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Life And Death: The Soul Review
Mr. DeZilva
For most of this unit, Mind and Soul are used almost synonymously. Some Philosophers address the difference, but this is very rare.
For Plato, he says that reason (thought, mental awareness) is used alongside emotion and appetite to help govern the Soul. For Aristotle, the Soul was substance – something innate in a living thing.
For Descartes, the mind and the soul are more or less the same thing - even referred to it at times as a rational soul. The Mind and the Soul were so closely linked together he never really differentiated the two.
For most Materialist and Monist, the Soul refers to a more emotional that is a result of our experiences and reactions. The Mind refers to a process of the brain.
Because interpretations varied early on in philosophical texts, the distinction between the two were not always made clear. However, while the Mind and the Soul may or may not be the same thing in some cases, they are always linked in some way shape or form.
Important to Note
The Difference between Monism , Dualism and Materialism Dualism and Monism are the two perspectives on the human
person in regards to the Mind-Body Monist believe that existence is based upon one category of
being (the person is made up entirely of the mind or the person is made up entirely of the body)
Dualist believe that the existence of a person based upon both the body, as well as the mind
Materialism is a type of monism (all that exist in life is matter)
Idealism is a type of monism (all that exist in life is mind, spirit)
Substance or Cartesian Dualism is a type of dualism (The body and mind both exist, but importance is placed on the mind)
Important to Note
Evaluate the claim that there can be no disembodied existence after death.
To what extent is belief in an afterlife necessary for resolving problems raised by the existence of evil?
Resurrection is more likely to be true than reincarnation.’ Discuss
Evaluate the claim that the soul is distinct from the body.
‘The concept of embodied existence after death is incoherent.’ Discuss
Critically compare Aristotle’s and Richard Dawkins’ view on the Body Soul Identity
Past Questions
Before we can fully understand any concepts about Life after Death, we must first understand the complexities of the Soul. To first understand the Soul, we must understand the relationship between the Mind and the Body. The best way to address this is known as the Mind Body Problem
*Keep a look out for things throughout this Powerpoint that note MBP, as it may be relevant to not only discuss the MBP, but use it as a critique/evaluation.
The Mind Body Problem
Humans are characterised by the body (physical) and the mind (consciousness) These are the fundamental properties
Body = mass of matter; has shape, size, mass and spatial positions Physical properties (such as height) are fact; it is
independent of a person’s conception.
Mind = intentionality – thinking about something; Seen usually as immaterial
What is the Mind-Body Problem?
Australian Philosopher David Chalmers said that the minds are in a non-observable universe, but the bodies are still controlled by the minds external to the simulation (similar to The Matrix).
Canadian Philosopher Arthur Custance hinted at Dualism, an approach to the Mind Body Problem, when he said: “My body is my soul’s proper home. My soul is my body’s proper master” –A Custance
MBP Continued
Dualism Plato Descartes
Immortality of the Soul Arguments in Favour
In regards to Life after Death, Dualism refers to the belief that the soul is a distinct and immortal entity within the body, which can survive the death of the body and ascend to the afterlife.
The view that the mind and body function separately, without interchange
Opposite of a dualist would be a Monist (belief in the mind and bodyforming one single entity)
What is Dualism?
MBP
Plato made a distinction between the soul and the body (Dualism) The Soul
Has the ability to know the truth Can understand the Forms as they really are (through reason) Capable of certain knowledge Unchanging and immortal Exists after death, as well as pre-existed before birth
The Body Can only learn through physical sense experience Can gain knowledge, but it is inferior compared to reason In a constant process of change Cannot be the object of certain knowledge
Plato on the Distinction between Body and Soul
Plato makes his distinction between the body and soul comes from his dialogue Phaedo, in which he recounts the final few hours before Socrates’ death The dialogue focuses on Socrates having a
discussion with his friends on why there is nothing to fear from death
The most important thing about a person is their innate, mental life.
The soul was the real part of the person The soul is temporarily attached to a physical
body A Dualist perspective as he separates the body
and soul and treats them as two separate things.
Plato continued
Three arguments for Life After Death in Phaedo (as a result of a dialogue that Socrates is having)
1) The Argument from generation out of Opposites Death is the opposite of life, and life the opposite of death; “the soul of the dead must exist in some place from which they are reborn” - Socrates
2) The Argument from Recollection We know what we know as a result of once experiencing it or recollecting the information
3) The Argument from Simplicity The soul is indestructible (can’t be destroyed by death) because it is immaterial, invisible and already in its most simplistic form
Plato continued
In terms of The Soul and Identity, Plato discussed something called the Tripartite Theory of the Soul Reason (Thought), Emotion (Spirit), Appetite (Desire)
The soul was a guiding force that helped the body and the mind to work together, and the only way it could do this was with a governance of the tripartite
This is important because it potentially addresses philosophical problems with what the soul is and what composes or makes up a person (identity)
Plato continued
MBP
Plato’s view does not look at the person as a unified whole,
The only way we can accept Plato’s views of the afterlife is to accept his world of Forms
The cycle of opposites is not supported by experience We can think of many things not brought to life by their
opposites i.e Black does not bring about white. We understand when something is hot because we
understand coolness, but this doesn’t necessitate any cycle.
