Let’s Call It What It is a Matter of Conscience

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Lets Call it What

it is: A Matterof Conscience

A New Vocabulary for Moral

Education

Beryl W. Holtam

C R I T I C A L I S S U E S I N T H E F U T U R E O F L E A R N I N G A N D T E A C H I N G


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Lets Call it What it is: A Matter of Conscience


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Critical Issues in the Future of Learning and Teaching

Volume 6

This series represents a forum for important issues that do and will affect how learning and

teaching are thought about and practised. All educational venues and situations are

undergoing change because of information and communications technology, globalizationand paradigmatic shifts in determining what knowledge is valued. Our scope includes

matters in primary, secondary and tertiary education as well as community-based informal

circumstances. Important and significant differences between information and knowledge

represent a departure from traditional educational offerings heightening the need for

further and deeper understanding of the implications such opportunities have for

influencing what happens in schools, colleges and universities around the globe. An

inclusive approach helps attend to important current and future issues related to learners,

teachers and the variety of cultures and venues in which educational efforts occur. We invite

forward-looking contributions that reflect an international comparative perspective

illustrating similarities and differences in situations, problems, solutions and outcomes.

Edited by Michael Kompf ([email protected] - Brock University, Canada) &

Pamela M Denicolo ([email protected] - University of Reading, UK)

Michael Kompf is Professor of Education at Brock University, Canada. Interests include

developmental issues for adult learners and teachers; personal construct psychology; global

policies and practices in higher education; and philosophies of inquiry. Recent writing and

presentations have included exploring the nature of university corporatism, higher education

success rates, individual and the social implications of distance learning, and Aboriginal

education. A member of the International Study Association on Teachers and Teaching

(isatt.org) since 1985, Michael has served four terms as Chair in addition to four terms aseditor of the ISATT Newsletter. Michael is a member of several professional associations and

serves as associate editor and reviewer on several journals. He is co-editor of six volumes of

work in adult education and the various areas of teacher thinking. He has consulted, presented

papers and given lectures throughout North America, the EU and Australasia.

Pam Denicolois the Director of the Graduate School at the University of Reading and an

active member of the University Committee for Postgraduate Research Studies. Her passion

for supporting and developing graduate students is also demonstrated through her

contributions to the UK Council for Graduate Education Executive Committee, the Society

for Research into Higher Education Postgraduate Network, and other national and

international committees and working groups which, for example, review and evaluateresearch generic skills training and the concordance of UK universities with the European

Code and Charter, produce a framework of skills for researchers over their full career and

consider the changing nature of the doctorate. As a psychologist working particularly in the

fields of Professional and Postgraduate Education, she has supervised more than 50 doctoral

students to successful completion, examined many more, and developed and led Research

Methods Programmes for social scientists in her current and previous universities. She was

honoured to be appointed an Honorary Member of the Royal Pharmaceutical Society for her

contributions to the education of pharmacists. Her lifelong interest in student learning, and

hence teachers teaching, led her to become an active member of the International Study

Association on Teachers and Teaching (ISATT) and serving member of the Executive

Committee for many years. Her research has been oriented by a commitment to

understanding the way participants in learning processes construe their roles, situations and

activities, through the use and development of Personal Construct Theory approaches and

methods.


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Lets

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. Holtam

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A C.I.P. record for this book is available from the Library of Congress.

ISBN: 978-94-6209-005-7 (paperback)

ISBN: 978-94-6209-006-4 (hardback)ISBN: 978-94-6209-007-1 (e-book)

Published by: Sense Publishers,P.O. Box 21858,

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Printed on acid-free paper

All Rights Reserved 2012 Sense Publishers

No part of this work may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted

in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, microfilming,

recording or otherwise, without written permission from the Publisher, with theexception of any material supplied specifically for the purpose of being entered and

executed on a computer system, for exclusive use by the purchaser of the work.


