Libraries and Archives in the Historical and Professional Development of American Zoological Parks

Libraries and Archives in the Historical and Professional Development of American ZoologicalParksAuthor(s): Vernon N. Kisling, Jr.Source: Libraries & Culture, Vol. 28, No. 3 (Summer, 1993), pp. 247-265Published by: University of Texas PressStable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/25542560 .

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Libraries and Archives in the Historical and Professional Development of American

Zoological Parks

Vernon N. Kisling, Jr.

The history of zoological park libraries began with the advent of the mod

ern zoological park in the early nineteenth century. However, in America

zoological parks were not established until much later in the nineteenth cen

tury, and few of them had libraries prior to 1960 or archives prior to 1970. To

understand this delayed historical emergence and its significance for the pro fessional development of the zoological parks, this article examines the pop ular origins and practical nature of captive wildlife management, the simul

taneous development of the libraries and the professional literature after

1960, and the professionalization of the libraries and archives in tandem

with the zoological parks rather than with other American libraries. Consid

eration is also given to the specialized services of these libraries and archives

in supporting the continuing professional development of the zoological

parks.

Practical Husbandry to Professional Curatorship

The modern zoological park concept, inclusive of libraries, was a prod

uct of the early nineteenth century. Considering that collections of living wild animals were kept as early as 3000 B.c. in Mesopotamia, Egypt, and

China, one might say captive wildlife management remained a matter of

practical husbandry for a rather long time. Libraries have existed for an

equally long time in these same societies, but it is doubtful that any were

associated with living wild animal collections prior to the advent of the

zoological park.1

Captive wildlife management really began with domestication, for al

though it has been taken for granted, domestication is a process that began with the keeping of wild animals. However, collections of wild animals did not emerge until the development of the early urbanized societies around 3000 b.c. The domestication of wild animals brought about changes in

the management of these animals, evolving into agricultural husbandry. The captive management of animals that remained wild in collections, however, did not change, continuing as captive wildlife husbandry. This

Libraries and Culture, Vol. 28, No. 3, Summer 1993 ?1993 by the University of Texas Press, P.O. Box 7819, Austin, TX 78713



248 L&C /American Zoological Parks

keeping of wild animals remained a practical matter and was not much

different from the keeping of domestic animals, even as these collections

evolved into menageries and then into zoological parks.2 Both agricultural and captive wildlife husbandry, despite several thou

sand years of activity, did not develop an organized body of knowledge that could be taught or systematically improved upon until the nineteenth

and twentieth centuries, respectively. Difficulties existed for those who were trying to establish academic and professional foundations for agricul tural husbandry in the nineteenth century. "These institutions, which are

conveniently classed as agricultural schools, varied greatly in the quantity and character of the instruction relating to agriculture.

. . . They were pre

mature developments, because there was not yet a

body of knowledge re

lating to agriculture which could be successfully used."3 Another problem was the resistance of farmers. "Suspicion and contempt for bookfarming

had been traditional with American farmers who were convinced that

farming was a

practical, not a scientific, matter and that what there was to

learn could be taught by a

working farmer to his sons."4

At the same time, the newly emerging animal health profession was

struggling to overcome beliefs in home remedies and resistance to book

learned knowledge. "From cow doctor ... to the veterinarian of today was

a long travail, and much of the status presently enjoyed by the veterinary

profession has come about during the relatively brief period following World War II."5

The management of wild animals involved a similar situation.6 Much of

the accumulated skill and knowledge pertaining to captive wildlife husbandry was passed on by word of mouth. The routine chores of the keeper did not

require extensive training or education until the mid-twentieth century. By

this time, captive wildlife husbandry had finally reached the point where it

could no longer be provided through word of mouth or be provided by a few

individuals on the staff. This knowledge had been developing in earnest since

the opening of the earliest zoological parks and became part of the profes

sional attitude associated with these newly emerging zoological parks.

The concept of the zoological park began with the collection established

by the Zoological Society of London in 1828. In the United States it began with the Philadelphia Zoological Garden in 1859 (although this zoo did

not open until 1874, the ideas that distinguished it from existing collec

tions were put forth in its 1859 charter). Substantial improvements were

implicit in the designation "zoological park" (or "zoological garden"), in

cluding improvements in the general and veterinary care of the animals; in

the exhibit designs, which were becoming more naturalistic; in the diets,

which were beginning to replicate those in the wild; and in the captive

propagation, conservation, scientific, and educational programs.7

Prior to 1900 there were only about 23 zoological parks (table 1), but



249

TABLE 1

ZOOLOGICAL PARKS ESTABLISHED PRIOR TO 1900

1859 Philadelphia Zoological Garden

1861 Central Park Zoo

1868 Lincoln Park Zoological Gardens

1872 Roger Williams Park Zoo

1873 Cincinnati Zoo

1875 Buffalo Zoological Gardens

1875 Ross Park Zoo

1876 Baltimore Zoo

1882 Cleveland Zoological Park

1888 Dallas Zoo

1889 National Zoological Park

1889 Atlanta Zoological Park

1889 San Francisco Zoological Gardens

1890 Miller Park Zoo

1892 Milwaukee County Zoo

1892 New Bedford Zoo

1894 Seneca Park Zoo

1896 Denver Zoological Gardens

1896 New York Aquarium

1897 Como Zoo

1898 Pittsburgh Zoo

1899 Toledo Zoological Gardens

1899 New York Zoological Park

Source: Kisling, "American Zoological Parks."