Therefore, life can be the opposite of death, but doesn’t need to mean that life must be brought about by death.
Criticisms of Plato
Developed Substance Dualism or Cartesian Dualism
Felt that he could prove that he himself existed (as a thinking self – “I think therefore I am”) and considered himself primarily a “thinking thing” Basic knowledge of the self is independent of the body,
and thus, the immortal soul is the source of conscious life. A Substance Dualist would say that the Mind and Body
are separate (Mind Body problem) Substance Something that does not require any
other creature to exist, and can exist on its own with only God’s concurrence
Other concepts of Body and Soul Distinction: Rene Descartes
MBP
Descartes would’ve mostly subscribed to a specific branch of dualism called Interactionism The body is spatial with no conscious, while the
mind is non-spatial and is conscious. The body affects the mind and vice versa – they
can interact (i.e. drug use) Originally, Descartes felt that the pineal gland
was the “seat of the soul”; where all of our thoughts were formed
Descartes continued
MBP
Hume – The mind is fragile and it is more than likely to be destroyed at death and not survive
Descartes would affirm to life after death through the immortality of the soul (Mind is infallible, body is spatial) However, are we actually the same person again even
after death. This is a challenge that Hick would face with his Replica Theory, as well.
Aquinas – the soul is so connected to the body, that only an embodied existence can occur with the 2nd coming
Criticisms of Descartes
Materialism Aristotle Dawkins
Immortality of the Soul Arguments Against
A materialist in this case would refer to the view that the physical universe (matter) is all that exists
Furthermore, it is the belief that no part of a person is non-physical; therefore, there is no soul.
Materialists feel that we cannot survive death – there is no continuity between this life and what lies beyond.
Consciousness is no more than electro-chemical events within the brain
What is Materialism?
MBP
Felt that the body and the soul were inseparable Gave an example of a Wax tablet with an
inscription on it (see picture bottom corner) The soul = Substance, which means essence
or an absolute real thing The physical body = continuous change, but
the soul remains consistent to give identity. The soul included the matter and the structure
of the body
Aristotle on the Distinction between Body and Soul
Aristotle differed from Plato in the sense that the soul could be explained in purely natural terms “The soul is […] the principle of animal life There are different souls, and depending on the
user of the soul there are different degrees of a soul In De Anima Aristotle describes that a living
thing’s soul is its capacity to engage in the activities that are characteristics of living things of its natural kind (i.e. Growth, intellect, perception, movement)
Aristotle continued…
Therefore Anything that nourishes itself, that grows, decays, moves about (on its own, not just when moved by something else), perceives, or thinks is alive. And the capacities of a thing in virtue of which it does these things constitute its soul.
The soul is what is causally responsible for the animate behaviour (the life activities) of a living thing.
Aristotle continued…
“. . . the soul does not exist without a body and yet is not itself a kind of body. For it is not a body, but something which belongs to a body, and for this reason exists in a body, and in a body of such-and-such a kind”
The soul is not separable from the body
Aristotle continued
As a Materialist and an evolutionary biologist, Richard Dawkins felt that no part of a person is non-physical
In The Selfish Gene, he wrote: Humans are no more than survival machines Humans are the vehicles of genes, looking to replicate
themselves in order to survive into the next generation “Survival machines – robot vehicles, blindly
programmed to preserve the selfish molecules known as genes.”
Dawkins on the Distinction between Body and Soul
Dawkins directly rejects the ideas proposed by Descartes and Plato Claims that we are just bytes of information and that there is
nothing supernatural about us (River out of Eden) Feels that there is overwhelming empirical evidence for his
perspective, compared to that of Plato and Descartes The Soul is an illusion caused by ignorance, superstition and
irrational perception. “The consciousness is mistaken as a soul” For Dawkins, the soul represents in a justification for evil and
suffering; however, he feels that the “soul” exists because it results from the inability for humans to accept that evil and suffering have no purpose.