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v

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

Chapter One: Introduction 1

Chapter Two: The time is Right: Why we need a new Vocabulary 7Its part of our Nature 9The Judgment Action gap 11

Emotions and Feelings are Coming into Their own 12Critical Thinking 13

Legitimizing Diversity and Complexity: The Impossible Ideal 13Human Rights and the Democratic Movement 14Technological Advancement 15Conscience Surfaces in Literature Across Multiple Domains 16

Morality is Weakening 17The Theological Shift 18

At the Intersection of Morality and Spirituality,Humanism and Religion 18

A word About Ethics 19

What Choice does Public Education have? 20

Behaviour Management/Governance 20A Transformative Experience 22

A Shelter for Disobedience and Disorder 22Conclusion 23

Chapter Three: The Hijacking of Morality 25

Primitive Society 26The Bible and Greek Philosophy 27

Scholastic Theology 29The Reformation 30

The Enlightenment, Kant, and Freud 31Post-modern Literature 35The Issue of Authority: To whom are we Accountable? 37The role of Reason 39

Motivation 39Conclusion 40

Chapter Four: The Fundamentals of Conscience 43What do we mean by the word Right? 44

Conscience is Disclosed Through Moral Behaviour 45SelfJudgment (Made in the First Person) 46Standards and Truths 47A word about Absolutes and Extremism 49

Reason and Knowledge 50


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TABLE OF CONTENTS

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Cognitive/Affective bond 52

Moral Emotions 53

Connectedness: Its a Public Matter 54Is There a Collective Conscience? 55

Motivation and Conscience: About Things that Matter 58Goodness 60Good will/Common good/Greater good 63

Evil 64Conscience in the Every day 66Conclusion 68

Chapter Five: A new Vocabulary for Moral Education 71

Reflexive Judgment 72Reflexive Emotions 73Voices (Not Just aVoice) 75

Norms and Normation 80

About Things that Matter 81

Integrity 82A Visual Depiction 83Other Models 84

Chapter Six: Reflexive Judgment and Reflexive Emotions 89Reflexive Emotions 90

Gratitude 93Shame and Embarrassment 93What about GUILT? 96

Greed 98Abhorrence and Disgust 98Pride 99

Humility 99Regret 100

Conclusion 100

Chapter Seven: The Question of Development 103Change, Dimension, and Direction 103

Wisdom 107Integrity 108Social Activism and Human Rights 109

Happiness, Courage and risk Taking 109

Spiritual Intelligence 110Emotional Intelligence (EI) 112

The role of Empathy 112

Conclusion 114


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Chapter Eight: Conscience in a Democratic Society 117

A Public Affair 117

Conscience in the Making of a Democratic Society 117The Right to vote 118

Re-forming Democracy 119Governance and Good Citizenship 124Are We Becoming a Society Without Conscience? 125

Conscience is not Majority rule 127Human Rights and Conscience 128Conclusion 128

Chapter Nine: Educating Conscience: My Conscience our World 131

Schools as Strong Normative Communities 131ThePublicin Public School 132Governance 133Classrooms of Conscience 134

Modelling and Imitation 138Dialogue 138Practice 139

Confirmation 140Points to Remember 141Conscience as part of School Subjects 146

Conclusion 146

Chapter Ten: The Pedagogy of the Sacred 149

Spirituality 151Spirituality in Public Education 152Conscience and Spiritual Education 155

The new Language of Conscience Formation Soul talk 156My own Narrative 157

Chapter Eleven: Summary and Final Remarks 163Summary 164Some Questions for Application 165Religion and Science 168

Closing Comments 169

References 171


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CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

Its the right thing to do.This simple statement, spoken with conviction, clarity and characteristically

without pretension, is often offered (when invited) as an explanation for a moralaction. Some newsworthy events in North America that come to mind include: thefire fighters who ran into the New York twin towers in 2001 while everyone else

was running out; or the individuals who chose to tackle the Arizona gunman in2011 as he paused to reload at a political rally; or the people who chose to reportunethical practices, such as the Watergate scandal in 1972, not only at the risk of

employment, but of their reputation and career. It is also worthy of noting that2012 is the year of the 100th anniversary of the sinking of the Titanic, and I amreminded of the five courageous musicians who continued to play until the sinking

of the ship. In such cases these individuals seem not to consider their own well-being but only know that they must do what they believe is the right thing.

On a smaller scale, the explanation, its the right thing to do, is one that is

often given in an attempt to understand a decision just made or an action just taken.Just as importantly, it is the voice of less significant everyday decisions. Forinstance, it seems that if someone leaves me a phone message or email, I feel

compelled to return it, and ASAP for that matter. This is partly because I believe it

is a courteous practice to do so, and I know that I would want to have my messagesreturned in a reasonable time. I also dont like being late for meetings even thoughI know that it is likely I will be early in most cases; for me its an obligation, anexpectation I place on myself. I also walk the dog almost every day for 30 minutes

no matter how cold or how damp it is outside. How could I deny her the exerciseshe craves, not to mention the meet and greet she rejoices in, or the outdoor smells

that, as a beagle, send her into ecstasy! To complicate this specific example evenmore, how can I deny myself my own daily exercise when that is one of the

primary reasons I acquired a dog in the first place? Choosing not to lie, cheat, steal,be rude, spit in public, litter, and pick up after the dog, are all examples of what

many would say arerightbehaviours that guide ones daily life. More often thannot one is not conscious of these choices, but when brought to ones attention thechoices are claimed as ones own, guided by moral principles.