Some 130 others have been established since 1900.

afterward many others were established throughout the country. Today

there are more than 150.8 Some criticized the early zoological parks for

being nothing more than glorified menageries and demanded better-man

aged facilities.9 Others were less demanding: "Learning natural history ... is not the greatest good this Zoo [the New York Zoological Park] does

for the multitude. It matters little whether Michael Flynn knows the dif

ference between the caribou and the red deer. It does matter a lot, how

ever, that he has not sat around the flat disconsolate, or in the back room

of the saloon, but has taken the little Flynns and Madam Flynn out into

the fresh air and sunshine for one mighty good day in which they have for

gotten themselves and their perhaps stuffy city rooms."10

While the public's expectations and attitudes concerning the purpose



250 L&C/American Zoological Parks

and usefulness of zoological parks varied, the overall consensus, both pub lic and professional, was for better collections. Standards for animal care

and exhibition steadily improved over time. Throughout the decades of the 1900s-1940s there was a

continuing improvement in community stan

dards concerning cultural institutions, as well as in the educational level of the populace, the level of scientific knowledge, the aesthetic standards con

cerning the treatment of animals and the conservation of wildlife, and the

overall standard of living (for both housed people and caged animals). In

addition, it was a time when many occupations were becoming profession

alized. The developing professionalism of zoological park administration and captive wildlife management resulted in the establishment of the American Association of Zoological Parks and Aquariums (AAZPA) in

1924, and its development reflected all of these twentieth-century changes. These changes developed gradually, enduring setbacks from World War I,

the Depression, and World War II. Significant progress then took place in

zoological park programs, construction, and renovations during the 1950s

and 1960s. By the late 1960s and early 1970s serious attention was being given to the professionalization of zoological park management. Improve ments were made during this time in all aspects of administration and animal

management.11 Among the many improvements during these decades was a

recognition of the need for information and the organization of this informa tion into libraries. This was followed in the late 1970s and the 1980s by a rec

ognition of the need to extend this developing professionalism to the manage ment of these libraries and to the establishment of archives.

Recognizing the Need for Information

During this long period the work concerned with captive wildlife hus

bandry had been done as apprenticeships, the information not being written

down or organized into a usable body of knowledge. Despite the great variety

of species being cared for, this care involved only a few practical husbandry

techniques. Animal handling and transport had not really changed all that

much from the way it was practiced in the early Mesopotamian collections.

Animal care and exhibition was slow to advance as well; even as late as the

early 1900s zoological parks still had serious problems with excessive num

bers of flies due to the fact that "manure removal was still at a fairly primitive level."12 Animal feeding was based on rudimentary knowledge until nutri

tional studies were undertaken at the Penrose Research Laboratory at the

Philadelphia Zoological Garden in 1935, the National Institute for Medical

Research (London) in 1949, the Basel Zoological Garden in 1956, and the

London Zoological Gardens in 1964.13 Veterinary care for wildlife did not

progress significantly until after the professional development of the veteri

nary sciences after World War II. And the various programs in captive



251

propagation, conservation, and scientific research did not significantly im

prove until the 1960s (although they had been gradually improving since the

advent of the zoological park). There was little in captive wildlife husbandry to inspire the develop

ment of the literature, and little in the literature to inspire the development of captive wildlife husbandry. An important feature of any profession is its

literature; while some individuals may not care for books and journals, the

literature of a profession is the measure of its progress and ideals. It pro

vides the state of the art while inspiring and pointing to potential improve ments.14 A profession and its literature tend to develop together; this oc

curred relatively quickly in zoological park management and captive wildlife husbandry during the 1960s and continued at an accelerated pace into the following decades.

Indicative of this development (in addition to those publications listed

in table 2) has been the publication of bibliographies for the core literature

in 1976, 1982, and 1987.15 In addition, the Librarians Special Interest

Group of AAZPA and the Consortium of Aquariums, Universities and

Zoos (CAUZ) have cooperated in a bibliographic service established in

1985. This service collects and distributes bibliographies pertaining to

specific species and to zoological parks.16 Most zoological societies (i.e., the local organizations supporting their local zoological parks) have pub lished newsletters, and the larger ones have also published annual reports.

Research by zoological park staffs has also increased. A study conducted in

1983 indicated that 70 percent of the 120 zoological parks surveyed did research and that 57 percent published their research findings.17 In 1980

AAZPA decided that conservation was to be its highest priority; this has

created an even larger increase in the research undertaken at many of the

zoological parks in the 1980s, continuing into the 1990s.18 In addition to

these publications and efforts, an increasing number of outside researchers

have been using zoological park collections as part of their scientific stud

ies and have been publishing articles in the journals outside of the zoolog ical park profession. These have been increasingly useful to captive wildlife

management as well.

The literature is quite extensive now, but an emphasis

on the more sig nificant publications and their starting dates indicates the importance of the 1960s and 1970s in the development of the profession (table 2). The

most significant publication was, and continues to be, the International Zoo Yearbook. Published annually since 1959, it has covered every aspect of zoo

logical park management and captive wildlife husbandry. While zoological research was submitted to the appropriate scientific journals by those in clined to conduct research and write articles, many other zoological park staff members were not so inclined and were not comfortable writing for these journals. In addition, articles concerning the management of captive



TABLE 2

SIGNIFICANT PUBLICATIONS ON THE

PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT OF ZOOLOGICAL PARKS AND

CAPTIVE WILDLIFE MANAGEMENT

1892 A Handbook of the Management of Animals in Captivity in Lower Bengal. R. B. Sanyal (Calcutta: Bengal Secretariat Press). The earliest

known book concerned with the management of birds and

mammals in captivity.

