandhell.Sinceanimalsaremainly“drivenbyinstinctsthey

cannotcontrol,andbeingwithoutalanguagecapableofconveyingthesubtletiesof

Buddhistteachings,animalscanonlyhopeforanexistencerelativelyfreefrompainand

tobeborninabetterconditioninthenextlife.”53

Thewayinwhichtheindividualrealmsofrebirtharedescribedanddepicted

encouragestheBuddhistobservertoconsiderpossibleoutcomesofhisorheractions.If

itisknownthatcertainbadactionswillinevitablyleadtoareincarnationinoneofthe52Braarvig,Jens,“TheBuddhistHell:AnEarlyInstanceoftheIdea?”Numen56,Brill2009,p.27053Keown,Damien,EncyclopediaofBuddhism,Routledge,LondonandNewYork,p.248

22

lowerrealms,themotivationistoavoidtheseactions.Eventhoughattainingnirvāṇa

withoutgoingthroughhellatsomepointisimpossible,themorepositiveactionsand

deedsonecanperform,themorelikelyonewillbetoamelioratefuturereincarnations.

Regardlessofwhichrebirthisattainedinanextlife,arebirthinhellwillalwaysbe

inevitable.

23

Units of Time

Buddhismunderstandstimeintermsofunits,someshort,somelong.54Eachof

theseunitsandmeasuresoftimeisnamedandhasmorethanonespecificdefinition,

dependingonwhatsourceoneconsults.Buddhisttextsdescribetheseunitsoftime

withextremelyvividsimiles.Here,asimilethatdescribesthelengthofanaeon:

SupposethereweretwentyKosalan55cartloadsofsesamumseedandattheendofeveryhundredyearsamanweretotakeoutaseed,justone;well,sooner[…]wouldthoseKosalancartloadsofsesamumseedbeusedupandexhaustedinthatway[beforeoneaeonconcludes]!56

Anotherexampleofasimiledescribinganequaltimeperiodisasfollows:

Supposetherewasagreatmountainofrock,sevenmilesacrossandsevenmileshigh,asolidmasswithoutanycracks.Attheendofeveryhundredyearsamanmightbrushitjustoncewithafinecloth.Thatgreatmountainofrockwoulddecayandcometoanendsoonerthantheaeon.Solongisanaeon.Andofaeonsofthislengthnotjustonehaspassed,notjustahundred,notjustathousand,notjustahundredthousand.57Thesesimilesareusedtoallowthereadertocomprehendthetimeperiods.The

largeunitsreferencedmostfrequentlyarethekalpaandthegreatkalpa.Thekalpaisa

unitoftimethatdescribestheamountoftimeittakestheuniversetodestroyand

rebuilditself.Thepreciselengthofakalpaisnotdefinedinyears.TheEncyclopediaof

Buddhismdescribesthekalpaas“thelengthoftimeittakesfortheuniverseto

completeonefullcycleofexpansionandcontraction[and]isknownasamahākalpa.58A

mahākalpaismadeupoffourintermediateaeonsconsistingoftheperiodof

54AkiraSadakata,BuddhistCosmology,p.9355Kosala–regioninancientIndia56SNI.15257SamyuttaNikāyaii,181‐18258mahākalpa–greataeon,greatkalpa

24

contraction,theperiodofexpansion,andtheperiodwhentheworldremainsexpanded.

Thelengthofagreataeonisnotspecifiedinhumanyearsbutonlybyreferenceto

similes.”59

Noneoftheseperiodsoftimearerealisticallyimaginablebyhumans.Thekalpa

servesmoreasanideaofanimmensespanoftimeratherthananexactnumberof

years.60Thekalpaisameasureoftimeusedtodescribehowlongsomethingwilltake,

howmuchtimesomeonehastospendinacertainplaceandtomeasurelongperiodsin

theuniverse.ThekalpaisnearlythelargestunitoftimeinBuddhistcosmology.The

onlyperiodlongerthanakalpaisagreatkalpa,whichdurationiseightykalpas.61Asis

traditionalforBuddhisttexts,thedurationofakalpaisdescribedwithasimileinorder

toallowpeopletovisualizethisunimaginableamountoftime:

[Akalpa]isatleastthetimerequiredtotakeawayallthemustardseedsstoredinacastleofonecubicyojana62ifonlyoneseedisremovedeveryhundredyears.Alternatively,itisatleastthetimetakentowearawayagreatrockofonecubicyojanabywipingitwithapieceofsoftcotton(karpasa)fromKāśī63onceeveryhundredyears.64Onlythroughvisualizationcanhumansattempttocomprehendtheseenormous

unitsoftime.Thesimilesthattrytogiveaspatialexplanationofthesetimeperiods

serveasavehicleforthedevoutBuddhistreadertoimaginetimedifferently.Itisalso

supposedtoputintorelationthehumanlifethatislimitedbyaveryshorttimein

comparisontoakalpa.Thereasonitisimportanttoembracethenotionoftimeisto

understandthelengthoftortureonewillendureinhell.59Buswell,Jr.,RobertE.,EncyclopediaofBuddhism,VolumeOneA‐L,MacMillanReference,p.18560Ibid.p.18361AkiraSadakata,BuddhistCosmology,p.9562yojana–ameasureofdistanceandspace,inthisexampleitmeasures7.4cubickilometers 63Kāśī–cityinUttarPradesh,India64AkiraSadakata,BuddhistCosmology,p.96

25

Rebirth and Revival

InBuddhism,reincarnationandrevivalaretwoverydistinctconcepts.Whereas

arevivaltakesplacewithinhellandcanbeimmediate,rebirthtransportsoneoutofthe

currentbirth.Reincarnationfromhellcantakemillionsofyears.Thesameconception

oftimecanencompassthesetwovastlydifferentstagesofexistence:thetrillionsof

yearsinhellittakestoreachonesnextrebirth,orthesplitsecondittakesforarevival

inhell.Whileonecanspendakalpabeingtortured,itcantakeonlytheblinkofaneye

toberevivedandtorturedalloveragain.Theexperienceoftimeasrelativeinregardto

whatoneisexperiencinginthemomentisemphasized,sothatevensuchlargeperiods

oftormentcanbefelttopassquitequickly.

Humans,besidesanimals,havetheshortestofallrebirthspossibleinthe

Buddhistcosmos.Whereashumansandanimalsliverelativelyshortlives,various

realmsofexistence’slifespansarevastlydifferent.Thegods,forexample,canlivetens

ofthousandsofaeons.65Theyareintheirformforhundreds,thousands,oreven

millionsofhumanlifespans.Thelengthofarebirthisalsodeterminedbyone’skarmic

potential.Allactionshaveconsequences,and“itissaidthatactsofhatredandviolence

tendtoleadtorebirthinahell,actsboundupwithdelusionandconfusiontendtolead

torebirthasananimal,andactsofgreedtendtoleadtorebirthasaghost.”66Even

thoughallrebirthsaregovernedprimarilybykarma,theactualrebirthitselfalsohas

additionalaspectsofpositivityandnegativity.Theprimaryformofreincarnationis

determinedbykarma,butitdoesnotonlydictatewhichlifeformonewilltakeon,but65Buswell,Jr.,RobertE.,EncyclopediaofBuddhism,VolumeOneA‐L,MacMillanReference,USA,p.18566PeterHarvey,AnIntroductiontoBuddhism,CambridgeUniversityPress,p.39

26

alsoinwhattypeofstandingthisindividualwillbe.Therefore,evenifone’skarmic

potentialwaspositiveenoughtoqualifyforahumanbirth,previousnegativeactions

andemotionscancauseunpleasantthingseveninthisbeneficialbirth.Karmacanbe

viewedasone’ssufferingasarewardincorrespondencewithone’spastactions.This

alsomeansthatnegativerewardscanalsohappeninareincarnation.Thisotheraspect

ofrebirthisthephysicalshapeonetakeson.Consideringthattheevilkarma

accumulatedis“notseriousenoughtoleadtoalowerrebirth,[it]affectsthenatureofa

humanrebirth:stinginessleadstobeingpoor,injuringbeingsleadstofrequentillness,

andangerleadstobeingugly.”67

Thereisnoonesinglepersondecidingaboutgoodandevilbesidestheforceof

karma.“IntheBuddhisthelloneisthuspunishedbytheevilactionsthemselves,notby

somesortofdivinejustice.”68Therefore,“goodandbadrebirthsarenot[…]seenas

‘rewards’and‘punishments’,butassimplythenaturalresultsofcertainkindsof

action.”69Thedifferentrealmsofrebirthcarrydifferingassociationswiththem.Every

individual’sdurationofhellcanbevastlydifferent.Thedurationoftimeonemust

spendinahelldependsonthespecifichell,whichinturndependsonthecauseofthe

punishment.Buddhisthellsaredividedintosuchavastarrayofdifferenthells,that

whereastheleasthorriblehellcanlastonlyafewmillionyears,theworst,Avīcicanlast

wholekalpas.Sincethepunishmentsareconstantlybeingrepeated,therevivalstateof

existenceseemsprolongedevenfurther.Thenever‐endingrevivalphaseofallthehell

realmscanonlybestoppedbythefinalrevival,reincarnation.Atthisstage,insteadof

67M.III.203‐6,citedfromPeterHarvey,AnIntroductiontoBuddhism,CambridgeUniversityPress,p.3968Braarvig,Jens,“TheBuddhistHell:AnEarlyInstanceoftheIdea?”Numen56,Brill2009,p.25469PeterHarvey,AnIntroductiontoBuddhism,CambridgeUniversityPress,p.39

27

simplybeingrevivedtosufferfurthermillionsofyears,thehellbeinghasburnedoffall

badkarmaandcanthereforebereincarnatedintoadifferentformofexistencefromthe

WheelofExistence.

Havingtoremaininacertainhelluntilatruedeath,orreincarnation,is

karmicallypossiblegiveslittlehopetotheindividualssufferingsincetheymaynever

knowwhenthispointhascome.Dyinginthiscasemeansattaininganewrebirth,outof

hell.Havingtoremaininhelluntilone’sbadkarmaisexhaustedmeansthatbeing

punishedbydemonsandhybridcreaturesinhellmakesupforbadkarma.Inwhatway,

however,doesbeingpunishedinhellmakeupforhavingcommitted,forexample,a

murdermanylifetimesago?Everybeinginhellhasacertainamountofevilkarmathat

needstobeburnedoffbeforeabetterrebirthcanbeattained.Onecanneverfully

detachoneselffrompreviousactions,since“allintentionalactions,goodorbad,matter;

fortheyleaveatraceonthepsychewhichwillleadtofutureresults.”70

Theconceptofexhaustingone’sevilkarmasupportstheideaofimpermanence:

ifonewasaserialkillerinapreviouslife,eventheirlifeinhellwillnotbeeternal,but

onlyaslongasitwilltaketomakeupfortheirevildeedsinthepastbyburningoffallof

theirevilkarma.Itallrevertsback,however,totheconceptofeveryindividualbeing

responsiblefortheirprevious,currentandfuturelifeforms.“Essentiallytheworldwe

liveinisourowncreation:wehavecreateditbyourownkarma,byourdeeds,words,

andthoughtsmotivatedeitherbygreed,hatred,anddelusionorbynonattachment,

friendliness,andwisdom.Thecosmosisthusareflectionofouractions,whicharein

70PeterHarvey,AnIntroductiontoBuddhism,CambridgeUniversityPress,p.39

28

turntheproductsofourheartsandminds.”71Therefore,theevilactsonehas

committedinthislifetimemaynotbetheonlycauseforone’srebirthinhell.

Noonecanknowexactlyatwhatpointone’skarmicpotentialhasaccumulated

toapointinwhicharebirthinhellawaits.Unabletoknowhowmanypreviouslifetimes

onehashad,andhowbadone’skarmais,itisalsoimpossibletoknowone’sownmerit

levelwithanydegreeofcertainty.”72Anyfollowingbirthcouldbeabirthinhell.

Humansdonotknowwhenthetimeinhellistocome,butarealsoequallyunawareas

tohowlongonewillhavetoremainthere.Ifoneactioncausesanotherthen

theoretically,abadactioncausesanotherbadaction,andagoodoneanothergoodone.