Whatever the circumstance, when hearing the proclamation, its the right thingto do, or uttering it oneself, one knows that one have entered the realm of moralityand moral action. The judgment that something is right or wrong, good or bad, has

always defined morality.One only needs to dig a little deeper to discover the social construct that the

phrase, its the right thing to do, is more specifically pointing to. It implies moral

judgment, it implies action, and more importantly it implies the individual; taking all


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this together, it implies conscience. Conscience is defined as, the inner sense of

what is right or wrong in ones conduct or motives, impelling one toward right

action (dictionary.com, n.d.). The simple statement, it is the right thing to do, isthe glue for the treatise presented in this book and provides its theoretical foundation.

I found that I was often challenged to return to this notion while working through aparticular line of thinking. I am convinced that the phrase, it is the right thing to do,expressed publicly or to oneself, can reveal significant insights into moral formation.

I believe that an examination of the notion of conscience can in fact help moraleducation initiatives become more authentic and thus more effective. This convictionwas set when I finally attached this simple phrase to my thesis topic on which this

book is based. It became a source of inspiration that eventually led me to believe thatthe topic of conscience must be re-introduced into the perennial debate about moral

development and moral education. Not just be re-introduced but must take aprominent role in a new framework a new vocabularyfor moral educationinitiatives. In this book I will argue that when approaching educational initiatives for

moral development, lets call it what it is: conscience.In 1871, Egerton Ryerson, an advocate for public education in early Ontario,

Canada, was citing Dr. Archibald Alexander, author of Outlines of Moral Science

(1852), who wrote, Moral nature and conscience are two names of the same thing.(p. 53) Vincent van Gogh (n.d.) is quoted as saying, conscience is a manscompass. I have discovered that its not quite as simple as this. Some philosophers

suggest that conscience, although related to morality, does not account for all thatmorality is about (Arendt, 2003: Kant, 1963). But I do believe that the two have aninseparable bond and that conscience, as a force in determining moral behaviour, has

been neglected, even avoided (to our detriment) in current educational initiatives.Although I believe that conscience at its core is self-judgment about what is right,

it would be a huge injustice to limit this exploration only to a simple understanding

of its the right thing to do. There are other ways that one hears his or herconscience speaking. For example one might say, Im not sure why, but this is justsomething I have to do, or, Its who I am, it is what I believe, or, perhaps the more

nave statement, Doesnt everyone think like that? Wouldnt anyone do that in the

same situation? These utterances all imply certainty, self-judgment and a clear senseof what the right thing actually is. It would not be a big leap to recognize that muchof ones sense of moral identity and ones moral actions are driven by conscience.

This treatise will argue that conscience, although typically associated with

altruistic motive and behaviour, is not simply just about compassion, empathy, orgratitude, but is also about integrity, humility, and justice. Conscience is about

being right with oneself, as well as with the other-than-self, or, to put it another

way, the self-in-other; its about being right with the world. Conscience is aboutidentity and purpose. Conscience, an innate disposition, is a very complicatedsocial construct. At various times in history the notion of conscience has been

expounded. These writings, however, are somewhat limited and historicallydominated by the overwhelming influence of Western theology and the culture ofthe time. More importantly, existing literature has often fallen short, in my opinion,

in its application for moral education initiatives.


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INTRODUCTION

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I am not arguing that conscience is the only right way to refer to moral

behaviour or that rediscovering our conscience will suddenly improve our moral

behaviour. But I do believe that there is something very powerful in the word, andsomething very useful in it for providing insight into moral behaviour. I believe

that a new framework and a new vocabulary for moral behaviour will help toovercome the weaknesses of our current thinking, and refine the tools to improveeducational initiatives. Although the language seems simple, the implications and

implementation are not. Even as I prepared this book and throughout the process ofresearching the topic, I found I often caught myself reverting back to more familiarthinking patterns. These patterns can interfere with the creativity and the

imagination that are demanded by a fresh approach. One simple and obviousexample that the reader may already be thinking is, Why hasnt the word guilt

come up yet? Typically, the strongest thinking pattern is to associate consciencewith guilt, shame, and with bad, even evil behaviour. I hope this treatise can helpthe reader and the educator to break free from the restrictions of that familiar

framework, and take on the invitation to let an equally familiar understanding ofconscience find its voice in moral discourse.