Dawkins continued
Soul One and Soul TwoTo explain his rejection of the soul, Dawkins breaks down the soul into two different types of conceptual understandings. - Soul One: the first and oldest meaning of the soul
What applies for Dawkins here are Dictionary definitions such as “the principle of life in man or animals” or “The spiritual part of man regarded as surviving after death”
- Soul Two refers to the “intellectual or spiritual power; a high development of the mental faculties”
Dawkins feels that this definition of the soul, alongside science, can have some validity
“An awakening of the imagination comparable to learning that the universe is made up of billions of galaxies” – Steven Pinker (Someone that Dawkins would definitely agree with here)
Dawkins continued…
Soul One: the traditional view of a principle of life, a real separate thing that is spiritual and contains personality (i.e. the dualistic/Platonic view) → this is what Dawkins is rejecting
Soul Two: there might be a place for talking about the soul in a metaphorical/symbolic way (i.e. high development of mental, intellectual faculties) → there is room as long as we are clear that this does not refer to a separate thing (i.e. avoid dualism at all costs when it comes to Dawkins!)
Dawkins continued
Dawkins feels that consciousness is something that science will eventually be able to explain in full
Dawkins argues that we are incredibly lucky accidents and therefore should live life to the full rather than relying on the false comfort that we could survive the death of our body. • At death, we leave behind genes and memes,
though the genes will quickly be dispersed. DNA survival brings about the body and individual consciousness creates culture. This is the soul.
Dawkins Continued
Hick rejects traditional dualism, adopts a concept of soft materialism, but does not deny Life After Death.
The Soul is the name for the moral, spiritual self, but still refers to the person as a whole
Based on the idea that the whole of this earthly life is a vale of soul making – a testing ground for people in which they develop moral character. Relates to the Problem of Evil
Develops the Replica Theory The soul is capable of everlasting life with God There is a physical rebirth in which the body is replicated
by God – Hick believes it is the exact same person
Hick on the Distinction between Body and Soul
Behaviourism is the concept that all mental events are just referring to a complex pattern of behaviour (similar to that of Dawkins); Mental terminology means something physical
Linked largely to Gilbert Ryle who felt that the soul is a collective noun for “personality”.
Developed the Ghost in the Machine concept The Ghost is the mind and the machine is the body. This was a response to Descartes’ description of the mind-body distinction.
Ryle did not feel that the mind existed and that it only existed as a result of a categorical mistake
“Searching for the University” example
Other concepts of Body and Soul Distinction: Behaviourism
Identity Theory refers to the language used to describe something about the self
It states that the mind and the brain refer to the same object, but they have different meanings. This is important to note because many scholars attribute the mind to the activity of the brain (even Descartes did to some extent)
For example “I have a pain” and “I have such and such a neural
process” don’t mean the same thing, but are identical when evaluating the identity of pain
Other concepts of Body and Soul Distinction: Identity Theories
Critically compare Aristotle’s and Richard Dawkins’ view on the Body Soul Identity
- Discuss Aristotle’s perspective of the soul in relationship to the body. Explain what he thought the soul was and why it was important. Express how he was a materialist in regards to the soul.
- Discuss Dawkins and his theory of Two Souls. Further discuss his interpretation of materialism and how he denies the idea of a soul and even of an afterlife. Discuss his concept of Survival Machines.
- Support either of the positions or even find similarities between the two. Perhaps even focus on each’s definition of a “soul” and what it is (or is not). Critically compare the two accounts, but remember to stay focused on the topic of the Body/Soul Identity.
If Given a question such as…
Embodied Existence vs. Disembodied Existence
Disembodied Existence refers to life after death without a physical form. It alludes to survival after death without bodies. Examples include Plato and Descartes
Embodied Existence refers to the soul/mind and body being one. If the body dies, the soul dies with it, but there is still potential for Life after death in physical form. Examples include Resurrection and Reincarnation Dawkins and Aristotle would be examples of Materialist that did not believe in any life after death
Questions surrounding the nature of Disembodied Existence
Swinburne: We can imagine a situation where we could exist without a body, and if we can imagine it, then it is a coherent concept.
Further support to Swinburne here would be that we say we have bodies, as opposed to we are bodies (Dawkins might say we are bodies, however)
To some, it seems as if the consciousness and the body, although linked, are distinct from one another Therefore, it could make sense to suggest that the
consciousness might be able to exist on its own, without the body, once the body has died.
When questioned on Disembodied Existence…
Locke gave the example of the Prince and Cobbler This example focuses on personal identity If the soul of the prince transferred into that of
a shoe-maker, would it still be “The Prince”? Provides a problem for Materialist because the
body is distinct from “The Person” The Person is a thinking, intelligent being and
can exist in a spiritual world.