1907-1973 Zool?gica (New York: New York Zoological Society). A scientific

journal containing contributions from the staff; it emphasizes natural history rather than captive wildlife management.

1923 Diseases in Wild Mammals and Birds. H. Fox (Philadelphia: Lippincott). The earliest known book on the diseases of captive

wildlife, based on the work done at the Penrose Research

Laboratory, Philadelphia Zoological Garden.

1950 Wild Animals in Captivity. Heini Hediger (Reprinted; New York:

Dover, 1964). The earliest of three books by Hediger concerning the

basic principles upon which the care of wildlife in captivity is

based.

1955 The Psychology and Behaviour of Animals in Zoos and Circuses. Heini

Hediger (Reprinted; New York: Dover, 1968). 1959- International Zoo Yearbook (London: Zoological Society of London).

The first publication devoted to all aspects of zoological park administration and captive wildlife management. Published

annually.

1960- AAZPA Communique (formerly the AAZPA Newsletter) (Wheeling W. Va: AAZPA). This monthly newsletter was preceded by AAZPA

News (1924?1960), which contained zoo-related articles from Parks

& Recreation (the magazine of AAZPA's parent organization at the

time). AAZPA was organized in 1924 as an affiliate of the American

Institute of Park Executives, which became the National Recreation

and Park Association in 1966. In 1972 AAZPA became an

independent association.

1964 Dodo (Jersey, Channel Islands: Jersey Wildlife Preservation Trust). A scientific journal concerning the captive management of wildlife

at the Jersey Zoo written by members of the zoo's staff.

1964 The Management of Wild Mammals in Captivity. Lee S. Crandall

(Chicago: University of Chicago Press). The second known book

concerned with specific information on the management of

mammals in captivity.

1968 Zoological Park Fundamentals. Lawrence Curtis (Wheeling, W. Va.:

AAZPA). The first book on the philosophy, planning, design, and

administration of zoological parks. A substantially revised and

enlarged edition was published in 1982: Zoological Park and Aquarium Fundamentals. Karen Sausman (ed.) (Wheeling, W Va.: AAZPA).



253

(TABLE 2 continued) 1968 - AAZPA Annual Conference Proceedings (Wheeling, W Va.: AAZPA).

1968 - AAZVAnnual Proceedings (Brownsville, Tex.: AAZV).

1968 Zookeeper Training: A Suggested Guide for Instructors (Wheeling, W. Va.:

AAZPA). 1969 Man and Animal in the Zoo. Heini Hediger (New York: Delacorte Press).

1970 Journal of Zoo Animal Medicine (Brownsville, Tex.: AAZV). Journal of the American Association of Zoo Veterinarians (AAZV), 1970?

1988, after which it was titled Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine. The first U.S. scientific journal devoted to captive wildlife medicine.

1972 General Principles of Zoo Design. Geoffrey Schomberg (London: Lutra

Consultants).

1973- AAZPA Regional Conferences Proceedings (Wheeler, W Va.: AAZPA).

1974- Animal Keepers Forum (Topeka, Kans.: AAZK). Journal of the

American Association of Zoo Keepers.

1974- National AAZK Conference Proceedings (Topeka, Kans.: AAZK).

1975 Capture and Care of Wild Animals. E. Young (Hollywood, Fla.: Curtis

Books).

1975 Zoo Design: International Symposium on Design and Construction

(Paignton, England: Paignton Zoo and Botanical Gardens). Additional proceedings were published in 1976 (Zoo Design 1) and 1980 {Zoo Design 2).

1975- Breeding Endangered Species in Captivity. R. D. Martin (New York:

Academic). The proceedings of the first conference on the breeding of endangered species in captivity. Subsequent proceedings have

been published in the International Zoo Yearbook and elsewhere.

1976 The Chemical Capture of Animals. Antoine Harthoorn (London:

Bailliere, Tindall).

1978 Behavior of Captive Wild Animals. Hal Markowitz and Victor Stevens

(Chicago: Nelson-Hall).

1978 Restraint and Handling of Wild and Domestic Animals. Murray Fowler

(Ames, la.: Iowa State University Press).

1978 Zoo and Wild Animal Mediane. Murray Fowler (Philadelphia: Saunders).

1982 - Zoo Biology (New York: Wiley-Liss). This journal represents the first

independently published (not associated with a zoological park) scientific journal devoted to research conducted at zoological parks.

Based on the bibliographies cited in note 15 and on my own experience and

judgment.

animals were usually not deemed appropriate for these journals. The In

ternational Zoo Yearbook provided an outlet for such individuals and for their kinds of articles, preparing the way for other professional journals and

publications.




The growth of the Yearbook and the publications that followed it reveal that animal care had finally begun to involve knowledge about species

ecology, behavior, reproductive physiology, and population biology. Ani

mal health care involved veterinary medicine and hygienic principles; an

imal diets involved nutritional expertise and specific information on diets in the wild; exhibition involved specialized architecture, naturalistic and

realistic habitats, and educational labeling; and collection management involved reproductive strategies, conservation techniques, studbooks, and

computerized recordkeeping. In addition, the information needed for zoo

logical park administration had begun to revolve around an entire range of

activities that were not even considered prior to the mid-1900s (except to some degree by the larger, well-financed zoological parks).