“Allsufferingismerelytheresultofone’sownkarmaandrepresentitsreward.”73

Iftheoutcomeofkarmaisareward,thenarebirthinhellisarewardforbad

actions.Inthiscase,ifhellisviewedasareward,whyisitconsideredsuffering?Even

thoughthebeingsareexperiencinghorriblepainandtortureswhileinhell,inthebig

picturetheyareactuallybenefitingfromtheirtortures.Whiletheyaresufferinginone

ofthehellstheyareburningofftheirevilkarma,whichcanallowthemtohaveahigher

rebirthinanextlife.Withoutmakingupfortheirevildeeds,theywouldonlycontinue

toliveanincreasinglyworseninglife.Throughtheirpunishmentsinhelltheyare

eliminatingtheirpreviouslyaccruedkarmaandallowingfornew,goodkarmatobe

accumulated.Therefore,hellbeingsareactuallyexperiencingapositiverebirthby

spendingmillenniainhell.Spendingtheirinevitableamountoftimeinhellistheonly

waytheywillbeabletoachievehigherrebirthsinthefuture.Withouttheirtimespent

71SamyuttaNikāyaI,6272PennyvanEsterik,“InterpretingaCosmology:GuardianSpiritsinThaiBuddhism”,Anthropos1982,p.1273DaiganandAliciaMatsunaga,TheBuddhistConceptofHell,PhilosophicalLibraryNY,p.79

29

inhell,thisoptionwouldneverbeopentothemagain.Therefore,arebirthinhellis

actuallynotasnegativeasitmayseem.

30

Permanence and Impermanence

Everyindividualhellhasaspecificamountoftimethatthehellbeingsmust

sufferinit.Describedinhumanyears,god‐realmyearsandhell‐realmyears,every

deeperormoreintensehellhasalongerperiodofsuffering.Thetimesofsuffering

increaseexponentiallywitheachhelllastingincalculableyearslongerthanthe

previous.74Tryingtocalculateevenonlythefirsthell,theRevivingHell,withtheleast

timeofsufferingaddeduptoanumberthatthecalculatorcouldbarelydisplay(exactly

1,642,500,000,000humanyears).PatrulRinpochealsodescribesthelengthonemust

sufferinoneoftheworsehells,theHeatingHell,asfollows:

SixteenhundredhumanyearsequalonedayamongthegodsEnjoyingtheEmanationsofOthers.SixtythousandyearsofthesegodscorrespondtoonedayintheHeatingHell,andbeingsstaytheresixthousandofthoseyears.75Theseimmensetimeperiodsarecompletelyunimaginablerealistically

byanyhuman.Insteadoftakenliterally,theyservemoreasplaceholderfor

eternity.However,sinceBuddhistteachingsheavilyrelyontheconceptof

anitya,orimpermanence,nothingcanbecategorizedasfinite.Thetimespans

describedwiththesecomplexcalculationsaresupposedtogivethesenseof

eternity,whilestillhavingthedefiniteofaninevitableendtoabsolutely

everything.

Anitya,orimpermanence,isoneofthemostimportantconceptsofthereligious

Buddhistteachings.Anityaistheexplanationforwhyonewillneverbetrulyhappyin

74PatrulRinpoche,TheWordsofMyPerfectTeacher,p.6575Ibid,p.65

31

saṃsāra,andwhyahumanlifetimeisconsideredsoshortinrelationtothenumberof

rebirthsonewillexperienceuntilhopefullyreachingnirvāṇa.“Sinceonlynibbana76is

permanentandallelsetransient,theunskilledbeingswhohavebeenswallowedbythe

earthwillonedayescapefromAvīci–apurgatoryandnotaneverlastinghell.”77

Nothinginanyrealmofexistenceispermanent,andeventhehellsthemselvesandthe

hell‐dwellersexistence,areimpermanent.Viewinghellasatemporarystate

strengthenstheconceptofephemeralexistence,whetherinhell,human,deva,pretaor

animalrealm.Furthermore,since“inBuddhistrationality,hellsofmanytypes[…]are

anintegralpartof,andorganicallyconnectedto,thedoctrineofkarmaand

reincarnation”78impermanenceisonlyhighlightedbytheever‐changingreincarnation

eachbeingwilllivethrough.

InBuddhistthought,asinglehumanlifetimeisnotassignificantinrelationto

timeasitseemsinthepresentbirth,especiallyinrelationtoalltheextensivetimeof

ourpreviousandnextlivescombined.InaBuddhistmindsetthecurrentlifetimeisa

merefleetingmomentthatwillnotberememberedinthefuture.Infact,itisonlyan

insignificantinstantintheinnumerablerebirthswelivethrough.Eventhoughinthe

momentone’slifeiseverythingonehas,Buddhistsbelievethatthereismoreto

existencethanjustthisonelifethatisremembered.Furthermore,sincethetime

humansspendonearthissoshortthegoalistodoasmuchgoodaspossibleinthis

limitedtime.Andthesegoodactionswillhopefullyleadtoabetterrebirthinthefuture.

TheBuddhistviewofinfiniterebirths,andthereforeaninfiniteexistence,makes

76nibbana=nirvāṇa77I.B.Horner,“TheEarthasaSwallower”,ArtibusAsiae.Supplementum,Vol.23(1966),p.15878Braarvig,Jens,“TheBuddhistHell:AnEarlyInstanceoftheIdea?”Numen56,Brill2009,p.256

32

individuallifetimespracticallyinsignificant.Ifthereareaninfinitenumberofrebirths

toawaitandaninfinitenumberoflivestolivewhiletheuniversecollapsesand

reconstructsitselfinnumerabletimes,onesinglelifeinhellisneitherasimportantnor

aslongasitseemstoahumanthinkingabouthisorherlifespan.Viewinglifeasamere

instanceonatimeframeofmillionsandmillionsofyears,lessthanonehundredyears

doesnothaveanymajorsignificance.

Withoutunderstandingtheimportanceoftime,onecannotunderstandwhatit

reallymeanstobebornintoahell.Onemustacceptthattheexperienceofthisrebirth

willonlybetemporary,eventhoughitmightseemlikeeternity.Inregardto

permanenceversusimpermanence,eveninaverylocalizedThaiTheravadatraditionit

isconsideredthat“sinceevenlowlevelthewada79livefortheequivalentofmillionsof

years,itisnotsurprisingthatthesespiritsareconsideredpermanent.”80Asanexample

oftimepassinginhell,thisexcerptillustratesthepassageoftime:“formanyyears,for

manyahundred,formanyathousand,manyahundredthousandyearshesuffered[or:

iscooked]inPurgatory[or:hell…].”81

79thewada–ThaiBuddhistdeity80PennyvanEsterik,“InterpretingaCosmology:GuardianSpiritsinThaiBuddhism”,Anthropos1982,p.781stockphrasepassiminKN,MN,SN,andVin

33

Hellish Characteristics: Repetition

EverythinginBuddhisthellshappensonarepetitivebasis.Escapeisimpossible

andtheonlyoptionistoremainthereuntilreleased.Therepetitionthatoccurswithin

hellismanifestedthroughtheindividualpunishmentsofthehellbeings.Theexecution

ofthesetorturesisalwaysthesame,meaningthatoncerebornintoaspecifichell,this

hellhasonepunishmentthatwillalwaysstaythesame.Punishmentsaredesigned

specificallyfortheindividualandthebadkarmatheyharvestedovertheirlifetimes.

Sinceallkarmathathasbeenaccumulatedisascribedtoonlyoneindividual,“ifyouare

here[inhell],youareguiltyandyouhavesetinmotiontheinstrumentsofyourown

torture.”82Oncebornintohellthehellbeingsareboundtoexperiencesuffering,andthe

“beingsinthelowesthellrealmsexperiencevirtuallycontinuouspainandsuffering

untiltheresultsoftheiractionsthatbroughtthemthereareexhausted.”83

Thispunishmentwilllastformillenniawithoutintervalandisintendedtogive

theevildoeranappropriateretribution.One’sentiretimespentinhellisspentinthe

sameplace,withthesametortures.Oncerebornintoaspecifichell,thehellbeingis

trappedinthisonespacefortheremainderoftheirunfortunaterebirth.Eventhough

punishmentsareshortinthemselves,theyarerepeatedwithimmediacyforwhat

seemslikeaneternityinhumanperspective.Throughtheuseofthisseeminglyendless

repetitionofthesamepunishmentthehellbeingsareexposedtotheirevildeeds,only

exponentiallyintensified.

82CharlesD.Orzech,MechanismsofViolentRetributioninChineseHellNarratives,p.12183Buswell,Jr.,RobertE.,EncyclopediaofBuddhism,VolumeOneA‐L,MacMillanReference,p.185

34

Ifhellisapunishment,theconceptofrepetitionisusedasatorture.Being

torturedbyvariousanimalsanddemonsishorribleenough,butsincethepunishments

inhellareextremelysimpleandalwaysstaythesame,theagonythehellbeings

experienceinthemomentisevenworse.Thesameshortwhiledtortureisrepeated

innumerabletimesinidenticalorderandlength.Thesimplicityofthetorturesalso

variesfromhelltohell.Insomepartsofhellthehellbeingsareslicedapartwithsaws

onlytobesealedtogetheragain,tobeslicedapartagain.ThisisanexampleoftheBlack

LineHell:

TheBlackLineHellHereYama’shenchmenlaytheirvictimsoutonthegroundofburningmetallikesomanyfirebrandsandcross‐ruletheirbodieswithblacklines–four,eight,sixteen,thirty‐twoandsoon–whichtheyuseasguidelinestocutthemupwithburningsaws.Nosoonerhavetheirbodiesbeencutintopiecesthantheyimmediatelycomewholeoncemore,onlytobehackedapartoverandoveragain84

Inotherlocationsanimalstearattheirvitalorgansuntiltheydieinagony,then

beingrevivedinstantlytorepeatthisexperience.Theseshort‐livedtorturesare

simplisticandveryeasytovisualize.Everyinstanceinhellisdescribedindetailand

withsoundeffects:

Ai!Thecriminalsinthishellhaveallhadtheireyesdugoutandthefreshbloodflows[fromthem],andeachofthemcriesout,theirtwohandspressingtheirbloodyeye‐sockets–trulypitiful!Totheleftamiddle‐agedpersonisjusthavinganeyepulledoutbyoneoftheshades;hestrugglesunceasingly,screaming;hislefteyehasalreadybeenextracted[…].85

84PatrulRinpoche,TheWordsofmyPerfectTeacher,p.6485RecordofAJourneytoHell[Ti­yuyu­chi]pp.56)fromCharlesD.Orzech,MechanismsofViolentRetributioninChineseHellNarratives,p.111

35

Thisexcerptdescribesinmuchdetailthetortureshellbeingsmustsufferinthis

hell.Rapidlymovingfromonedescriptiontothenext,thisshortpassageisfilledwith

gruesomeimagesthatmaybringpainandshiversuponthereader.Figure6depictsa

similarsceneasdescribedintheChineseexcerpt,originates,however,fromaJapanese

image.Thefactthattorturesandpunishmentsweresosimilarevenacrossmany

differenttraditionsandcountriessupportsthenotionofBuddhistteachingsabouthell

beinguniversallysimilarintheirmethods.

36

86Figure6

86Figure6.http://bit.ly/14U3CJ1.February2013

37

The Hell of Never Ending Torment - Avīci

Avīciisdescribedasfollows:“evenbonesmelttherebecauseoftheheatof

terriblefire;sincethereisnointermissionforcomfort,itisconsideredas‘Avīci’–the

HellwithoutIntermission.”87Thisconceptoftorturewithoutintermissionispresentin

allBuddhisthells,inAvīci,however,itisemphasizedandevenmoregruesome.Since

partoftheindividual’spunishmentistoexperiencetheirownevildoings,theyare

constantlyexposedtoonlyoneformoftorture.Avīciisthehellthatliesdeepestwithin

allimagination,encompassestheworstpunishmentsandthatlaststhelongest.Avīciis

alsocalledthehellwithoutintermissionandsometimesdescribedasahellwith

multiplestages.Thehellbeingsmovefromonehelltothenext,eachinflictingthem

withdifferentpunishments.Avīciistheonlyhellthathasavarietyofpunishments,

whichbreaksthecycleofrepetitionbeforerebirth.