Disembodied existence continued…
HH Price deems that LAD is conceivable via disembodied existence He compares it to that of a dream – not bound
by time or space, but a world made up of mental images that we have had and can have
People could potentially have mental images after death that resembled physical sensation and felt as though they had identities – this would be enough to qualify as a “life” after death
This image/dream-world for Price would be a result of the experiences we have had, and may be pleasant or unpleasant
Disembodied existence continued
Evidence of a Disembodied Existence may be provided by Dr. Raymond Moody, the founder of Near Death Experience studies.
Medical studies suggests that NDE is reported by between 8%-12% of patients who have been resuscitated after suffering cardiac arrest.
There are a collection of common characteristics that NDE witnesses have
Disembodied existence continued
A concept of constant embodied existence, also known as rebirth The individual continues to live after death in some sort of bodily
form Being reborn into this world after death into a new physical bodyHindus would believe that each person has an essential self, this is known as the atman. This self is eternal and seeks unity with God. God (Brahman) manifests himself in the atman of each individual.
Brahman is pure thought Once this manifestation is realised, there is no need for the atman to
continue in the cycle of rebirth it has attained its release, this is known as moksha
The physical body is nothing more than a vehicle for the atman
**Note: Reincarnation is neither disembodied or embodied. There is a moment of disembodied existence, but this is only between the transfer into another body. Careful how you apply this.
Other Perspectives: Reincarnation
Hindus would have firm belief in the process of rebirth known as Karma Each deliberate action from a person has
consequences “The Karmic Fruits” attach themselves to the atman
and keep it in the cycle of birth and rebirth, known as Samsara
The quality of one’s future life is determined by how the individual acts in their current life
For example, if someone is poor or disabled, this could be because they acted morally poor in their past life.
Reincarnation continued
Buddhist would hold similar ideas, however, they do not think that the soul exists
Felt that the sense of the self was an illusion. The wise person or the awakened one is the one who realises that any sense of the atman is an illusion.
Once this is realised, the wise person will reach nirvana – nothingness.
However, what is it that is reborn, then, if there is no self? Buddhist say that the person is neither the same nor different The analogy of the lighted candle which in turn lights another
candle (the two flames are neither the same nor different, but the energy from one candle begins the flame of the next)
Reincarnation continued
Twenty Cases Suggestive of Reincarnation by Ian Stephenson provide further proof (support) to reincarnation
Cases of Reincarnation that Stephenson provides could be a result of cultural influence, since they happen in societies and communities that have a strong belief in reincarnation
Reincarnation comes into conflict with other religious beliefs such as Christianity and Islam (Resurrection)
Is it really the same “person” if not in the same living thing? This is an issue of identity.
Evaluation of Reincarnation
Resurrection is a belief held by Christians that the body, a spiritual body, will rise again after its death. The ‘I’ that lives now will rise again and be identifiable
in the afterlife Jesus was crucified on a cross and was buried in a
tomb – however, he resurrected in a physical form (“walking around”)
Jesus ascended into Heaven and resurrected. He continued to live on in a spiritual form
"See my hands and my feet, that it is I myself; handle me, and see, for a spirit does not have flesh and bones as you see that I have“ – Luke 24
Other Perspectives: Resurrection
Christians have a firm belief that the soul will be judged by God after death – this is alluded to in the book of Revelations (Last book of New Testament)
The decisions we have made will result in being judged by God in placed in Heaven or Hell
This is further emphasised here: “Then they will go away to eternal punishment, but the righteous to eternal life” (Matthew 25:46)
“It is easier for a rich man to get into Heaven…” (Matthew 19)
Resurrection continued
The significance of the soul is taken away because of the necessity of the body’s existence; places questions on the physical nature of the human body, not soul
Even though Christians believe in the Body and Soul being one, this could stem from the Genesis story (as stated by Keith Ward) The idea that man was created from material form but filled with the spirit of God
The Concept of Heaven and Hell implies particular features about God (Relate back to his Attributes)
Heaven means being in God’s presence and timeless ultimate happiness and potential perfection
Irenaeus, Augustine, Kant all speak on Life After Death in regards to there being a reconnection with God – thus, justifying the evil on earth.
Implications from Resurrection…
John Hick’s Replica Theory was a thought experiment. It stems from his concept of our lives now being a soul-
making theodicy Replica Theory is the theory that an identical recreation of
a person means, in fact, being regarded as the same person It can be seen as an extension of resurrection (as opposed to
reincarnation) Hick emphasised the idea that the soul needs to
continuously develop – and we can respond to our past actions and improve on them.
He believed that the body and the soul are inseparable, this includes the “new” replica that is created after death. Keep in mind – God creates this replica as a result of his power.
John Hick & Replica Theory
*However, as Brian Davies suggests, is this replica still the same person, the same identity. This can be called into question. Also, if a replica can be made, does that not devalue the current life that one is living?