Beginning in the 1960s, the increase in this professional literature and in

the outside literature of use to the profession, along with the simultaneous

reliance on this literature, made organization necessary. These organiza

tional efforts were the beginnings of libraries for most zoological parks, even

though most efforts were not made according to professional library

practices until the 1980s. Nevertheless, the need for libraries was recog nized in the 1960s, as evidenced by the increase in their numbers during this and the following decades.

Recognizing the Need for Libraries

When the first modern zoological park was established by the Zoologi

cal Society of London, it included a library. Shortly after the society was

inaugurated in April 1826, it resolved to establish a library along with a

museum of preserved animals and the collection of living animals. The

first books arrived as donations in 1827 and the zoological park was estab

lished in 1828. By 1964, when many American zoological park libraries

were just getting started, there were 120,000 volumes in the Zoological So

ciety of London's collection and the library had to be rebuilt and modern

ized.19 "The service of the Library to education and the development of

zoology in Britain has been outstanding, and today ... it is one of the

world's most important collections of zoological literature."20 Actually, its

influence has been quite significant since its resources have been used to

develop the society's publication, the Zoological Record.21

In the United States only eleven libraries were established at zoological

parks prior to 1960 (see table 3). During the 1960s accumulations of books

began filling shelves in the directors' and curators' offices, but these col

lections were not organized, or recognized,

as libraries. Many directors,

curators, and keepers had their own personal libraries at work or at home

or had access to a suitable local library. Prior to the 1960s most of this

literature usually pertained to the natural history of whatever animals the



255

TABLE 3

ZOOLOGICAL PARK LIBRARIES ESTABLISHED PRIOR TO 1960

1898 National Zoological Park ( 1889) 1900 New York Zoological Park ( 1899) 1916 San Diego Zoological Park (1916) 1927 Cheyenne Mountain Zoological Park (1927) 1929 San Antonio Zoological Garden (1914) 1937 Toledo Zoological Park (1899)

1945 Mesker Park Zoo ( 1929) 1950s Detroit Zoological Park ( 1924)

1950 Fresno Zoo (1906) 1952 Pittsburgh Aviary (1952) 1956 El Paso Zoological Park ( 1941 )

Source: Kisling, "American Zoological Park Libraries and Archives." The years on

the left are when the libraries were established; the years in parentheses on the

right are when the zoological parks were established.

individual was interested in. Afterward, the professional literature (of which only a portion pertained to the natural history of the animals) was

viewed as something the institution should collect. These factors may have

had an influence on the perceived need to establish (or, rather, not to es

tablish) libraries at the zoological park itself.

The transformation from a book accumulation to a library can be diffi

cult to pinpoint, especially if it occurs gradually rather than all at once. Another problem has been the lack of an

understanding within the zoo

logical park community of how a professional library should be managed and that libraries need to be managed according to the standards estab

lished by another profession. The AAZPA professional standards for ac

crediting zoological parks do not require a zoological park to have a li

brary. However, it is expected that the staff should have access to a library,

which can be an in-house library, a staff member's library, or a

nearby li

brary in the community. Acceptance of the appropriateness of the library is at the discretion of the accreditation team.23

Unlike botanical gardens and natural history museums, which histori

cally have developed on a more scientific footing and which have been more

closely associated with the research and taxonomic literature, zoo

logical parks developed along the lines of practical husbandry, popular recreation, and informal education. Eventually improved programs in

education, research, and conservation assumed larger roles, which, along with professionalization, created the atmosphere necessary for the




establishment of libraries. The establishment of libraries, in turn, pro moted the professionalization process by gathering and providing access to

the professional literature.

The development of the library was long in coming, even though the

need for libraries was expressed early (prior to the turn of the century when there were few major zoological parks). A medical doctor, R. W.

Shufeldt, was well traveled and was acquainted with a number of zoolog ical parks, and had developed a knowledgeable opinion as to how they should be organized and administered. In 1889 he published these ideas,

including the following judgment: "No well-appointed zoological building in connection with a

garden would be complete without its reading-room

and library. In the latter should be found, in time, all the standard works

that have appeared upon the various branches of natural science, and

more particularly upon vertebrate zoology and morphology, including, of

course, such subjects as classification and geographical distribution of an

imals, and the reports of other zoological gardens and societies. On the

reading-tables should appear the various authoritative zoological period

icals of the day, and bound volumes of the same should be upon the library shelves."24

However, expressing the need and achieving it were two different mat

ters, even for the large zoological parks. Shortly after the New York Zoo

logical Park opened in 1899, its director, William T. Hornaday, com

plained to Andrew Carnegie about his lack of support, especially considering the zoological park's need for several buildings, including a li

brary: "From the beginning it has been my fond hope that the 'Model Mil

lionaire' would set the example for the other leading men of New York by

giving a completely equipped building. Yes, I know that you have given us

$5,000 ?as much as anyone has given. But of our Managers, no other is

giving away millions, and almost forgetting us! If you could see how our

buildings are crowded with eager people every Sunday when the toilers

can come, and note how eager they are to enjoy

our beautiful wild crea

tures, surely we would fare as well at your hands as the people of Emporia

and Tucson."25 Figure 1 shows a portion of the New York Zoological Park

library in 1910 (ten years after it was begun) with some bookshelves still

empty.