Eventhoughthehellbeingsdoexperiencedifferenttortures,eachindividual

punishmentisinturnenduredforaslongastheprevioushellslast.Therefore,thehell

beingsarestillsubjecttotherepetitionofeachpunishmentforanimmeasurable

amountoftime.ThesepunishmentsceasewhentheymoveontothenextlevelofAvīci,

inwhichtheyaresubjecttothenextpunishment.“Avīci,thenethermostoftheeighthot

hells,isreservedforthemostevilbeingswhomustendureexcruciatingtormentsthere,

whichthoughnoteternalseemunendingastheylastformillionsofyears.”88Ina

ChineseBuddhisttradition,Avīciisdescribedasfollows:“AccordingtotheChinese

account,thelowesthellistheWou‐kan,thehellwithoutinterval(Avīci)i.e.without87DonaldLopezJr.,BuddhistScriptures,PenguinBooks88Keown,Damien,ADictionaryofBuddhism,OxfordUniversityPress,p.243

38

intervalofrespite,aplaceofincessanttorment.”89AllofthesedescriptionsofAvīci

concludethatitistheworsthellofall,andthatalltorturesareinflicteduponthehell

beingswithoutinterval.

ThisBuddhisthelltricksitsinhabitantsbymakingthemthinktheirpunishment

willfinallychange.Avīci,beingthemostgruesomeofallhells,alsodeceivesthemby

changingtheirrepetitivepunishments.Eveninthechange,however,thepunishments

theydoreceiveareincessant.ThefollowingstorydescribestheNeighboringHells.

ThesehellssurroundAvīciinalldirectionsandarethefinalstagesofthishell,serving

astheultimateandfinalpunishment.

TheNeighboringHells

AroundtheHellofUltimateTorment,ineachofthefourcardinaldirections,thereisaditchofflamingembers,amarshofrottingcorpses,aplainofbristlingweaponsandaforestoftreeswithrazor‐edgedleaves.Thereisoneofeachinthenorth,south,eastandwest,makingsixteeninall.Ineachoftheintermediatedirections–thesoutheast,southwest,northwestandnortheast–standsahillofironshalmali90trees.

DescribingthesurroundingsofAvīci,thereisamultitudeofgruesomeandgross

prospectsineverydirectionimaginable.Thisencompassingofalldirectionsorescape

routesmakestheprospectofleavingAvīciseemeversomuchmoredifficultand

impossible.Exponentiallyincreasinginnumber,thesesub‐hellssurroundingthehellof

ultimatetormentmakeAvīcinotonlymoreterrifyingduetosheersizeandtimespent

there,butalsobecauseitseemsnever‐ending.Thisintroductionleadsintodetailed

examplesoffiveofthesixteenNeighboringHells:

89B.C.Law,HeavenandHellinBuddhistPerspective,p.9490shalmalitree–silkcottontree,alsousedasanayurvedicherb

39

Thepitofhotembers.WhenbeingshavepurgedmostoftheeffectsofactionsconnectedwiththeHellofUltimateTorment(Avīci)andemergefromit,theysee,farawayinthedistance,whatlookslikeashadytrench.Theyleapintoitwithdelight,onlytofindthemselvessinkingdownintoapitofblazingemberswhichburntheirfleshandbones.

DeceivingthehellbeingsintothinkingtheirtormentsareoverisapartofAvīci.Thepit

ofhotembersisthefirstinstancethatreferenceshappinessinhell.Thehellbeings’

delightaboutsalvationintoashadytrenchsuggeststhattheymayexperiencefeelings

ofhappiness.Soonthereafter,however,thesehopesarecrushedagain.Insteadofrelief,

theyaretorturedrepeatedlytoexperiencetheintensesufferingoffleshandevenbones

burning.

Theswampofputrescentcorpses.Thentheyseeariver.Havingbeenroastedinabrazierforawholekalpa,theyaresothirstythatseeingwaterfillsthemwithjoyandtheyrushtowardsittoquenchtheirthirst.Butofcoursethereisnowater.Thereisnothingbutcorpses–corpsesofmen,corpsesofhorses,corpsesofdogs–alldecomposingandcrawlingwithinsectsastheydecompose,givingoffthefoulestofstenches.Theysinkintothismireuntiltheirheadsgounder,whilewormswithironbeaksdevourthem.

Thesecondtimethehellbeingsexperiencethoughtsofhappinessandtheprospectof

escapeisalsoeradicatedbyanothertorture.ThehopeoffinallyescapingAvīciendsin

yetanothersinkingofhope,andthesinkingofthehellbeings.Thegoryimagerycreated

inthisexcerptservestofrightenandscarethereadernotonlythroughtext,butalso

throughvisualization.Thesedescriptionsaimatcreatingavisceralexperienceand

perceptionofthesehells.Thewormswithironbeaksareanaddedtorture,increasing

thelevelofsufferingandpain.

Theplainofrazors.Whentheyemergefromthisswamp,theyarethrilledtoseeapleasantgreenplain.Butwhentheygettheretheyfind

40

thatitisbristlingwithweapons.Thewholegroundiscoveredwithslenderbladesofburninghotmetalgrowinglikegrass,whichpiercetheirfeetwitheachstep,thewoundshealingaseachfootisliftedagain.

Animportantpointtonoteisthateventhoughthehellbeingsthinktheirpredictedtime

inhellhaspast,inactuality,ithasnot.Therefore,eventhoughthehellbeingsthink

whatliesaheadofthemissalvation,inrealityitisamerecontinuationofhell.This

disappointmentofheadingtowardapositiveplaceaheadofthemisalsoapartofthe

punishmentthebeingsmustendure.Therepetitionofpunishmentisillustratedby‘the

woundshealingaseachfootisliftedagain’,whichshowstheincessantrepetitionof

painandtorment.

Theforestofswords.Onceagainfree,theyrejoicetoseeabeautifulforestandrushtowardsit.Butwhentheygetthere,thebeautifulforestturnsouttobeathicketwhosetreeshaveswordsgrowingontheirmetalbranchesinsteadofleaves.Astheystirinthewind,theswordscutthosebeings’bodiesintolittlepieces.Theirbodiesreconstitutethemselvesandarechoppedupoverandoveragain.

ThissectionfocusesevenmoreontherepetitivenatureofBuddhisthell,andhowone

simplepunishmentcanbesogruesomeandtorturous.Theimageofsomethingvery

familiar,atreeswayinginthewind,istakenoutofapeacefulcontextandreplacedwith

theagonizingpainofbeingslicedintolittlepieces.FortheBuddhistreaderthese

imagesarerelatablewhilestillservingasadidactictooltodeterfrombadbehavior.

Thehillofironshalmalitrees.Itisherethatloosemonksandnunswhohavebrokentheirvowsofchastityandpeoplewhogivethemselvesovertothefootoftheterrifyinghillofironshalmalitrees.Atthetoptheycanseetheirformerloverscallingthem.Astheyclimbeagerlyuptojointhem,alltheleavesoftheirontreespointdownwardandpiercetheirflesh.Whentheyreachthetop,theyfindravens,vultures,andthelikethatdigouttheireyestosuckupthefat.Againtheyseetheirfriendscallingthem,nowfromthefootofthehill.Downtheygo,and

41

theleavesturnupward,stabbingthemthroughthechestagainandagain.Oncetheygetdowntotheground,hideousmetallicmenandwomenembracethem,bitingofftheirheadsandchewingthemuntilthebrainstrickleoutofthecornersoftheirmouths.91

ThisparticularsectionoftheNeighboringHellsstrikesmeasthemostshocking,

disturbing,yetalsoveryimportant.Itreferstopunishmentduetounchastelybehavior,

somethingmostpeoplehaveengagedin.Sincethisbehaviorissocommon,itisavery

likelyfutureforthemajorityofpeople.InFigure7hellbeingsaredepictedclimbing

theserazorbladespeckledtreeswhilealsoharassedbyothercreatures.Creatinga

spaceinhellthatisdirectlyorientedtowardssuchcommonbadmeritsuggeststhat

everyonewillpassthroughthissectionofhelleventually.Theprospectofexperiencing

theseemotionsoflongingandthennotonlydisappointment,butthisextremeintensity

oftortureservestodeterpeoplefromfollowingthesedesiresintheircurrentlifetimes.

Itcanbearguedthattheprospectofatormentofthiscapacityinafollowing

reincarnationcouldhavebeenreasonenoughnottoengageinunchastebehavior.

91PatrulRinpoche,TheWordsofmyPerfectTeacher,pp.66‐67

42

92Figure792Figure7,http://bit.ly/13mIKJt,April2013

43

Thefinalsentencefromthispassage,“hideousmetallicmenandwomen

embracethem[thehellbeings],bitingofftheirheadsandchewingthemuntilthebrains

trickleoutofthecornersoftheirmouths”aimstocreateunparalleledimagesofterror

inthereader’simagination.Thefuturisticideaofmetallichumansisveryinteresting,

andtheimageoftheserobot‐likecreaturesdevouringsomeone’sbrainisanimagethat

stayswiththereader.Theseinsightsintohellmayhavebeenusedtocreateatypeof

cautioninthedevoutBuddhistreader.Iftheseimagesandtextswerewidely

understoodthroughteachings,theknowledgeofthesepunishmentsforcertainactions

coulddeterpeoplefromcommittingthem.

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Chapter Two

Location

A Hell of a Location

Havingaplethoraofhellsalsogivesrisetothequestionofspaceandlocation.

Whereareallthesehellslocated?Thehell’slocationiseitherdescribedasbeingina

verylogicalandpreciseorder,orlikeabuilding,fromtoptobottom93orinacircle

surroundedbyYama94orscatteredinmultiplelocations.Theconceptofhellexisting

beloworinsideearthwhereitishotandfieryisreminiscentoftheearthopeningitself

toreceivehell‐dwellersfromabove.Thesepeople’skarmicpotentialwassobadthey

wereinstantlyreceivedintoAvīci.Itissaidthattheearthcannolongerbeartheweight

oftheevildeedsthesepeoplehavecommitted.Asinthisstory,

Thecompactearth,ghanapathavi,unabletosustainKingMahapatapa’s(Devadatta95)evilqualitiesofjealousyandanger,splitasunder,formedafissure.Aflameshootingup,utthāya,fromAvīci,wrappinghimaround[…]takinghim,plungedhim,khipi,intoAvīci.96

ThisstoryaboutDevadatta’sentranceintoAvīcishowshowhelldoesinsomecases

manifestitselfon,orin,earthitself.Insteadoflaterreincarnation,Davadattawas

93PatrulRinpoche,TheWordsofmyPerfectTeacher,p.6494N.W.Thomas,ABuddhistWheelofLifefromJapan,image95Devadatta–DevadattawasacousinoftheBuddhawhoenteredtheOrderandgainedsupernormalpowersofthemundaneplane(puthujjana­iddhi).Later,however,hebegantoharborthoughtsofjealousyandillwilltowardhiskinsman,theBuddha.(http://www.buddhanet.net/e‐learning/buddhism/bud_lt28.htm,April2013) 96Horner,I.B.,“TheEarthasaSwallower”,ArtibusAsiae,Supplementum,Vol.23,pp.157alsoJa.No.358,vol.iii,p.177ff

45

instantlywrappedupbyflamesandplungedintoAvīci.OtherstoriesaboutDevadatta

exist,describinghisplummetingintotheearth:

Devadattagotupandputbothfeetontheground:theyenteredtheearth,pathavimpavisimsu,tobefollowedinturnbyhisankles,knees,hips,breastandneck.Whenhisjaw‐bonewasrestingonthegroundhespokeastanzadeclaringthathetookRefugeintheBuddha.97[…]Foronlyifhediedasamonkcouldhe,whatevertheweightofhiskamma,havesomethingtohopeforafterhiseonsoftormentinAvīciwereover.ForheenteredtheearthandwasreborninAvīci,theGreatNiraya.98ThisstorypaintsapictureofDevadattaslowlysinkingintothebareearthasif

throughquicksand.Onlyinthelastmomentsofhisearthlyexistencedoeshetake

refugeintheBuddhatolessenhispunishmentevenifonlyslightly.Theplacehumans

dwellon,earth,isjustanotherpartoftheuniverse,oneofmanyregionsandrealmsin

space.Thiscorrelatesdirectlytotheideathathellbeingsinhabithell.99Settinghumans

andhellbeingsonasimilarlevelofinhabitingacertainspacemakesthemlessunique

andmoreamerepartofalargersystemofmultiplerealmsandmultiplespacesto

inhabit.