This book can only go so far in introducing the topic. I will only touch on

relevant connections made by other disciplines and other authors; I have onlynurtured a new idea to the point of claiming it, and just barely begun to explain it.It is only a beginning. I have hope in, and am excited about, the possibilities that

can emerge once others join me in the dialogue and in the pursuit of its application.This treatise is not my own invention. The launching point came out of the work

of Thomas F. Green (1985, 1999) in his book, Voices: The Educational Formation

of Conscience. It came to my attention at a significant moment in my own thesiswork. It offered me hope that we could break through the barriers that have keptmoral and character education limited in their authenticity and effectiveness.

Thomas Green presents an argument for moral education which locates conscienceformation as central to moral development, claiming that his treatise goes far

beyond the confines of the modern sense of morality.

In Chapter Two I defend my belief that the time is right for this discussion. In

Chapter Three I review the history of the notion of conscience, exposing thecomplexity of its nature, function and value. From this point forward the remainderof the book works roughly within Greens framework as I have understood it,adapted it, and extended it. The crucial elements of this framework are explained

more deeply in Chapter Four, The Fundamentals of Conscience. The remainingchapters look at: a new vocabulary for moral education; reflexive judgment andreflexive emotions; the question of development; conscience in a democratic

society; educating conscience; and understanding the sacred. To a limited extend, Ihave tried to let each chapter stand alone, allowing the reader to benefit fromreading any single chapter out of sequence. For this reason, the reader will find

some repetition between chapters. There is also intentional repetition throughoutthe book as a means to reinforce fundamental points.

The hope that I referred to earlier holds promise for those of us who stand with

one foot in the secular and another in the religious worlds. Too often these two


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mindsets are speaking about each other and not speaking with each other. Any

literature review will indicate that despite the inflexibility of some who hold

extreme positions, there is a lot of work being published by numerous disciplinesthat is addressing the issues of ethics and morality. The theory of conscience

proposed in this book breaks through the limitations that the dominant Christianunderstanding of morality has had on our thinking patterns and therefore upon ourcurriculum design for educational initiatives.

The theory of conscience as a social construct leaves me gratefully mystified.For a person who often finds herself resisting dualisms, branding them as a productof a primarily male-dominated historical framework, I have in fact embraced a

concept that at its very core appears to start with the very dualism of right versuswrong. The challenge for me has been to push through the work and see where it

takes me. What I have found is that although conscience on the surface isfundamentally about judgment, at a deeper levelat the process levelit is aboutthe voices that speak to what feels right and what does not feel right. It binds

together dualisms, not in any way dismissing the opposing views, but claiming thesignificance of each and demanding consideration of both. The true dualism isfound in the brief moment of decision-makingones act of self-judgmentwhere

action is then taken in the conviction that its the right thing to do. There is a verypractical reality that we must in the end take action or be left to live with theparalysis of inaction.

Although there is clarity in the pronouncement, it is the right thing to do,there is no easy way to unpackall that is contained in those few words. This is acase where words are not enough, but, words are what we have. In this treatise I

will make, I hope, an adequate effort at unpacking. While doing so I draw onexamples that the news of the day provides. For this reason there will be referencesto events that primarily made the news during 2011 when I was writing this book.

As well, most of the events are reported from an Anglo-Saxon, North Americanperspective. It does not, however, take much to recognize the perennial underlyingissues being explored, and I am confident the reader will quickly identify their own

examples. In my writings, I will undoubtedly disclose my biases; this includes the

value system I have been raised with and have examined in my own academicstudies. My hope is that this treatise will provide a tool for educators to name andto examine the voices of consciencewhich are influencing their own communities.

As the reader proceeds through this book there are some key notions that must

not be lost but instead must be constantly held up as the framework on which allelse is based. If lost, then too easily the treatise could become bogged down withinterference from more familiar and traditional mindsets. First, then, conscience is

self-judgment. Conscience comes about only through a personal channel andtherefore educational initiatives must work through a personal framework. As will

be explored, however, one does tend to transfer onto others those moral principles

that one takes on as his or her own. Second, conscience is relational. Consciencedetermines an individuals behaviour as it affects the other. This is the paradox ofconscience, that in examining the self, one must attend to the other, the collective.