With even the larger zoological park libraries having difficulties, those

that did emerge did not keep pace with professional library developments. Professional library management in America can be said to have begun in

1876; the resulting professional library methodology and services were well

established by the 1960s when many of the zoological park libraries were

being developed.26 The zoological park libraries, however, developed inde

pendently of mainstream library professionalization in America. Instead

they were a part of the professionalization

of zoological parks, as were



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Hg. /. ?fcw K>r? Zoological Park library reading room in 1910. Note the rather empty bookshelves in the background, despite ten years of growth. This is, however, only a small portion of the rooms housing the library.

Library shelves at most zoological parks did not begin to fill until the 1960s and 1970s.

fONew York Zoological Society Photo)




other infrastructure programs such as administration, education, public

relations, fund raising, and legislative lobbying. Although it could be said

"better late than never," the disadvantage of this situation has been the

concurrent competition for recognition and funding among these develop

ing programs.

While the 1960s and 1970s witnessed an upsurge in the establishment of

libraries, the 1970s and 1980s witnessed an upsurge in the professional management of these libraries. The Librarians Special Interest Group be

gan in 1978 and started publishing a newsletter in 1982. A directory of zoo

logical park libraries was published, as was a list of recommended core

publications and a set of guidelines for operating a library.27 Several sur

veys and articles have provided information on these libraries and their

services.28 In 1988 a special issue o? Science & Technology Libraries was de

voted to libraries serving zoological parks.29

These publications, surveys, and articles reveal a great deal about the

contemporary status of these libraries and will be helpful in guiding the

future development of other zoological park libraries. In addition, the ef

forts of zoological park librarians to help others improve their libraries or

to establish new ones will also help their own professionalization process to continue, improving the management in libraries where it now exists

and beginning the process in libraries where it does not yet exist.

The Zoological Collections: Books and Animals

The contemporary zoological park library varies greatly from zoological

park to zoological park. A 1981 survey indicated that 104 zoological parks stated that they had libraries, but only 40 were considered libraries based

on the criterion that there be a professional librarian and information ser

vices.30 Another survey in 1988 indicated that there were 78 libraries, but

only 11 had a combination of full-time professional librarians, circulation

of publications, and some kind of information service.31

The zoological park library is a specialized one, the primary purpose of

which is to serve the needs of the zoological park staff. The collections re

flect the broad range of activities of the staff, including business adminis

tration, personnel, accounting, public relations and promotional tech

niques, fund raising and grant writing, legislative matters, visitor surveys

and demographics, buildings and grounds maintenance, garden and land

scaping, master planning, exhibit designing, labeling and graphics, edu

cational programs, animal management, veterinary medicine, animal

nutrition, propagation and conservation techniques, various research pro

grams, and ecological studies of the animals in the wild.

Professional (i.e., M.L.S.) librarians are still few in number, with most

of the libraries relying on non-M.L.S. librarians (although

some have



259

other degrees), part-time librarians, office staff, or volunteers to take care

of the publications. Even when professional librarians are employed there

is usually only one, generally operating with a small budget. It is therefore

not unusual to find very few of these libraries providing the kind of services

that are common to other libraries (such as online computer catalogs,

OCLC/RLIN/ERIC, CD-Roms, document delivery, interlibrary loans, or

extensive reference services).32 Most are self-contained, being developed

by and supported by the zoological park or the zoological society. The no

table exception to this is the library at the National Zoological Park, which

is a branch of the Smithsonian Institution Libraries.33

Of the seventy-eight libraries surveyed in 1987, sixty-three provided cir

culation of the publications, fifty-three provided reference services, thirty two provided photocopying services, and fifteen provided interlibrary loan

services. Only eleven provided a combination of these services, along with

a full-time professional librarian. About half of these libraries allow use of

their libraries by nonstaff individuals, such as zoological society members, outside researchers, schoolchildren, and the public (usually by appoint

ment) . They will, however, try to answer any questions asked by the pub

lic.34 The New York Zoological Park had a Question House from 1945 to

the 1960s that provided a reference service in addition to the library. Trained zoologists and education department staff answered questions from the public from this building, which housed a small collection of books. Difficult questions

were referred to the curators.35

The libraries tend to be small collections of less than 2,000 volumes and

25 journal subscriptions located in a room of 500 square feet or less, usu

ally in the education or administration building. They use a variety of clas sification schemes, but tend to favor the Dewey Decimal or Library of

Congress classifications. Many contain photographic collections as well as

publications. Most have budgets of less than $1,000 annually.36

Recognizing the Need for Archives

The contemporary zoological park archive has been an outgrowth of the

professionalization of the libraries, which occurred during the 1970s and 1980s. A survey in 1989 indicated that there were twenty-five archives (32

percent of the seventy-eight zoological parks with libraries, and 17 percent of the 150 American zoological parks).37 As with the libraries, the archives

developed over time as material accumulated and it is sometimes difficult to determine when these accumulations were

recognized as an archive. Of

the twenty-five archives, eleven have unknown starting dates, three started

before the 1970s, five in the 1970s, and six in the 1980s (see table 4).38 My survey in 1989 indicated that only eight of the archives were

managed by an archivist or librarian. Ten had two or three full-time



260 LSlC/American Zoological Parks

TABLE 4

ZOOLOGICAL PARK ARCHIVES ESTABLISHED PRIOR TO 1990.

1931

1965

1968

1970s

1970

1976

1976

1979

1980

1985

1988

1988

1988

1988

p

p

p

p

p p

?

p

p

p ?