Theimageoftheearthsplittingopenandemittinghell‐firefromwithinthecore

isverypowerfulandmemorable:“Thegreatearth,splittingopenorburstingasunder,

bhijjitva,formedafissure,acleft,achasm,orgavenanopening,vivaramadasi.Aflame

shotup,utthahi,fromAvīciandshe(abrahman100girl)[…]wasrebornthere.”101The

97RefugeintheBuddha–totakerefugeintheBuddhameanstotakerefugeintheBuddha,thedharmaandthesangha.Thesethreearealsocalledthethreejewels.98Horner,I.B.,“TheEarthasaSwallower”,ArtibusAsiae,Supplementum,Vol.23,p.155,also(Ap.P.300;ApA.121ff.DhA.i.147ff)99B.C.Law,HeavenandHellinBuddhistPerspective,p.102100Brahman–theAbsolute,essenceoftheuniverse.Agod;inhabitantoftheheavensofformorformlessness.Astatetobeattainedthroughthepracticeofdhyānaandthedevelopmentofthefour“Brahmaviharas”(SublimeAttitudes):goodwill,compassion,appreciation,andequanimity(Robinson,RichardH.andJohnson,WillardL.TheBuddhistReligion.WadsworthPublishingCompany).

46

imageoftheearthsplittingopenandemittinghell‐firefromwithin,suckingtheevil‐

doerintothecorecreatesavisualexperienceforthereaderthatisterrifyingand

unforgettable.Theintensityoftheimageofbeingengulfedbytheearthforone’sbad

actionsissupposedtoactasameanstodeterpeoplefromcommittingbadactions.

Insteadofusingonlytypesofshockandfearinducingstoriesinordertodeterpeople

fromdoingbadthings,Buddhismalsohastheseveryvisualmeanstoencourage

accruinggoodmerit.

Earthisjustanotherpartoftheuniverse,oneofmanyregionsandrealmsin

space.Thereareexceptionstogodsordemi‐godslivingonearth,suchasHisHoliness

theDalaiLama,thereincarnationofthebodhisattva102ofcompassionthatlivesamongst

humans.Godsandotherbeingsarenotboundtoarebirthonearth,whereashumans

andanimalsare.Referringtotheearthas“theregioninhabitedbyman,”suggeststhat

thereareamultitudeofregions,notallinhabitedbymanoranimals.Interestingly,

“unliketheSouthAsianprototypes,Chinesehellsappeartobemodeledontheimperial

bureaucracyandadministeredbyahellishstaff(seeFigure8).The‘court’layoutoften

majorandnumeroussubsidiaryhellsmimicChinesepalaceandtemplearchitecture.”103

101Horner,I.B.,“TheEarthasaSwallower”,ArtibusAsiae,Supplementum,Vol.23,p.153,alsoDhA.Iii.178;theIntroductiontoJatakaNo.472102bodhisattva–afutureBuddha(Sanskrit;Pali:bodhisatta):abeingwhoistobecomeenlightened.Thesebeingshavetakenaspecialvowtocontinuebeingrebornintosaṃsāraratherthanenteringnirvāṇainordertohelpothersridthemselvesfromtheirsufferingbyaidingtheattainmentofenlightenment.103CharlesD.Orzech,MechanismsofViolentRetributioninChineseHellNarratives,p.112

47

104Figure8

104Figure8.http://bit.ly/10gvtdI.April2013

48

AnotherverydifferentideaisthatBuddhisthellsonlyexistinthemental

spheresofeveryindividual.ThisideaofBuddhisthellslocatedwithintheimagination

ofthehumanrealmcouldchangetheirperceptionofbeingphysicallyintegratedinto

theuniverse.Theideaofhellnotonlyexistingindifferentlocationsafterdeath,butalso

inthepresentstate,furtherallowspeopletoviewhelldifferently.Hellbeinga

constructionofthemindcouldmeanthatonecanenterbutalsoexithellinonesingle

lifetimeonearth.

FromthetimeofearliestBuddhism,rebirthwasseenbothasaprocesswhichtakesplaceafterdeath,andalsoasaprocesstakingplaceduringlife.Thatis,weareconstantlychangingduringlife,‘reborn’asa‘different’personaccordingtoourmood,thetaskweareinvolvedin,orthepeoplewearerelatingto.Dependingonhowweact,wemayexperience‘heavenly’or‘hellish’statesofmind.105Thisabilitytocreateanddestroythepersonalhellgivesimmensepowertothe

individual.Bybeingone’spersonalruler,punisherandpunished,hellcanlastaslongor

shortastheindividualchooses.Perceptionsofhellchangevastlyiftheyarenotuptoa

higherforce.InBuddhism,thisforceiskarma.Hell,governedbythemindofthe

individualratherthantheuniversalconceptofkarma,mayallowfortheeliminationof

theneedforendlessrebirthsandburningoffevilkarmainhell.DifferentBuddhist

traditions,suchasMahayana106andTheravada107,viewthisquestionofthelocationof

theactualhellverydifferently.Structurally,alltypesofhellarepossiblescenarios.Ifit

105PeterHarvey,AnIntroductiontoBuddhism,CambridgeUniversityPress,p.45106Mahayana–(Sanskrit):literally,‘greatvehicle’,atermusedbyproponentsofsūtrasthatbegantoappearsomefourcenturiesafterthedeathoftheBuddhaandwhichwereregardedbythemasthewordoftheBuddha.ThetermhascometomeanbyextensionthoseformsofBuddhism(todaylocatedforthemostpartinTibet,China,KoreaandJapan)thatbasetheirpracticeonthesūtras(DonaldS.Lopez,Jr.,BuddhistScriptures).107Theravada–(Pali):literally,‘SchooloftheElders’,abranchoftheIndianStharivaradaschoolthatwasestablishedinSriLankainthethirdcenturyBCE.IntheeleventhcenturyCEtheTheravadabecamethedominantformofBuddhisminSriLankaandSoutheastAsia(DonaldS.Lopez,Jr.,BuddhistScriptures)

49

isacceptedthatthehellscouldbelocatedanywhere,thenitmustalsobeacceptedthat

theycouldbelocatedinthemind.Somestatesofmindcanbeasabstractasthe

Mahayanatraditionbuddhafields108suchasthePureLand109BuddhistideaofthePure

Landthatmaypossiblyonlyexistintheindividual’simagination.

FromamorephysicalBuddhistview,itisunderstoodthat“theuniverseconsists

ofmanyworldearths,heavensandhells,andeachsystemorsphereisdividedinto

threeregions.”110Inmoredetail:

Inthetripartitemodel,thelowestandmostearthlyofthethreespheresisknownasthe‘sphereofsense‐desires’(kamavacara111),andincludesalloftherealmsuptothesixthheavenabovethehumanworld.Nextisthe‘sphereofpureform’(rupavacara112),ararefiedspiritualspaceinwhichthegodsperceiveandcommunicatebyakindoftelepathy.[…]Highestofallisthe‘sphereofformlessness’(arupavacara113),astatewithoutmaterialshapeofform(rupa114)inwhichbeingsexistaspurementalenergy.115

CentrallylocatedintheWheelofExistenceheldupbyYama,hellisasimportant

apartoflifeinsaṃsāraasthehumanrealm.SectionedandseparatedontheWheelof

Existence,allcyclesoflifeareconstantlyrepeated.Everysectionofthewheelis

devotedtoaformofrebirthintherealmsofsaṃsāra.Byplacingtherebirthinhellina

108buddhafield–aBuddha’ssphereofinfluence109PureLandBuddhism–alsoreferredtoasaBuddha‐field,thedomainthataBuddhacreatesasanidealsettingforthepracticeofthedharma.IntheMahayanathepurelandisconsideredaformofparadise(DonaldS.Lopez,Jr.,BuddhistScriptures).110B.C.Law,HeavenandHellinBuddhistPerspective,p.93111kamavacara–(Pali;Sanskrit:kamadhatu):DesireRealm,thelowestofthethreerealms(theothersbeingtheFormRealmandtheFormlessRealm)inBuddhistcosmology,populated(inascendingorder)byhellbeings,ghosts,animals,humans,demigodsandgods.(DonaldS.Lopez,Jr.,BuddhistScriptures)112rupavacara–(Pali;Sanskrit:rupadhatu):inBuddhistcosmologyarealmofheavensabovetheDesireRealmreservedforthosewhoattaincertainstatesofdeepconcentrationintheirpreviouslife(DonaldS.Lopez,Jr.,BuddhistScriptures).113arupavacara–(Pali;Sanskrit:arupyadhatu):inBuddhistcosmology,thehighestrealmwithinthecycleofrebirthwherebeingsexistasdeepstatesofconcentration.LiketheFormRealm,itisreservedforthosewhoachievethosestatesintheirpreviouslife.(DonaldS.Lopez,Jr.,BuddhistScriptures)114rupa–materialform115Keown,Damien,EncyclopediaofBuddhism,Routledge,LondonandNewYork,p.250

50

specificlocationontheWheelofExistence,onecanpictureit,andthroughitsmany

representationsinart,visualizesomeofwhatawaitsinafuturerebirth.“Theearliest

extantpictorialrepresentationofthewheelisatAjanta;116itwasdevelopedespecially

inTibetanBuddhistart,wherethewheelwasoftenconspicuouslypaintedinmonastery

vestibulesoronhangingscrollsusedformeditation.“117TheWheelrepresentsall

possiblelifeformsandvariousnaturalcyclesofreincarnation.“Asthewheelofsaṃsāra

movesaround,beingsmigratethroughthevariousdomainsinaccordancewiththeir

karma,orthegoodandevildeedscommittedineachrebirth.”118

Viewinghellasmerelyanotherrealmofrebirthratherthanaverydistantplace

unrelatedwiththecycleofrebirthmakesitseemlessunfairorunlikelytobereborn

into.Sinceitislocatedadjacenttoboththehumanandanimalrealms,onecanroughly

picturewhereitcouldbelocated.Interestingly,however,thisvisualizationinaphysical

orgeographicalsenseoflocationisnotsupposedtoimplythattherealmofhellis

actuallylocatedinbetweenhumansandanimals.Itislocatedonthebottomofthe

wheel,whichsuggeststhatitisthelowestofallrealms.

116Ajanta–theAjantacaves,locatedintheAurangabaddistrictofMaharashtra,India,housesomeofthefirstBuddhistpaintingsandsculptures117RichardH.RobinsonandWillardL.Johnson,TheBuddhistReligion,WadsworthPublishingCompany,p.20118Keown,Damien,EncyclopediaofBuddhism,Routledge,LondonandNewYork,p.246

51

Fluidity of an Imagined Location

Therearemanydescriptionsandinterpretationsoftherealmofhell,mostvery

similarinthewaythehell‐dwellersarebeingpunished,butverydifferentintermsof

thedescriptionofhell’slocation.Buddhisthellissovagueinitsconceptoflocationthat

almostanydescriptionofalocationcanbeaccurate.DifferentBuddhisttraditionsplace

hellindifferentlocations,bothphysicalandmetaphysical.Thereareupwardofsixteen

hells,andsincetheyarenotallinonespace,thereisnotasinglespecificplacetowhich

theycanbeprescribedto.Somedescriptionsdonotgiveanyguidelinesastowherethe

hellscouldbelocated,creatingthepossibilityofaspaceinthemindofthereader,

allowingfortheimaginationtobetherulerofwherethishellistakingplace.Unlike

otherreligioustraditions,theBuddhisthellisnotfixedtoonelocationbelowearthin

itsfierypits,itisnotevenasingularhell.Buddhisthellcanbeimaginedasanundefined

placeofpunishmentsandpainsthatseemendlessbutaseverythingelse,doend

eventually.