Thirdly, and crucial to the argument presented, the sense of certainty that


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INTRODUCTION

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accompanies moral actions is inextricably mediated by emotions. Nothing in this

treatise should be more than one step away from helping the reader acknowledge

the vital importance of moral emotions. In fact, I will argue that conscience is theinseparable bonding of cognition and feeling. Finally, this is not a book about

universal morals but more about moral formation. By keeping this in mind, it doesnot demand of the reader and the author agreement about what is morally right.Instead it demands that one asks how one comes to believe something is so; asking

whyand howmoral identity forms and determines ones behaviour.The question, So what? now becomes important to address. Historically in

Western societys thinking about conscience, moral reasoning has taken

precedence in literature and education, not moral emotions and not moralbehaviour. Yet society is desperately seeking bettergovernance of behaviour. It is

through examining moral emotions and moral behaviour that the tools for bettergovernance will be discovered. The time is right to reclaim and reinstate the termconscience into our common language and into our framework for moral

education. I will now turn to exploring further why this is so.


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CHAPTER 2

THE TIME IS RIGHT: WHY WE NEED A NEWVOCABULARY

Although the notion of conscience continues to be explored in current literature

(Hayes, 2009, Lyons, 2010; Moyar, 2008; Kochanska, G., Koenig, J. L., Barry, R. A.,Kim, S., & Yoon, J. E. 2010; Parekh, 2011; Hill, 1998; Loar, 2010), books and

journal articles are few in number. In fact, even these few authors recognize that

the use of the term conscience is rare in our common language. Hayes (2009)suggests the term is in abeyance stating that conscience is a word that has sadlyfallen into disuse. Lyons (2009) describes its occurrence in philosophical

discussions as rare and writes, The concept certainly plays little or no part incontemporary Anglo-American discussions of ethics (p. 477). This is not toignore that there are small pockets of literature where conscience continues to

remain in active use, most notably in Roman Catholic literature (Anosike, 2000),and more generally in theological writings. Why this might be so is explored later,

but for now I want to make the point that the notion of conscience has endured

throughout the history of recorded discourse; in spite of its current dis-use, thesocial construct of conscience is active in guiding our moral actions, and when

articulated, is evident in our cognitive tendencies.Historically conscience has been a social construct formally recognized since

early civilization. There exists a history of confusion over the spelling and

diversity of meaning of the notion of conscience since it was first recorded. TheGerman philosopher and theologian Paul Tillich (1973a) offers this explanation,

The basic Greek word syneidenai (knowing with, namely with oneself;

being witness of oneself) was used in the popular language long before the

philosophers got hold of it. It described the act of observing oneself, often asjudging oneself. In the philosophical terminology it received the meaning of

self-consciousness (for instance, in Stoicism in the derived substantivessyneidesis, synesis). (p. 47)

The Greek word syneidesis captures both the sense of conscience as standardand conscience as passing judgment. The Latin definitions for conscientia mirrorthe Greek meanings of syneidesis (synteresis). (Long, 2004)

In Hebrew and thus in the Old Testament there is no word for conscience,however, the phenomenon itself emerges in Genesis. In the New Testament two

Greek terms, synoida and syneidesis, are both found and taken from commonusage and of long standing. Conscience is thus the expression of mans inner

awareness, with special reference to ethical conduct (Schar, 1973, p. 83).Scholasticism settled with the word synteresis, defining it as a perfection of ourreason which leads us towards the recognition of the good (Tillich, 1973a, p. 51).


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By accessing coroners inquests following the Reformation, Loar (2010) in her

research indicates that conscience has long had a life in the European judicial

system. She writes,The importance of conscience in legal matters was widely acknowledged by

the late sixteenth century. Jurors were instructed to have an eye to your othe

and to your dutie, and doe that which God shall put in your mindes to thedischarge of your consciences. (p. 397)

Today, within international customary law, the importance of conscience is

recognized. The United NationsUniversal Declaration on Human Rights (GeneralAssembly of the United Nations, 1948) Article 1, states, All human beings are bornfree and equal in dignity and human rights. They are endowed with reason and

conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood. And fromArticle 18, Everyone has the right to freedom of thought, conscience, and religion.The term prisoner of conscience coined by the human rights group AmnestyInternational in the early 1960s refers to those who have been imprisoned and/or

persecuted for the non-violent expression of their conscientiously-held beliefs.