Brookgreen Gardens Zoo

Fresno Zoo

San Antonio Zoological Garden

El Paso Zoological Park

Cincinnati Zoo

Central Texas Zoo

Tulsa Zoological Park

Lincoln Park Zoological Gardens

Baltimore Zoo

John G. Shedd Aquarium Atlanta Zoological Park

Denver Zoological Gardens

Indianapolis Zoological Park

Ross Park Zoo

National Zoological Park

Seneca Park Zoo

Pittsburgh Zoo

Toledo Zoological Gardens

New York Zoological Park St. Louis Zoological Park

San Diego Zoological Park

Mesker Park Zoo

Knoxville Zoological Park

Chicago Zoological Park

Honolulu Zoo

1931)

1906)

1914)

1941) 1873) 1955) 1927) 1868) 1876) 1930)

1889)

1896)

1964)

1875)

1889) 1894) 1898) 1899) 1899) 1914)

1916)

1929)

1930)

1934)

1947)

Source: Kisling, "American Zoological Park Libraries and Archives." The years on

the left are when the archives were established, and the years in parentheses on the

right are when the zoological parks were established.

individuals working with the collection, while eight had only one full-time

person. The others used part-time help or volunteers. Ten of the collections

had been cataloged, twenty-one had material available for study (of these, twelve had been studied prior to the survey and nine were then being stud

ied), six had their material restored, and most had limited access to the

collections.39

The archives contain material usually found in an institutional archive,

including important staff and administrative records, photographs, news

paper articles, and memorabilia. They also contain unique material, such



261

as animal inventories, studbooks, veterinary records, diet reports, behav

ioral reports, architecture plans, research reports, and daily activity log books kept by keepers and curators. Of these archival collections, nineteen

(possibly twenty-one) contained material dating back to the establishment of that zoological park; of these, seven (possibly nine) were at zoological

parks established prior to 1900.40 The development of these archives comes at an appropriate time: just as the libraries developed in tandem

with the need for the literature, the archives are developing in tandem with the need for historical information.

By the year 2000 some twenty-three American zoological parks will have reached their centennials, a

significant milestone in any institution's his

tory. It gives reason to pause and reflect on the historical importance of the

zoological park as a cultural institution. Few zoological parks to date have done much to celebrate these centennials. However, in 1989 the National

Zoological Park sponsored a centennial symposium on the history of zoo

logical parks, which also included a workshop on establishing and orga nizing an archive.41 Recognizing the need for an archive will become in

creasingly important, for every zoological park contains archival material.

This need has yet to be widely recognized, and the zoological parks will need to know what to save and how to save it. To this purpose an excellent

guide has been prepared for museum archives that should be useful to the

zoological parks.42 While modern zoological parks may appear to be permanent institu

tions, this cannot be taken for granted. The first and one of the largest and finest zoological parks ?the London Zoological Gardens ? considered

closing in 1991.43 Even in a relatively permanent zoological park, the col lection is constantly changing. Animal specimens are

ephemeral, even if

long-lived. They come and go without a trace of their existence; the species is exhibited, but the individual specimen rarely attains importance or rec

ognition. There have been more collections and countless specimens than

will ever be known. No attempt has been made to document extinct Amer

ican collections as C. H. Keeling has done for the extinct British collec tions.44 But interest in past collections is increasing and will add to the

burgeoning professional literature. An indication of this interest has been

the founding of the Bartlett Society (to promote the study of the history of

zoological parks and captive wildlife management) in 1984, the National

Zoological Park's centennial symposium held in 1989, the establishment of an AAZPA History Task Force in 1991 (in order to consider the documen tation of its own history as well as the history of American zoological parks and the foundation of an AAZPA archive), and the publication of the his

tory of the American Association of Zoo Keepers in 1992.45 The 1990s will emphasize both the historical and the future roles of

the zoological park. In addition to an emphasis on historical matters,




significant efforts are underway to conserve endangered species for the fu

ture.46 Improvements in captive wildlife management and zoological park administration in all of its varied aspects will also continue into the 1990s.

In recognition of the zoological park's changing roles in both in situ and ex

situ wildlife management, the New York Zoological Park changed its name

to the International Wildlife Conservation Park in 1993.47 After thousands

of years of practical husbandry, the keeping of wild animals has come of

age quickly. As the zoological park concept continues to evolve, the library and archive are destined to play an even larger role, providing for the in

creasing information needs of contemporary and future zoological park

staffs. R. W. Shufeldt, in particular, would be pleased.

Notes

1. For a general history of animal collections, refer to James Fisher, Zoos of the

World: The Story of Animals in Captivity (Garden City, N.Y.: Natural History Press,

1967); for a history of American animal collections, see Vernon N. Kisling, Jr., "American Zoological Parks: Their Origins and the Development of the Zoological Park Concept in America," in The History and Evolution of the Modern Zoo (Washing

ton, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Press, in press); and for a history of libraries,

refer to Elmer D. Johnson and Michael H. Harris, History of Libraries in the Western

World (Metuchen, N.J.: Scarecrow Press, 1976). 2. The Oxford English Dictionary, 2nd ed. (London: Oxford University Press,

1989) only traces such terms as "vivarium," "menagerie," and "zoological park" back to modern European times. Prior to this, the terminology designating collec

tions of animals becomes difficult to determine. The distinction between "menag erie" and "zoological park" is more a matter of concept than a matter of definition

(the dictionary definitions make no significant distinction between them). Recently the American Association of Zoological Parks and Aquariums (AAZPA) developed a definition of "zoological park" based on a contemporary professional under

standing of what it should be in order to comply with their accreditation program.