Thinkingabouttheseindividualhellsindifferentlocationsbroadensthe

perspectiveonhellsingeneral.Insteadoflimitingtheirexistencetoonesinglelocation

inspace,theBuddhisthellsaresoversatilethatevenifonedoesnotknowhowto

visualizetheminthislife,theperfecthellforeveryonedoesexist.Ahellthatfitsexactly

toeveryone’sevilkarmaexistssomewhereoutthere;whetheritishotorcold,scaryor

painful,orevenjustimaginary.Apartofwhatcancreatemoredis‐easeisnotknowing

whichhelloneiscondemnedtobereborninto.Beforeactuallythere,whichis

unfortunatelyinevitable,onecanonlyspeculate.Somemaybemoreinvestedin

52

thinkingabouttheirfuturelivesthanothers,buteveryonedoeswonderatsomepoint:

whatcomesnext?Sometimestheconceptofhellinotherreligionsmaynotcauseas

muchdiscomforttothinkaboutastheBuddhistonebecauseitisnotasmuchofa

mystery.IntheBuddhisthell,nothingispredictable,notevenitslocation.InFigure9

thesectionofhelloftheWheelofExistenceisdepicted.Thelowestofallrealms,here

thehellbeingsarepunished,chasedandburnedbydemonsandhellfire.The

punishmentsareveryvariedsincethisdepictiondoesnotfocusononespecifichell.

53

119Figure9

119Figure9.Detail.WheelofExistence.Tibet,19thcentury.Pigmentsoncloth.C2006.66.131,HAR,78.RubinMuseumofArt,NewYorkCity

54

InBuddhismtheexistenceofmultipleuniversesandrealmsisacommon

conceptandinfact,“Buddhistcosmologicalnotionsaremuchmoreinlinewiththoseof

modernastronomyinthewaythelatterenvisagesthescaleandextentofthe

cosmos.”120Thepossibilityofplacingthehellsinlocationssodistantliterally

unimaginabletohumansputsacertaindistancebetweenthesehellsandthehuman

birth.This,inturn,allowsthetextsdescribinghellstobetheprimaryagentsincreating

thisimaginaryworldforthereader.Thevastnessofpossiblelocationinseparate

universesisparalleledbyaveryclearandorganizeddescriptionofwhatandhowthe

hellsareorganized.Thepreciselocationsareleftsovaguewhiletheexactpunishments

aredescribedinimpeccabledetail.Itseemsasifnothingislefttochanceinsomeofthe

descriptionsofindividualpunishments,whereasthelocationofthesepunishmentsare

occurringisnotmentioned.

Apossibleexplanationcanbethateventhoughthesehellsareconsideredreal

andareboundtohappen,theirlocationcannotbepinpointedbecauseeveryindividual

ispersonallyresponsibleforcreatingtheirownhell.Everyindividual’shellissospecific

andonlyappliestothatoneperson,thatitisnotpossibletoprescribeacertaintypeof

helltoasingle,allencompassinglocationforall.Buddhisthellscouldbelocatedinany

partoftheknownandunknownuniverse,butalsoinamentaluniverseorrighthereon,

orinside,earth.Sincehellissuchapersonalexperience,eventhoughsometimesoneis

condemnedtoenteraspecifichell,itslocationcouldstillbeasfluidastheimagination

ofit.

120Keown,Damien,EncyclopediaofBuddhism,Routledge,LondonandNewYork,p.245

55

Depiction of Hell as a Prison

“TheBuddhisthells,theprisonofthelost,areinsomecasessituated

underneaththeregioninhabitedbyman.”121Even“theChinesetermforhell,diyu

(地狱)translatesas‘subterraneanprison.’”122DescribingtheBuddhisthellsasaprison

providesaclearanddistinctimageofhellinhumandiction.Imagininghellasaprisonis

apowerfulwayinwhichtocomprehendtheconcept.Sinceeveryoneknowswhata

prisonisandwhatitmaylooklike,describingthehellsassomethingeveryonecan

relatetomayjustfunctionasavisualaidforthelayman.Aprisonisaconfinement,one

thatcannotbeescapedfrom.Similarly,hellisatypeofconfinementthathasnoexits

exceptreincarnation.Thinkingabouthellasaprisonemphasizestheideathatone

cannotescapethisplace,cannotleaveuntilduetimehasbeenserved.Furthermore,

comparinghelltoaprisonsuggeststhatitisnotonlyuptotheindividualtobesent

there,butthatthereareoutsideguidingforcesthatplayaroleaswell.Eventhough

thereisnoindividualorcollectionofdeitiesthatmakesdecisionsaboutwhogoesto

hellandwhodoesnot,one’sactionsinlifecreateajudgmentinthemselveswhichisthe

decidingfactoraboutwheresomeonewillbereborn.

Leavinghellisaverykarmicallystructuredprocess,and“beingsinthelowest

hellrealmsexperiencevirtuallycontinuouspainandsufferinguntiltheresultsoftheir

actionsthatbroughtthemthereareexhausted.”123Breakingoutofprisonisusually

futile,theattemptsstillalwaysexisteventhoughalmostnoonemanagestoescape

121citedfromB.C.Law,HeavenandHellinBuddhistPerspective,p.104122Buswell,Jr.,RobertE.,EncyclopediaofBuddhism,VolumeOneA‐L,MacMillanReference,p.318123Ibid.p.185

56

successfully.Asfromhell,anescapeseemsvainsincethebreakoutwouldnotjustbe

fromabuildingwithguards,butfromanentirerebirthinanunknownlocationwith

unknownobstacles.FleeingfromaBuddhisthellisnotacommonconcept.Surprisingly,

however,theideadoesgetmentioned.ThereisoneshortsectioninPatrulRinpoche’s

TheWordsofmyPerfectTeacherinwhichaburningbuildingisdescribedfromwhichit

wouldbeimpossibletoflee124orfromaTibetanJataka125tale,as“anironhouse

withoutdoors.”126Thenotionoffleeing,therefore,doesexist.Themanifestationofhell

issodeepthatitsescapeisnotreallyaplausiblethought.

Beingcondemnedintothisprisonbyone’sownactionsthatcausedthe

accumulationofevilkarmaistheonlyfairwaytomakeupforthesedeedsandcleanthe

slateinordertohavetheabilitytoaccruegoodkarma.Allactionshaverepercussions

andwillaffectone’sfuturebirth.ThedifficultyinBuddhism,however,isthatnomatter

whatonedoes,abirthinhellisalwaysinevitable.Itisoftenthoughtthatonecanavoid

hellbynotkillingorlying,orevenbeingvegetarian,butitismuchmorecomplexthan

that.Evenifoneeatsnothingbutplainricefortheirentirelife,theinsectskilledby

tilling,plowingandwateringthericefieldsarelosseslargeenoughtoqualifyforabirth

inhell.Withtheknowledgethatnomatterhowwellonebehaves,themereactofbeing

aliveisenoughtoberebornintohell.Tosurviveinsaṃsārawemusteatanddrink,

whichinevitablycausesthedeathofsomeanimalorinsect.

Whichhelloneiscondemnedtoreliesonthelargeraccumulationofsinsand

mistakesthatwerecommittedinone’slifetimes.Thereareaplethoraofdifferenttypes

124PatrulRinpoche’sTheWordsofmyPerfectTeacher,p.65125Jatakatales–storiesaboutthepreviouslivesoftheBuddha126Wenzel,H.“AJataka‐TalefromtheTibetan”,JournaloftheRoyalAsiaticSocietyofGreatBritainandIreland,NewSeries,Vol.20,No.4(Oct.,1888),p.505

57

ofhells,someforlyingandstealing,someforhurtingotherhumansandanimals,and

manyothers127.Accordingtowhatone’scrimeswereinpreviouslives,evenifthese

crimesseemnegligibletosome,theindividualwillbeassignedtoaspecifichellin

whichtosufferfornearlyeternity.Figure10showsthesceneofdemonsboilinghell

beingsinhugevatsofboilingmetalwhilecontinuouslystabbingthem.Thispunishment

isinflictedduetopreviousbadmeritandservesasadidactictooltoscarethereader.

127CharlesD.Orzech,MechanismsofViolentRetributioninChineseHellNarratives,p.111

58

128Figure10

128Figure10.http://bit.ly/14U41eu.April2013

59

Residents of Hell

Thereexiststheideathathellbeings“inhabithell”.129Thinkingofinhabitation

suggeststhatitismoreorlesspermanent.Itisgreatlydifferentthansuggestingthat

humansmovetohell,sincemovingimpliesalsomovingoninthefuture.Onceone

inhabitsaspace,movingislesslikely.Lettinghellbeingsinhabithellgivestheman

interestingpoweroverthespace.Theyarenotjustconsideredvisitors,theylivethere,

hellistheirspace.Atthesametime,however,theyarecompletelystrippedofanytype

ofpowerbecausetheyaresubjectstotheirpunishments,punishersandmentalagonies.

Settinghumansandhellbeingsonasimilarlevelofinhabitingacertainspacemakes

themlessspecialandmoreamerepartofalargersystemofmultiplerealmsand

multiplespacestoinhabit.Ashumansandanimalsinhabittheearth,hellbeingsinhabit

hell.

AccordingtooneBuddhistdictionary,hellsaredescribedas“placeslocated

undertheearththataretypifiedbyextremephysiologicaland/orpsychological

suffering.”130Theideaofhavinganentirerealmofexistencededicatedsolelytotorment

showshowimportantthisrealmofexistenceisforBuddhists.Notonlyisitdescribedin

utmostdetailinscriptures,buttheplacementofanentirerealmforhellshowsthatitis

asubstantialpartofexistenceforalllivingbeingsandcannotbeneglectedin

importance.“Aplaceoftorment”triggersanimageofhorror,aplaceofpainandtorture

withouthappiness.Thisplacehasthepurposeofcreatingfearandreverenceinthe

129B.C.Law,HeavenandHellinBuddhistPerspective,p.102130Prebish,CharlesS.HistoricalDictionaryofBuddhism.TheScarecrowPress,Inc.,Metuchen,NJ&London1993.p.137

60

reader.Beingreborninsucharealmandbeingexposedandforcedtoexperience

nothingbuttormentforanincalculableperiodoftimedoesnotallowspaceortimefor

anythingpositive.FortheBuddhistreaderthesestories,imagesanddescriptionsofhell

meanmorethanjustanunluckyrebirth;theyembodythecycleofsaṃsāra.Bybeing

aliveonthisearth,theyarepartofthecyclethroughneverendingreincarnations.Being

Buddhistalsomeansunderstandingtheserebirths,whilesimultaneouslyhavingfaith

thatthenextrebirthwillbemorepositive.Generallyspeaking,“thenamesofthe

varioushellsdenotesufferingandtorture,expressiveofthetorturegoingonthere

whenkammais‘matured’or,literally,‘boiled’(Pali:paccati)–implyingontheonehand

thatthesuffererispurifiedofhisbaddeeds,butalsoplayingonthewordtoindicate

thatboilingispartofthetorture.”131

TheBuddhistuniverseiscomprisedofmanydifferentlifeformsandvarious

statesofexistence.AccordingtotheHistoricalDictionaryofBuddhism,“theuniverseis

dividedintothreerealms,thekamadhatuor‘RealmofDesire’,rupadhatuor‘Realmof

Form’,andarupadhatuor‘FormlessRealms.’”132Eachlevel,orlayer,islabeledinterms

ofhowhumansinteractwiththe“realmofdesire(kama)”whichreferstotherealmof

karma.One’sownkarmicactionsandpotentialaccumulatesovertimeandinnumerable

rebirths.Asourkarmicactionsdictateourphysicalrebirthstherealmofkarmaisthat

inwhichweaccumulateourkarmicpotential.Bothhumansandanimalscanaccumulate

goodandbadkarma.Karma,however,islargerthanthecurrentlifetime,“karmadoes

notjustbringresultsinthenextlife:anactionissaidtohaveeffectslaterinthepresent

131Braarvig,Jens.Numen56:“TheBuddhistHell:AnEarlyInstanceoftheIdea?”Brill2009.p.264132Prebish,CharlesS.,HistoricalDictionaryofBuddhism,TheScarecrowPress,Inc.,Metuchen,NJ&London1993,p.97

61

life,thenextlife,andalsoinsomesubsequentones.”133Allhumanexperiencedictates

circumstances,andeverythingthathappensisnocoincidence,butpredestinedby

karma.