The notion conscience continues to function in other established societalsystems. For example, exercising your conscience is a foundational principal in themodern political system. In our Westminster parliamentary system of government

a free vote or conscience vote remains a core element since the earliest time of

public court; although, currently, use has largely been restricted to matters ofmorality where the divisions cross political party lines. (Ross, Dodds, & Ankeny,

2009) A conscience clause refers to a provision in a statue that excuses aprofessional from complying with the law. Conscientious objection is a defencecommonly applied to those seeking protection from service in the military, or in

defending an act of civil disobedience.In the events of everyday life conscience is guiding moral decisions evident

often, it seems, only through the use of related terms and phrases. For example,

conscience plays out in work environments and can affect ones ability to remainin a chosen career. A Canadian Broadcasting Corporation (CBC) radio show,

White Coat, Black Artwith Dr. Brian Goldman explored the issue of moral distressfor nurses (Moral Distress, 2011). Dr. Goldman reports that studies show as many

as 80% of nurses experience moral distress at work and is one of the main reasons

why nurses quit the profession. Their distress arises when being ordered to dosomething that a nurse may feel is not the right thing to do, and where they could

not live with themselves if they did follow orders. Goldman suggests that

currently there exists in nursing a feeling of powerlessness to be able to say, No;an example of conscientious non-compliance.

These are only a few examples of the persisting presence of conscience,

historically and in current society. Even recent events featured in news media havepointed to the exercise of conscience, or to its absence. Stories such as: the ArabSpring of 2011; the perennial debate about violence in ice-hockey in

North America; the use of steroids by professional sports players; the 2008 StockMarket collapse; the high incidence of cheating in universities; the rioting and


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WHY WE NEED A NEW VOCABULARY

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mass looting that occurred following the National Hockey League 2011 play-offs

in Vancouver and across the United Kingdom in the summer of 2011; the Occupy

Movement; and, the educational initiatives in North America designed to addressbullying. These topics and others will be explored in later chapters.

The phenomenon of conscience continues to be active with or without a publicattending to it. For this simple reason, conscience is not on its death bed, quite thecontrary. In daily life, if one pauses and listens, one repeatedly hears some

semblance of the phrase, it is the right thing to do. This book will argue that thenotion of conscience should not be neglected, let alone denied or ignored. To do sowould be to deny a significant concept of moral development and a crucial tool in

advancing initiatives in moral and character education. At a time when it is beingsuggested that the moral fibre of society is being eroded, getting the language right

can contribute to national and international efforts to address this potentiallydistressing trend.

The time is right to examine the notion of conscience, its nature, its function and

its potential for transforming moral education initiatives. There are many reasonsfor this opinion and I briefly present them below. However, for me it started as anintuition, an ah-ha! moment. A few years ago I struggled to help advance, as a

justice issue, the blessing of same sex-unions within the Anglican Church ofCanada. I felt that the debate was burdened with religious doctrine that wasweighted heavily with emotion. At the same time I was aware of moral and

character education programs in the Ontario publicly funded school system thatseemed handicapped by an exclusive focus on a predetermined list of the correctmorals, character traits, values, virtues, beliefs, and principles to live by. These

programs often did not adequately address how these positive morals mightactually be in conflict with each other in complicated moral circumstances.Furthermore, in these programs there was an avoidance of the negative traits and

the negative emotions that are equally common in everyday moral behaviour.During this time I came across a somewhat unique approach to moral developmentin an article written by the philosopher, Thomas F. Green (1985). He wrote about

conscience, the many voices of conscience, the moral emotions of conscience, and

the importance of conscience in governing civic behaviour. It excited me andstimulated my own thinking. Since then I have come to see evidence of the activityof conscience everywhere, and now I believe that if we only were to use thevocabulary of conscience, moral formation could be better facilitated in the

education system and in our other formative communities.In no particular order, I want to offer a number of reasons as to why now is a

good time to liberate the notion of conscience, thereby advocating for its return to

common vocabulary and taking its rightful place in the curriculum of moral andcharacter education.

ITS PART OF OUR NATURE

We are never far from evidence of conscience because conscience is a naturaldisposition; a function of the brain. It has been described in many ways:


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a disposition ingrained in mans whole nature (Rudin, 1973, p. 95)

a natural power within the soul (Curran, 1973, p. 132)

an original phenomenon of mind (Ryerson, 1871, p. 56)

a kind of built-in monitor of moral action (Macquarrie, 1970, p. 111)

a primordial phenomenon, present in man from the beginning (Schar, 1973,pp. 9394)

Egerton Ryerson (1871) cited Dr. M. Hopkins Lectures on Moral Science, who

remarked, By many, by most, conscience is regarded as a separate phenomenon,

and, as has been said, the whole moral of our moral nature (p. 54). William Lyons

(2009) says, Conscience is a very real and very important part of humanpsychology and of our moral point of view (p. 448). And, Stephen Covey authorof The Seven Habits of Effective Leadership, and of The 8th Habit from:

Effectiveness to Greatness, (2004) indicates, There is a mass of evidence thatshows that conscience, this moral sense, this inner light, is a universal

phenomenon (p. 77).