For a fuller discussion of this terminology dilemma, see note 7 below and Vernon

N. Kisling, Jr., "On Being the First Zoo: Determination, Definition, and Transi

tion of the Zoological Park Concept," Mainly about Animals 8 (January 1991):

20-24.

3. Alfred C. True, A History of Agricultural Education in the United States 1785-1925,

US.D.A. Miscellaneous Publication no. 36 (Washington, D.C.: Government

Printing Office, 1929), p. 35. 4. Samuel Proctor, "The University of Florida, Its Early Years, 1853-1905"

dissertation (University of Florida, 1958), p. 61.

5. J. F. Smithcors, The Veterinarian in America 1625-1975 (Santa Barbara: Amer

ican Veterinary Publications, 1975), p. 8.

6. In 1977, when Phillip R. Allen and I were preparing the Zookeeper Training

and Reference Manual for use at the Crandon Park Zoological Garden (Miami), the

only other training manuals in existence were the Safety Manual for Zookeepers in use

at the Calgary Zoo (Calgary, Canada) and Zookeeper Training: A Suggested Guide for

Instructors, published by the AAZPA in 1968 as a guide to the development of train

ing manuals.



263

7. Kisling, "American Zoological Parks." It should be pointed out that zoo

logical parks did not necessarily make this distinction ?the public did. Many Eu

ropean zoological parks have considered themselves modern menageries for quite some time. Some still do, such as the Menagerie du Jardin des Plantes (Paris). See

also note 2 above.

8. Standard directories of zoological parks include Zoological Parks and Aquari ums in the Americas (published biannually by AAZPA, Wheeling, W Va.), Interna

tional Zoo Yearbook (published annually by the Zoological Society of London, Lon

don), and the Official Museum Directory (published annually by the American Association of Museums, Wilmette, 111.). Commercially published directories also

appear on occasion, such as Jefferson G. Ulmer and Susan Gower, Lions and Tigers and Bears: A Guide to Zoological Parks, Visitor Farms, Nature Centers, and Marine Life Dis

plays in the United States and Canada (New York: Garland, 1985). 9. Anon., "Zoo versus Menagerie," Living Age 317 (19 May 1923): 375; The

odore Link, "Zoological Gardens, A Critical Essay," American Naturalist 17/12 (De cember 1883): 1225-1229; and Henry S. Salt, Animals' Rights: Considered in Relation

to Social Progress (Clarks Summit, Penn.: Society for Animal Rights, 1980), pp. 45-53 (reprint of 1892 edition).

10. Le?nides Hubbard, Jr., "What a Big Zoo Means to the People," Outing

Magazine 44 (September 1904): 678. 11. To follow this progress, refer to the AAZPA's monthly newsletters, the

AAZPA Communique (Wheeling, W Va.: AAZPA). 12. An Assyrian palace relief depicts

a lion being released from a wooden crate

by a "keeper," and the crate looks the same as those still being used today. For a

photograph of this relief, refer to Richard D. Bar nett, Assyrian Palace Reliefs and Their

Influence on the Sculptures of Babylonia and Persia (London: Batchworth Press, 1960). The quote on sanitation is from William Bridges, Gathering of Animals: An Uncon

ventional History of the New York Zoological Society (New York: Harper and Row, 1974), p. 185.

13. H. Wackernagel, "Substitution and Prefabricated Diets for Zoo Animals,"

pp. 1-12; D. J. Short, "Experience with Cubed Diets for Laboratory Primates," pp. 13-20; Lorette W Bilby, "A Pilot Scheme to Investigate the Diets of Some of

the Mammals at the London Zoo: I. Primate Diets," pp. 63-75 ?all in M. A.

Crawford (ed.), Comparative Nutrition of Wild Animals, Symposia of the Zoological

Society of London no. 21 (New York: Academic Press, 1968). 14. This has been adapted from views on the horticultural literature held by

L. H. Bailey, The Standard Cyclopedia of Horticulture (New York: MacMillan, 1947), p. 1520.

15. Ralph Curtis, "Building a Basic Library for a Zoo," Zoo Review 4 (January February 1976): 1-3+ ; Kay A. Kenyon, Recommended List of Books and Other Infor mation Resources for Zoo and Aquarium Libraries (Washington, D.C.: National Zoolog ical Park, 1987); and the bibliography in Karen Sausman (ed.), Zoological Park and

Aquarium Fundamentals (Wheeling, W. Va.: American Association of Zoological Parks and Aquariums, 1982).

16. For information on the AAZPA Librarians Special Interest Group, contact

Kay A. Kenyon, Librarian, National Zoological Park, Washington D.C. 20008, or

Suzanne K. Braun, Librarian, Indianapolis Zoological Park, Indianapolis IN

46222. For information on CAUZ, contact Donna Hardy, Department of Psychol ogy, California State University, Northridge CA 91330.

17. Ted W Finlay and Terry L. Maple, "A Survey of Research in American Zoos and Aquariums," Zoo Biology 5/3 (1986): 261-268.




18. Michael Hutchins, Robert J. Wiese, Kevin Willis, and Stacey Becker (eds.), AAZPA Annual Report on Conservation and Science 1990-91 (Bethesda, Md.: AAZPA,

1991). 19. R. Fish, "The Library and Scientific Publications of the Zoological Society

of London," in Lord Zuckerman (ed.), The Zoological Society of London 1826-1976 and

Beyond, pp. 233-252, Symposia of the Zoological Society of London no. 40 (New York: Academic Press, 1976).