Secondly,thereisthe“realmofmatterormaterialform(rupa)”whichrefersto

therealm’sphysicalexistence.Somuchinlife,insaṃsāra,isdictatedbyattachments,

bothemotionallyandphysically.Realizingthattherealmofmatterisjustanother

realm,notanymoreofareality,shouldhelplessenattachments.Humansareboundto

experiencesufferingifcontinuouslyattachedtomaterialorlivingthings.Sincenothing

ispermanent,everythingonebecomesattachedtowilleventuallydisappear,causing

inevitablepain.Thiscycleofneverbeingabletoescapeduḥkhaisasmuchpartof

saṃsāraashellitself.Thethirdrealm,“therealmwithoutform(arupa)”refersto

realmswithoutphysicalpresence.Thisstateisjustbeforeenlightenment,andtherefore

nirvāṇaisattained.Onlyinthatstatecanonefinallyletgoofallattachmentsandbe

releasedfromtheendlesscycleofrebirthintosaṃsāra.Oneofthegoalsandrewards

forbeingeliminatedfromthiscycleistheendtorebirthsinhell.“Nirvāṇaisthe

unconditioned,thedeathless,beyondspaceandtime,knowndirectlyatthemomentof

enlightenment.”134Oncereleasedfromendlessdukhkainsaṃsāra,andtheultimate

rewardoffinallyreachingnirvāṇaisbeingfreefromearthlyoruniversalattachments.

Itissuggestedthatthedifferentrealmsofexistenceandnon‐existenceareeach

dividedintothreeregions.Doesthismean,thatineachearth,heavenandhellthere

existallthreerealmsofdesire,materialformandno‐form?Eachrealmofexistenceis

dividedintothreeseparatelayers.Thesethreelayersofexistencethereforedonotonly133PeterHarvey,AnIntroductiontoBuddhism,CambridgeUniversityPress,p.41134Buswell,Jr.,RobertE.,EncyclopediaofBuddhism,VolumeOneA‐L,MacMillanReference,p.186

62

existinthehumanandanimalrealms,butalsointherealmsofhell.Couldthismean,

thatintherealmofhell,thereexistsalayerinwhichnirvāṇacanbeattained?Viewing

eachrealmofexistenceassoseparatefromoneanotherthateachhasthepossibilityto

berebornoutofbutalsoreachnirvāṇaisnotacommonconceptinwritingsaboutthe

Buddhisthell.Likeeverythingelse,hellisnoteternalbuthasanendinsight.Therefore

theslightchanceofattainingimmediatenirvāṇainsteadofanotherrebirthfromhell

exists.

63

The Mind as a Location

Thetheorythatthehells,insteadofbeinglocatedinaphysicalspace,areactually

onlyexistentinthemindrelatestoeverydaysituations.Indailylifeonehearspeople

referencinghellinvariousways.Itcanbeemotionally,situationalorphysical.This

conceptofhellonlyexistentinplacescreatedinthemindisfascinating.Havingthe

powertoenter,ornotenter,ahellisuptotheindividual.Aseveryonehasexperienced,

however,itisnoteasytoescapethementalhellbecausetheindividual’smindknows

besthowtotricktheselfintosadnessandunpleasantthoughts.Onecreatesamental

hellindailylife,sometimesmoreintensethanatothertimes.

Ifallhellsareonlymentalandcreatedinthemind,thenonedoeshavethe

possibilitytoreachnirvāṇainthesamelifetimeoneexperienceshellin.The

imaginationabouthellcanbefullymetaphysical,whichcanalsoallowsteppinginand

outofitonone’sownaccord.Eventhoughleavinghellmightnothappeninasingleday,

throughpersonalgrowthandtimeonedoeshavethepowertoescapeandmoveon.

Therefore,ifonehasexperiencedhellinalifetime,thementalhellofrepetitionand

fear,thentechnicallyalsotheabilitytomovesofarastoreachnirvāṇainthesamelife

exists.Previouslyallemphasiswasplacedonthefuturerebirthandthatallexistence

mustpassthroughhelleventually.Withthenotionofhellpossiblybeingpartofevery

lifetimeinthepresent,manynewpossibilitiesariseabouthowtointerpretBuddhist

conceptsoflifeanddeath.

64

Chapter Three

Community

Animals and Vengeance

Someonewhohasmistreatedanimalsintheirhumanbirth,willinturnbe

mistreatedbyanimalsinhell,orreceivethesametreatmenttheanimalsreceived.The

CrushingHell,mentionedearlier,isanotherrepresentationofactionsinthehuman

lifetimedirectlyinfluencingone’spunishmentsinhell.Somehellsaredirectlyrelatedto

animalabuse.Thisexcerptisdirectedtothemistreatmentsofdogs:“TwodogsSabala

andSamaofgiantsize,mightyandstrong,devourwiththeirironteethhimwhois

drivenhenceandgoestoanotherworld.”135

ReferencedinarelativelymodernChinesetextabouthell,thepunishmentofthe

hellbeingisbeingdirectlycomparedtotheslaughterofananimal:

Ai‐yah!…Eachofthecriminalsisboundtoanironpillarandtheox‐headeddemonsareintheprocessofadministeringpunishment–usingironcopperbladestheypeeltheskinoftheperson’sface,justasabutcherkillsapigandthenflaysit.Eachofthecriminalghostsscreamsinpain[…].136Theseintensetextualimagescausevisceralreactionsinthereader.The

punishmentinthiscasedirectlyrefersbacktotheactionsofhumanstowardsanimals.

Instillingveryvivid,scaryandgruesomeimagesintothereader’simaginationservesas

atooltodeterthemfromaccruingbadkarmainthefuture.Eventhoughthetext

135JaIV.124‐25136RecordofAJourneytoHell[Ti­yuyu­chi]pp.56)citedinCharlesD.Orzech,MechanismsofViolentRetributioninChineseHellNarratives,p.111

65

describedhereisfromChineseorigin,theseimages,Figure11(Thailand)andFigure12

(Japan)bothalsoshowthetorturesofbeingskinned.InFigure11animalscanbeseen

inthebackground,watchingasthehellbeingsarepunished.Figure13depictstheexact

courseofactionandaccordingpunishment.Thishellbeingisbeingpunisheddueto

theirmistreatmentofanimalsinpreviouslives,andisnowbeingshownwhichbad

karmabroughtthemtotheircurrentstate.Theonlywaytoburnoffthisevilkarmaisto

sufferthesametorturespreviouslyinflictedontoothers.Besidesdemonsinmany

shapesandforms,manyhellsreferenceanimalswithmetallicbodypartscausing

immensesuffering:“apairoflargebirds,whosefunctionistotearatthevitalsofthe

suffererswiththeirmetallicbeaks.”137Thebirds’onlypurposeisneverendingand

robotic,theycontinuetofulfilltheirtasksuntilthehellbeingisreincarnated.Oncethey

arereborn,anotherhellbeingwilltaketheirplaceandexperiencethesametortures.

137A.B.Griswold,“AWarningtoEvildoers”,ArtibusAsiae,Vol.20,No.1(1957),p.27

66

138Figure11

138Figure11.http://bit.ly/L6FUMQ.April2013

67

139Figure12

139Figure12,http://bit.ly/1753VhD,April2013

68

140Figure13

140Figure13,http://bit.ly/11AfFpX,January2013

69

Punishment and Release

Animalsanddemonsareonlyinplacetofulfillonesingleroleoftorture.Their

movementsandactionalwaysstaythesame.Accordingtosome,however,these

demonsandguardsarenotactuallyresponsibleforthehell‐dwellerstorments:“you

onlyareresponsibleforyourownsuffering–don’tblamethegaolers,theyareonly

doingtheirduty.”141Thehellbeingsknowtheirpunishersandwhattoexpectonce

revivedagain.Knowingwhatwaitsaspunishmentmightbeevenworsethanoblivion

becausenotonesecondcanbelivedwithouteitherexperiencingthepainor

anticipatingit.

Thereasoningbehindtheseawfultorturesisthatonlythroughtheburningoffof

thisevilkarmacanthe‘karma‐slate’becleared.Beingtormentedwiththesame

torturesrepeatedlyhasacertaintypeofagencywithinthemajorpunishment.The

torturethatisexperiencedbesidestheactualphysicalpainbecomesmental.Ifthese

torturesaremental,thiscouldsuggestthattheentireexperienceofhellcouldallbe

metaphysical.Ifthehellbeingcanremembertheirtorturesfromonerevivaltothenext,

theirmentalstateaswellastheirphysicalstateisdemolished,whichleadstoboth

physicalandmentalagony.Comparingtherepetitionofpunishmentsinhelltosimple

annoyingthingsineverydaylifecanhelpilluminatehowtheirtortureswithout

intermissionmayaffectthehelldwellers.Imaginingsomeoneclickingonapengets

annoyingevenafteronlyashortperiodoftime.Theprospectofsomeoneclickingona

penformillionsofyears,however,wouldleadtoinsanitythroughextrememental

141CharlesD.Orzech,MechanismsofViolentRetributioninChineseHellNarratives,p.124

70

stress.Whentheharmless,painlessclickingofapenisreplacedwithbirdspeckingat

one’svitalorganswithmetalbeaks,thisagonyisexponentiallyincreased.

Hell’scharacteristicoflettingthedamnedsufferonlyonesinglepunishmentfor

theentiretimespentinhellisalmostashorribleofapunishmentassufferinginhellat

all.Besidesthefactthatthepunishmentsthemselvesareterrifying,thefamiliardistress

oftherepetitionofbasicallyanythingonsuchascaleissupposedtodeterpeoplefrom

accumulatingevilkarma.Therepetitionexperiencedinhellleadstobothphysicaland

mentaldeteriorationofthesufferer,makingtheiroriginalsufferingincalculablyworse.

Thehellbeingsmaybeawareofwhatawaitsthemassoonastheyarerevivedwhich

causesforadifferenttypeofpainandanxietyincontrasttohavingdifferenttorment

inflictedonthemallthetime.

Ifhellisequallyapartoflife’sexistenceasearth,whyisitsomuchmore

gruesomethanthehumanoranimalform?Itcanbearguedthatthehellrealmsare

gruesome,butnotalwaysworsethanwhatcanbeexperiencedinotherrealms.Eachof

thesixrealmsofexistencehasinstancesofextremesufferingthatmayseemlikehellin

thepresentstate.Forexample,apersondyingofstarvation,freezingtodeathor

burningaliveisactuallyexperiencingpretaexistenceorhellintheircurrentlifetime.At

thesametime,veryluckyindividualsmaybeexperiencinggod‐likehappinesson

earth.142Furthermore,evenifnoteveryindividualonearthisexperiencinghell,there

arebeingsthatareatalltimes.Themistreatmentofanimalsandpeopleislikehellfor

theone’sinvolved.Technicallytheconceptofbutcheringandmeatpreparationcanbe

regardedashell.Theanimalsbeingslicedapartandcutintopiecesbythebutchersare

142InterviewwithLamaTenzin,BardCollege,Annandale‐on‐Hudson,NY.April4th2013

71

actuallyinhellatthattime.Inanotherlifetime,thesebutcherswillthereforehaveto

sufferthesamepunishmentstheypreviouslyinflictedontoothers(seeFigure13).

InBuddhism,saṃsāraissuffering.Hellcouldbeseenasamoreextremeversion

ofthedailysufferingsweexperienceonearth.Sinceanityaisthebasicprincipleof

impermanenceinBuddhism,thelackofpermanenceinourexistenceonearthcouldbe

madeupbypermanenceinhell.Beingconstantlytornandsufferingonearthduetoour

never‐endingattachmentsisthemostbasicBuddhistteaching.Attachmentand

suffering,anityaanddukhka,arethefirstoftheFourNobleTruthsinBuddhist

teachings.Theystatethatalllifeissuffering,andsufferingiscausedbyattachment.

Humansdevelopemotionsforotherlivingbeingsandmaterialobjects,whichresultsin

attachmenttothesethings.Oncetheyaretakenaway,lost,leaveordie,theattachment

thatwasbuiltupovertimeresultsinsufferingduetotheloss.

Thisattachmentistakentotheextremeinhell.Thesuffererisforcedto

experienceextremeattachmentthroughtheirpunishments.Notlettinggoofthingsand

beingaslavetothefaultyhumannatureofattachmentispunishedinhellbybeing

overlyattached,notabletodetachfromone’spunishments.Thepunishedinhellhave

becomesoattachedtotheirtormentsthattheywillneverleavethem.Thisextreme

versionofattachmentcouldservetoemphasizehowawfulattachmentcanreallybe.