Why is conscience so powerful? Ryerson (1871) observes,

It has compelled the disclosure of crimes which no human searching coulddiscover, and has been more terrible in its afflictions than the penalties of any

human law. Its approval inspires courage as well as imparts satisfaction; itsdisapproval excites fear, and inflicts pain. (p. 55)

Serena Parekh (2008), in her essay Conscience, morality and judgment, reviews

the writings of Hannah Arendt and Socrates, and reminds us of one of Socratesfamous statements, It is better to suffer wrong than to do wrong. Parekh suggeststhat to explain this Arendt reasons that Socrates, even though an individual, is also

related to himself in a way that makes it possible for him to be out of tune withhimself. In Arendts wording he is two-in-one,

The reason harmony within this two-in-one is so important is that I cannotdetach myself from it. If I do not agree with others, I can simply walk away

from them, but I cannot walk away from myself. The reason why it is better tosuffer wrong than to do wrong is because: I am condemned to live togetherwith a wrongdoer in unbearable intimacy; I can never get rid of him. (p. 183)

There is another truth to note in this discussion. Lyons (2009) remarks,

Freud was probably more or less right in saying that we are born amoral.

Nor are we adapted by nature, when generating our over-riding action-guiding principles, to produce morally unimpeachable ones. Some of our

most wicked acts have been done in the name of conscience. But we, orthose of us who are not psychopaths, areadapted by our nature as rationalcreatures to have the possibility of forming a morally acceptableconscience. (pp. 493494)


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In, Formation of Conscience: A Moral Theological Problem. A Study in the

Context of Karl Heinz Peschkes Christian Ethics,Anosiki (2000) writes,

According to Peschke [Christian Ethics]: The moral precepts as objectivenorms of morality can be compared to signposts and markers on the road,

which indicate the direction the traveller must take in order to reach his

goal. The mere existence of the signposts however is not enough to helppeople on their way. They need a sense to perceive the signs, to select fromamong them the relevant ones, and also to help them where none are. They

also need a knowledge of the goal to be reached. This sense is a personsconscience. One cannot therefore disobey the command of moralobligation without incurring the sense of guilt. Conscience equally

commands obedience. (p. 16)Conscience, what Van Gogh and others have called, our inner compass, has beenthere from the beginning as part of our human nature. Its power is indisputable,and the social construct within which we place it continues to evolve.

Dr. Archibald Alexander states, The moral nature of man is summed up in the

word conscience. Moral nature and conscience are two names of the same thing(Ryerson, 1871, p. 53).

THE JUDGMENT ACTION GAP

What is critical about conscience is that it comes closest to accounting for moral

behaviour. Conscience bridges the judgment-action gap. It is more than moralreasoning, or of knowing specific morals, values, character traits, beliefs, andmoral principles. There is currently an impression that publicly funded schools in

developed nations are missing the mark in their moral and character educationalprogramming (Carr, 1995, Tacey, 2004, 2005). There is also the impression that

moral behaviour in the schools and in society at large seems to be declining.Societies perceive this erosion, rightly or wrongly, to lie in the failure ofthe schools to form good citizens through the development and governance of the

moral conduct of its students. While moral reasoning has typically been the focusof educational initiatives since the landmark work of Lawrence Kohlberg (1972,1984), research shows that there is a noticeable gap between cognitive judgment

and moral action. Frimer and Walker (2008) conclude, most now agree thatPlatos famous dictum that to know the good is to do the good is empiricallyunsubstantiated [this is] what has become known as the judgment-action gap

(p. 334). Moral judgment does not necessarily translate into moral action, but it isthe actions of our citizens that governing bodieswhether the schools, work

places, or in any organizationstrive to control. There is, therefore, a pressing

need to understand the formation of ones moral system as it applies to behaviour.Conscience bridges this judgment-action gap. Conscience implies both judgmentand action.