20. W S. Bullough and Feona Hamilton, "The Role of Education," in Zucker

man, The Zoological Society of London 1826-1976 and Beyond, p. 225.

21. The Record of Zoological Literature was published by Albert C. L. G. G?nther

and the Zoological Record Association from 1864 to 1885. It then became the Zoo

logical Record from 1886 on and was published by the Zoological Society of London.

It has been the most comprehensive index to the zoological literature and utilizes

the publications received by the society's library. For additional information, refer

to G. D. R. Bridson, "The Zoological Record?A Centenary Appraisal," Journal of the Society for the Bibliography of Natural History 5 (September 1968): 23-34.

22. Vernon N. Kisling, Jr., "American Zoological Park Libraries and Archives:

Historical Considerations and Their Current Status," Science & Technology Libraries

8 (Summer 1988): 49-60. 23. American Association of Zoological Parks and Aquariums, Accreditation of

Zoos and Aquariums (Wheeling, WVa.: AAZPA, revised 1987, 1989); and Robert O.

Wagner, executive director, AAZPA, personal communication, 2 October 1987.

24. R. W. Shufeldt, "Zoological Gardens: Their Uses and Management," Pop ular Science Monthly 34 (April 1889): 789.

25. Bridges, Gathering of Animals, pp. 100-101.

26. Dee Garrison, Apostles of Culture: The Public Librarian and American Society, 1876-1920 (New York: Free Press, 1979); Samuel S. Green, The Public Library Move

ment in the United States, 1853-1893 (Boston: Gregg Press, 1972; reprint of 1913 edi

tion); Arthur E. Bestor, Jr., "The Transformation of American Scholarship, 1875

1917," Library Quarterly 23 (July 1953): 164-179; and Arthur T Hamlin, The

University Library in the United States: Its Origins and Development (Philadelphia: Uni

versity of Pennsylvania Press, 1981). A concise summary of professional library events during 1876 is provided in Hamlin, p. 45.

27. Kay A. Kenyon, Directory of Zoo and Aquarium Libraries (Washington, D.C.:

National Zoological Park/AAZPA Librarians Special Interest Group, 1988, 1989,

1990); Kay A. Kenyon, Recommended List of Books and Other Information Resources for

Zoo and Aquarium Libraries (Washington, D.C.: National Zoological Park/AAZPA

Librarians Special Interest Group, 1987, 1991); and Kay A. Kenyon, Suggested

Guidelines for Zoo and Aquarium Libraries (Washington, D.C.: National Zoological

Park/AAZPA Librarians Special Interest Group, 1986).

28. Gail D. Miller, "An Inquiry Into the Role of Libraries in Zoos and Aquar

iums" (thesis, University of Chicago, 1981); Kay A. Kenyon, "Zoo/Aquarium Li

braries, A Survey," Special Libraries 75 (October 1984): 329-334; and Kisling,

"American Zoological Park Libraries and Archives."

29. Ellis Mount (ed.), Sci-Tech Libraries Serving Zoological Gardens (New York:

Haworth Press, 1988; reprint o? Science & Technology Libraries 8 [Summer 1988]).

30. Miller, "An Inquiry Into the Role of Libraries in Zoos and Aquariums"; and

Kenyon, "Zoo/Aquarium Libraries, A Survey." 31. Kisling, "American Zoological Park Libraries and Archives."

32. Ibid., pp. 53, 56-58.



265

33. Kay A. Kenyon, "National Zoological Park Branch Library," Science & Tech

nology Libraries 8 (Summer 1988): 1-8.

34. Kisling, "American Zoological Park Libraries and Archives," pp. 56-58.

35. Fairfield Osborn, "Question House," Animal Kingdom 48 (August 1945): 90; and Myrtice Blatchley, "Department of Education," Fiftieth Annual Report of the New

York Zoological Society (1945): 41-43. 36. Kisling, "American Zoological Park Libraries and Archives," pp. 54?56.

37. A survey I conducted in 1989 on the status of zoological park archives; see

also Linda Rohr, "A Survey of American Zoo and Aquarium Archives," Science &

Technology Libraries 9 (Summer 1989): 75-84. 38. Kisling, unpublished survey on the status of zoological park archives, 1989.

39. Ibid.

40. Ibid.

41. The History and Evolution of the Modern Zoo was a National Zoological Park Centennial Symposium held in Washington, D.C, on 13-14 October 1989.

The proceedings will be published by the Smithsonian Institution Press.

42. William A. Deiss, Museum Archives: An Introduction (Chicago: Society of

American Archivists, 1984). 43. Newspaper articles concerning the closing of the London Zoological Gar

dens were in the Times (London) on 7 April 1991 (1/la) and New York Times on 9

April 1991 (Al 1:1). Several follow-up articles also appeared in the Times (London). 44. C. H. Keeling, Where the Lion Trod (Guildford, England: Clam Publications,

1984); Where the Crane Danced (Guildford, England: Clam Publications, 1985); Where the Zebu Grazed (Guildford, England: Clam Publications, 1989).

45. Rachael Watkins Rogers, Zoo and Aquarium Professionals: The History of AAZK

(Topeka, Kans.: American Association of Zoo Keepers, 1992). 46. Hutchins et. al., AAZPA Annual Report on Conservation and Science 1990-91.

47. AAZPA Communique (March 1993): 12.



Documents

Libraries and Archives in the Historical and Professional Development of American Zoological Parks