Thetwofoldpurposeofhellinthiscase,bothburningoffevilkarmaandteachinga

lessonaboutattachmentisimplementedthroughtheextensivenessofthese

punishmentsandtheirnever‐endingrepetitions.

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Occupants of Hell

Hellbeingsarealwaystorturedandmassacredbydemonsoranimals.These

creaturesareoftenportrayedashalfanimalandhalfman.Thesedemonsaredescribed

anddepictedtorturingthehellbeings(seeFigure14,ahalf‐animaldemon).Thereare

otherinterpretations,however,inwhichthe“Andhakas143supposethatthereareno

guardsinhellchargedwithtorturingandpunishing;rather,thesetorturersarenothing

butthebadactionsthemselves,committedintheshapeofhell‐keeperswhopurgethe

sufferers.”144Sometimes,theyaretheonesthatcausethehellbeingspainbypuncturing

them,sawingthem(Figure15),andrippingthemapart.

143Andhakas144Braarvig,Jens,“TheBuddhistHell:AnEarlyInstanceoftheIdea?”Numen56,Brill2009,p.262

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145Figure14

145Figure14.Detail.WheelofExistence.Tibet,19thcentury.Pigmentsoncloth.C2006.66.131,HAR,78.RubinMuseumofArt,NewYorkCity

74

146Figure15

146Figure15.Detail.WheelofExistence.Tibet,19thcentury.Pigmentsoncloth.C2006.66.131,HAR,78.RubinMuseumofArt,NewYorkCity

75

Inthisstoryamonk’sjourneythroughhellisdescribed:

“TheunfortunateishurledaroundtheGreatHellagainstthefourgates,burnedandtortured.Andthen:

Monks,therecomesatimeonceinaverylongwhilewhentheeasterngatewayofthisGreatNirayaHellisopened.Herushesthereswiftlyandspeedily;whileheisrushingswiftlyandspeedilyhisskinburnsandhishideburnsandhisfleshburnsandhistendonsburnandhiseyesarefilledwithsmoke–suchishisplight.Andthoughhehasattainedmuch[spentmanyhundredthousandyearsinAvīci],thegatewayisneverthelessclosedagainsthim.Thereathefeelsfeelingsthatarepainful,sharp,severe.Buthedoesnotdothistimeuntilhemakesanendofthatevildeed.147Notunexpectedly,heexperiencesthesameattheothergates,but,intheend,theeasterngateisopenforhim,butonlyforhimtobereborninanotherhell:theGreatFilthHell,wherehisskin,fleshandbonesarecutoff.ThenheisrebornintheEmberHell,theForestofSilk‐CottonTrees,whichhehastoclimb–theyareofcourseburning–andthentheHellofburningwater.Heishungry,askingforfood,andtheguardshaulhimoverwithafishhookandfillhismouthwithglowingcopperpelletsthatburnhischestandstomachbeforetheypassoutwithhisbowelsandintestines.Whendaringtosayheisthirsty,hegetsasimilartreatment.”148

Thisexcerptdepictsthesadandhorrificsufferingsofamonkinhell.Hereitis

mentionedthateventhoughhehasalreadysufferedsuchimmensetimeperiodsinhell,

hisevilkarmahasnotyetbeenburnedoff,andthereforeheiscontinuallyreborninto

differenthells.Thistreatmentofhell’s‘inmates’showshowbrutalandunforgiving

Buddhisthellis,andthatnoactionscanchangethis.Figure16isanexampleofsomeof

theterriblepunishmentsthere.Eventhoughtheseimagesoriginatefromdifferent

Buddhisttraditions,theyalldepicttorturesthatrelatetothisstory.

147MA4.235asinMNIII,tr.p.227n.5148citedfromBraarvig,Jens,“TheBuddhistHell:AnEarlyInstanceoftheIdea?”Numen56,Brill2009,p.272

76

149Figure16

149Figure16,http://bit.ly/11jYTdt,April2013

77

150Figure17

150Figure17.SculpturesinatempleinXi’an,China.

78

Withthehelpofanimals,metalbeakedbirdsandworms,thesedemonsallow

thehellbeingstoburnofftheirevilkarma.Thedemonsareoftendepictedsmilingand

laughing.Seeminglytheyareverymuchenjoyingtheirjobofpunishingandtorturing

hellbeings.Eventhoughhellissupposedtobelackingtheconceptofhappiness,these

demonsaregleefulandhappy.Inthisstoryanothermonk’stortureandtreatmentby

theguardsisdescribed:

Him, bhikkhus151, Hell’s guards make to lie down and flay him withhatchets[…]theyplacehimdownwardsandflayhimwithknives[…]they bind him to a chariot and drive him to and fro over burning,blazingglowingground[…]theylifthimupontoagreathillofburning,blazing, white hot coals and roll him down a fiery slope […] theydouble him up and cast him into a hot brazen jar, burning glowingwhereheboils, comingup like a bubble of foam, then sinking, goingnow to this side,now to that.Therehesuffers fierceandbitterpain,nor does he die till that evil karma is cancelled. Him,bhikkhus, theycastintothegreat[Hell].152

Thetorturesthismonk,asinnumerableothers,hastoendurearesolelydueto

hisownbadactionsinthepast.Theextremesufferingexperiencedinthishellcreatesa

strongvisceralreactioninanyreader.Thedidacticsofusingsuchvisuallystimulating

descriptionsarehopedtobestrongenoughtoinstillgoodbehaviorinthereader.In

Figure17amonkisshowninpreparationforhispunishment.Thedemonsaroundhim

showdelightintheirdeedsandarealsoinplacetoinstillgreaterfearinthehellbeing.

151bhikku–(Pali;Sanskrit:Bhikṣu)literally,‘beggar’,thetermisgenerallytranslatedas‘monk’.ItreferstoamalefolloweroftheBuddhawhohasreceivedordination,servedasanovice,andholdsalloftheapproximately250vows.Thefemalecounterpartisbhikkhuni(Sanskrit:Bhikṣuni),generallytranslatedas‘nun’(DonaldS.Lopez,Jr.,BuddhistScriptures,PenguinClassics2004).152Majjhimaiii.166‐67,182‐83;AnguttaraNikāya1.41,translationfromKvtr.p.346‐47

79

The Lack of Happiness

Buddhisttextsoftenworkwiththeuseofapophaticlanguagetodescribecertain

concepts.Thistechniqueofusingdictiontodescribewhatisnotratherthanwhatis

enforcestheconceptofhellbeingwithouthappiness.Itismorememorabletoknow

thathellwillbewithoutthefeelingsofhappiness,afeelingeveryonehasexperiencedat

somepoint.Knowingthathellisfulloftortureandpainisonething,butalsoknowing

thatwithinthistimetherewillbenoinstancesofhappinesscolorsthereader’s

perceptionsinthathellismadetoseemevenmorehorrible.Nothingmorethana

creatureinSaṃsāra’sShow153,thebeingsinhellarethrownaroundandusedlike

puppets,withoutfreewill,timeofrestorfeelinganythingbutsuffering.Withthe

conceptthatallexistenceissufferingwhileeternallyenduringrebirthsinsaṃsāra,hell

seemslikeitisanevenmoreextremeversionoftheordinarysaṃsāra.Figure18shows

adetailofhellanditsinhabitantssufferingandbeingpunished.

153Saṃsāra’sShow–PatrulRinpochedescribestheworkingsofsaṃsāraasSaṃsāra’sShow.Allinhabitantsare‘played’bylife,saṃsāra,ascharactersinapuppetshow,withoutagencyandfreewill.

80

154Figure18

154Figure18.Detail.WheelofExistence.Tibet,19thcentury.Pigmentsoncloth.C2006.66.131,HAR,78.RubinMuseumofArt,NewYorkCity

81

Eventhoughonecanimagineaterribleplacelikehellteemingwithtortureand

fear,theideathathappinessiscompletelyabsentratherthanjustfleetingandrare

makesrecoveryutterlyimpossibleforitsinhabitants.Theconceptofhappiness,or

unhappiness,letsmeposethequestionofhowthisrelatesdirectlytothebeingsinhell.

Ifreincarnatedbeingsarebothmentallyandphysicallyunabletofeelhappiness,does

thisincreaseordecreasetheiroriginalsuffering?Doesthelackofhappinessmaketheir

existenceinhelleasierorevenharder?Iftheyarenotawareoftheconceptof

happiness,doesthislessentheirpainsandfears,sincetheyhavenothingpositiveto

compareitto?

Byenteringhell,oneentersarealm“devoidofhappiness.”155Havingaspacein

theuniverseinwhichhappinessdoesnotexistmakespunishmentevenmoreintense

becausethebeingsinthisrealmhaveabsolutelynothingelsetoexpectforaseemingly

eternalperiodoftime.Nothavingaconceptofpositivitycanbeverylimiting,butalso

maybehelpfulforthehell‐dwellers.Iftheyareawarethathappinessonceexistedand

theyarebeingdeprivedofit,theirpunishmentscouldfeelworse.If,however,hellisset

upinsuchawaythattheyarenotawarethathappinessevenexists,theymaybespared

alotofwishfulthinkingandhopesofpositivethings.

Creatingaspaceintheuniversethatis“devoidofhappiness”shapesaplacein

whichmiseryistheonlypossibility.Sincenothingpositivecanhappen,theonlyother

optionistolivewithconstantnegativity.Whereasitcanbearguedthattheirfeelingsof

sufferingandmiseryareintensifiedbythedeeplackofhappiness,itcanalsobeargued

thatsincetheyareonlyaccustomedtohell,theyarenotactuallysufferingmore.This,

155B.C.Law,HeavenandHellinBuddhistPerspective,p.94

82

however,doesnotanswerthequestionofwhythereexiststhisabsenceofhappiness.

Withinnumerableyearsofpunishmentandtortureahead,beingsrebornintherealmof

hellmayloseallhopeofhappinessandmerelyexist.Explainingthelackofhappiness

throughalossofhappinessisdifferentthantheutterabsenceofit.Withtheexistenceof

anentirerealmwiththecompleteabsenceofhappinessmeansthatotherrealms,such

asthehumanrealm,dohaveoccurrencesofhappinessevenifverybriefand

impermanent.

TheFourNobleTruthsteachthatalllifeissuffering.Ifthehumanexperienceis

purelysuffering,howcanhappinesseverbeexperienced?Bymakingtheclear

distinctionbetweenbeingabletoexperiencehappinessinthehumanrealmandthe

absencethereofinhellarguesfortheimpermanenceofevenduḥkha.Thissimileputs

thenegativityofsaṃsāraintoperspective:

Whilesufferingcertainlyexistsinhumanlife,itisnotunremittinglypainful.Therearemanypleasantexperiencestoo,suchthatonbalancethehumanrealmisthoughttoofferanappropriate‘middleway’betweenthelessattractivealternatives.Sufferingisthuslikethegritintheoyster,whichintimeproducingthepricelesspearlofnirvāṇa.156Eventhoughalllifeissuffering,itissprinkledwithinstancesofhappiness,which

makesthethoughtofnothavingthishappiness,hell.However,sincehellisequallypart

ofsaṃsāraasthehumanbirth,itisdifficulttodrawthelinebetweenthem.Onecan

arguethateventhoughinsomebirthsthesufferingismoreintensethaninothers,in

general,onesuffersatsomelevelatalltimes.Humansstillhavethecapabilityto

experiencehappinessinsomeform.Beingsreborninhell,however,aplacepurely

withouthappiness,havenootherchoicethanfeelterrorandfear.Thisraisesthe

156Keown,Damien,EncyclopediaofBuddhism,Routledge,LondonandNewYork,p.249

83

questionwhethertheoppositeofhappinessisterrorandfear,orifthelackofhappiness

immediatelyimpliesthatthehellbeingsexperienceopposingfeelingsandemotions.

Withnowheretoescapetoortogetamoment’srestfromtheirpunishments,

therewouldnotbeanytimeoroccasiontofeelhappiness,evenifitexistedinthehell

realmsatall.Neverisatimecreatedinwhichtheyarenotpunishedoremotionally

tortured,hencethemomentofreliefneveroccurs,notallowingaplaceforhappiness.

Asanotherpartofarebirthinhellandpartofthepunishment,thebeingsaredenied

thefeelingsofhappinessinanysituation,whichaddsanotherlayerofsufferingtothe

physicalandemotionalpains.Therefore,ifthehellbeingsareunawareofthepossibility

ofhappinesstheirexperiencesofpainmayactuallybelessseverethaniftheyknew

whathappinesswas.Bydenyingthemhappinesscompletelytheyare,inaway,being

protectedfromanotherlevelofsufferingwhichiscreatedthroughmentallycomparing

whattheyhavetowhattheycouldhave.

Ashumans,onceknowingthepossibilityofhavingsomethingbetter,whatone

doeshaveoftendoesnotseemgoodenough.Similarly,ifthehellbeingswereawareof

feelingssuchashappinesstheirtormentsinhellwouldbeperceivedevenworse

becausetheyknewtheywerenothappy.InFigure19twohellbeingssufferthe

punishmentsbydemons.Thehellbeingslicedapartisdefinitelynothappy,andequally

sotheobserver.Thesecondhellbeingdoesnothavethechancetofeelhappyaboutnot

beingslicedapart,sincetheyareawarethattheyarenext.

84

157Figure19

157Figure19.Detail.http://bit.ly/ZQF7oe.December2012

85

However,ifhelllackshappiness,howcanthedemonsbeexperiencingit?Isit

onlysupposedtobewithouthappinessforthehelldwellers,orasageneralrule?The

demonscouldbesmilingandlaughingbecausetheyknowtheyareactuallyhelpingthe

hellbeings.158Sincethedemonsareawarethattheyarehelpingthehellbeingsqualify

forabetterrebirthinthefuturebymakingthemburnofftheirbadkarma,theyare

happy.Eventhoughtheyknowtheyarehurtingthem,theyalsoknowthattheyare

actuallyhelpingthem.Therefore,withouthell,theywouldbedestinedtosuffer

increasinglyworseningbirthsfortherestofeternity.Throughtheexistenceofhell,

demonsandpunishment,theyhavetheopportunitytoburnoffallevilkarmaandhave

apositivefuture.

Ifthedemonsarenotactuallytorturingthehellbeings,buthelpingthemtoburn

offbadkarma,thiscouldbeconsideredaccumulatinggoodkarmaforthemselves,and

theirfuturereincarnations.Thisforesightbythedemonscouldallowthemtothinkinto

thefutureandbehappyforthehellbeings,themselvesandtheirfuture.Theparadoxof

creaturesdoingevilthingsinhellisconfusingsinceeventhoughtheyarealreadyin

hell,theyareaccumulatingbadkarmaforthemselvesbypunishingothers.Therefore

eventhoughtheyareaccumulatingbadkarmaforthemselves,theyarestillhappy

becausetheyknowtheyarehelpingothers.Thisactionofputtingoneselfintoabad

positioninordertohelpotherscouldinturnbeconsideredpositive,thereforefinally

accountingforgoodkarmaforthedemons.

Inotherinterpretations,however,thedemonsarenotconsideredhappyforthe

hellbeingsatall.Eventhoughtheyaresmilingandseeminglyenjoyingthemselves,they

158InterviewwithEvanGoodman,RubinMuseumofArt,NewYork,NewYork,January11th,2013

86

areenjoyingthemselvesforotherreasons.Thedemonsarerepresentedasevilandfull

ofhatred,ratherthanjoyforthehellbeings.Insteadofbeinghappy,itisdescribedthat

“thedemonsfurtherventtheirhatredbypoundingandpulverizingthesinnersand

chasethemwithhotpokersandbowsandarrows.”159Thisviewonthedemons

happinessistotallyopposite,sinceinthisscenariotheyarefullofhatredandnotjoy.

Takingpleasureinthehelldwellers’miseryembodiestheconceptofSchadenfreude.160

Thedemons,watchingthehorribletorturesandpainsthesufferersareexperiencing,

arehappybecausetheyareenjoyingthemselvesseeingothersinpain.

InFigure20twodemonsaredepictedforcefullyfeedingahellbeingboiling

waterandburningtheirlimbs.Thedarkerdemon,totheright,isparticularlyenjoying

thescene,whichisexpressedbyhisphysicalforcefulnessandsmile.Theconceptof

anityaiscompletelypermeable,andthereforealsoexistsforthedemons.Sincenothing

ispermanent,noteventhedemon’sexistencewillbepermanentasguardsand

torturersinhell,andtheytoo,mayeventuallybereincarnated.Thepurposeofthese

demons,bothforburningoffevilkarmaandtheprospectofattainingabetterrebirth,is

onlyusefulthroughtheextremethoroughnessofthesepunishmentsandtheirnever‐

endingrepetitions.

159DaiganandAliciaMatsunaga,TheBuddhistConceptofHell,PhilosophicalLibraryNY,p.86160Schadenfreude–(German):findingpleasureandhappinessinsomeoneelse’smiseryandpain

87

161Figure20

161Figure20.http://bit.ly/11oCVpq.February2013

88

Conclusion

A Place of Retribution

Theideathatthecosmosandallexistenceisameretransitorystateallowsallof

existencetobeputintoperspective.Birthonearthisjustastransitoryandtemporary

asbirthinhell.162Eventhoughthebirthinhellmaylastinnumerableyearslongerthan

thebirthonearth,itisstilltemporary.Abirthinhellisaninevitableoccurrenceand

partofthecycleofrebirththatcannotbeevaded.Thekarmicpotentialaccumulated

overmillionsofbirthswilleventuallyleadtoabirthinhell,sinceevenbymerely

existing,eatinganddrinking,onecontinuouslycultivatesbadkarma.Itisnot

guaranteedthatoneevildeedwillleadintoanunfortunaterebirth,however,butrather

theaccumulationofbadkarmaoveranincalculableamountoftime.Thisaccumulation

canbevisualizedwithasimile:“Kammaisaccumulatedgradually,andeventually,like

whentheloadofashipistooheavy,itsinks,justasonegraduallyaccumulatingbad

kammaintheendwillsinkintohell.”163

Thelessonlearnedfromthesetorturesisthatbadactionsinanylifetimewill

resultinhelleventually,andshouldthereforealwaysbeavoided.Furthermore,instead

ofmerelyavoidingbadactions,goodactionshouldbepracticed.Anotherbadaspectof

Buddhisthellisthatthehugeamountsoftimespentthereonlypostponesthetimeuntil

nirvāṇacanbereachedthroughbetterbirths.Onlytheworstpainonmanylevelsof

physicalandmentalpainispowerfulenoughtoalleviateevilkarma.Thetorturesofhell162AkiraSadakata,BuddhistCosmology,p.91163Braarvig,Jens,“TheBuddhistHell:AnEarlyInstanceoftheIdea?”Numen56,Brill2009,p.278

89

canbecomparedtothedelightswiththegods.Inthegodrealms,thepleasuresareas

indescribableasthesufferingofhell.164

ConsideringmultipleaspectsofBuddhistthoughtabouthellwithlocationsboth

physicalandmental,itisnotpossibletodrawonestrictlineaboutatrueorfalseclaim.

“LaterBuddhistphilosophicaltraditions[…]tendtoseetheworldasaprojectionofthe

collectivementalstatesoflivingbeings”165whereasothersaremoretraditional,suchas

the“orthodox[Buddhist]viewisthathellisreal”166andaphysicalplace.Herethe

questionofthepurposeofhellarises.IsthepurposeofBuddhisthellreallytoscare

awayevildoersthroughfearofpunishment?Onecanarguethatthepunishmentsthe

hellbeingsexperienceinhellareactuallynotinordertoteachthemalesson,butrather

toburnofftheevilkarmatheyhaveaccumulated.Ifthepurposeofhellisnottoscare

evildoersbutrathercleansetheminordertoqualifythemtohaveabetterrebirthinthe

future,shouldhellthenactuallybeconsideredafortunaterebirth?

ThetheoriesthatexistaboutBuddhisthellareallrealteachings,eachtruetoits

individualschoolofBuddhism.Fromanoutsiderperspectiveitisfascinatingtolookat

thevariouswayssocietyinventsthingsinordertomotivate,driveandsupportpeople.

TheBuddhisthellisnotonlyavehicletodeterfrombadbehaviorandencouragethe

harvestingofgoodkarma,itismuchmorethanthat.Hell,especiallythementalhellthe

individualcreatesforhimselforherself,isaplacethateverylivingbeinghasbeento.

Andeventhougheveryonehasexperiencedit,thebestwaytodealwithit,andgetout

ofit,hasnotyetbeendiscovered.TheconceptsofBuddhisthellpartiallyaddressthe

164Braarvig,Jens,“TheBuddhistHell:AnEarlyInstanceoftheIdea?”Numen56,Brill2009,p.270165KathavatthuVII.10.4166Braarvig,Jens,“TheBuddhistHell:AnEarlyInstanceoftheIdea?”Numen56,Brill2009,p.263

90

questionabouthowtodealwiththesetraumaticissues,andhowtoutilizetheBuddhist

religioninorderavoidheartbreaksandoverallsuffering.Therefore,abadmentalstate

isitsownresultandagoodmentalstateisequallyitsownresult.Thiscanleadtothe

argument“thattheconsciousnesswithwhichwetakelifeistheveryconsciousness

withwhichweburnin[hell].”167Onenegativethoughtisquicklyfollowedbymany

more,andsoitseemsasifbadthingsattractbadthings,andviceversa.Followingalong

withtheconceptofkarma,goodactionsalsohelptofurthergoodthings.Thedemonsin

hellthatcausesuchagonyandterrorcanbeinterpretedasphysicalandmental

manifestationsofeveryindividual’sbadkarma.Allbadexperiencesoriginatefrom

within.Therefore,demonsfromhellarenotexternalbeingsbutfragmentsoftheself.

Theargumentofthepersonal,mentalhellisdebatedandcanalsoapplytonon‐

Buddhists,likemyself.“Essentiallytheworldweliveinisourowncreation:wehave

createditbyourownkarma,byourdeeds,words,andthoughtsmotivatedeitherby

greed,hatred,anddelusionorbynonattachment,friendliness,andwisdom.Thecosmos

isthusareflectionofouractions,whichareinturntheproductsofourheartsand

minds.”168Buddhismisnotbasedontheimportanceofanall‐knowingindividual,but

basedontryingtomakeourhumanlivesonearthlesspainful.Thedrivebehindthe

Buddhistteachingsofhellistoconveytheimportanceofnon‐attachmentinorderto

avoidsufferinginthefuture.Buddhisthellcanbeagruesomeplace,“realmsinwhicha

torturedconsciousnessexperiencesabominablenightmares,whereeveryobjectofthe

sensesappearsrepulsiveandugly.”169Thesenightmaresarelikemoviesinthemind

167Braarvig,Jens,“TheBuddhistHell:AnEarlyInstanceoftheIdea?”Numen56,Brill2009,p.261168SamyuttaNikāyaI,62169S.IV.126citedfromPeterHarvey,AnIntroductiontoBuddhism,CambridgeUniversityPress,p.34

91

thatnoonebuttheselfcansee,andnoonebuttheindividualcanfeelthepain.Most

writingsandimagesofBuddhisthellshowa“persistentfascinationwithgruesome

scenesoftorture”170thatreadersunfamiliarwiththeBuddhistthoughtandpractice

abouthellwillfindappallingandrepulsive.However,eveniftheyareshocking,these

imagesareproductsofthehumanmindasaresultoftryingtofindawaytoexplainthe

sufferingseveryoneexperiencesinlife,insaṃsāra.

ThehelleveryindividuallivesthroughmustnotalwaysbeasterrifyingasAvīci.

Hellcanbeashorribleashavingtoexperiencethedeathofalovedone,orasharmless

ashavingtogotoworkafterbeingupallnighttakingcareofone’ssickchildren.The

intensityofeveryindividual’shellvariesonadailybasis.Throughoutthedayhellcan

fluctuate;forexample,goodnewscanbecomeirrelevantaftertrippingandbreaking

one’sfoot.Whetherhellsarephysicalplaces,whethertheyexistsolelyinevery

individual’smind,orwhethertheyonlycometousinnightmares,theydoexist

somewhereforeveryone.

170CharlesD.Orzech,MechanismsofViolentRetributioninChineseHellNarratives,p.111

92

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