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EMOTIONS AND FEELINGS ARE COMING INTO THEIR OWN

What makes conscience a separate phenomenon in the spectrum of moral

behaviour? I would argue that the key lies in the recognition that conscienceaccounts for moral emotions. And, as Western society moves beyond the

Enlightenment and into postmodernism the legitimate place of emotions, andspecifically moral emotions, has firmly staked a claim. There is a growingmovement in literature today that recognizes the place of emotions and feelings in

a maturing, developing citizen. One only has to look at the work of Goleman(1995) and Goleman, Boyatzis, and McKee (2002), on emotional intelligence (EI)to see how even the business world, with its eye constantly on the profit line, has

embraced the importance of addressing emotional well-being. Another shining star

in the self-help movement is Stephen Covey (2004). In his book, The 8th HabitFrom: Effectiveness to Greatness, Covey adds an 8th habit Voice to the

seven other habits previously explored in his earlier book. He suggests that in orderto Express Your Voice, conscience is one of the four components needed, theother components being: Talent, Passion, and Need. Since the introduction of

Howard Gardners (1995, 2000) work on multiple intelligences, there have beenefforts made to identify a further intelligence, that is, Spiritual Intelligence (SI).Covey (2004) in fact suggests there may be confusion in the differentiation

between spiritual intelligence and emotional intelligence, with both intelligences

incorporating advanced moral emotions into their theories.

The perennial question is whether conscience weighs on the side of emotions atthe rejection of reason, or whether conscience is essentially the engagement ofreason through emotions, or, emotions through reason. This debate is pervasive

throughout history (Lewis, 2000). Yet, the occurrence and therefore importance ofemotions in determining moral behaviour is indisputable. To find evidence oneonly needs to look at the 2008 global financial market collapse. If informed

reasoning alone was guiding the market this collapse could have been avoided. Inaddition to the principles of investing, the market was heavily influenced byemotions, most notably greed and competitiveness. As for other examples, does

reason alone help us decide who to vote for in elections? Does reason alone decidewho ones life partner will be? Does reason control unhealthy habits? WilliamJames in The Will to Believe(1896)wisely states,

Yet if anyone should thereupon assume that intellectual insight is what

remains after wish and will and sentimental preference have taken wing, orthat pure reason is what then settles our opinions, he would fly quite asdirectly in the teeth of the facts. (2005/1896, p. 99)

Sam Harris (2010), a neuroscientist and author of The Moral Landscape: HowScience Can Determine Human Values, studies belief, disbelief, and uncertainty

using functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI). Harris argues that althoughthe relevant neuroscience is in its infancy, emotions, social interactions, and moralintuitions mutually influence one another. He states, We have long known,

principally through the neurological work of Antonio Damasio and colleagues, that


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certain types of reasoning are inseparable from emotion. To reason effectively, we

must have a feeling for the truth (p. 126). James (1896) statement, quoted above,

suggesting that reason and emotion are intricately associated is now being provenscientifically.

CRITICAL THINKING

As we settle into the 21st century, reason has found a place of dominance and

critical thinking has become something of a clich in education systems. In myown experience as a teaching assistant, students lamented that while they were toldto be critical thinkers, they were not necessarily taught how to do that. Even if they

were taught the skills of critical thinking, they felt they were not given the

opportunity to use those skills when dealing with the very education system withwhich they were engaged. These education systems may not, however, want to

bind together their admirable goal of shaping critical thinking with their practicalgoal of managing the moral conduct of their students. Yet, the two are notinseparable. A maturing conscience demands of the individual a cognitive capacity

that promotes critical thinking.Even Lawrence Kohlberg (1984) accounts for conscience in his theory of moral

development. Interestingly though, conscience does not surface until his final

Stage Six (The universal-ethical-principle orientation), a stage not typically

identified with childhood. He writes,

Right is defined by the decision of conscience in accord with self-chosenethical principles appealing to logical comprehensiveness, universality, andconsistency. These principles are abstract and ethical (the Golden Rule, the

categorical imperative); they are not concrete moral rules like the TenCommandments. At heart, these are universal principles of justice, of thereciprocity and equality of human rights, and of respect for the dignity of

human beings as individual persons.(Boyd, 1989, p. 97)

This is suggesting I believe, that conscience has a very prominent role in moral

development and cannot be tossed aside for its association with moral emotions. Ina postmodernism world reason must share the stage with emotions.

LEGITIMIZING DIVERSITY AND COMPLEXITY: THE IMPOSSIBLE IDEAL

Robert Wright, in his book The Evolution of God(2009), argues that only when theworld became larger than the isolated hunter-gatherer villages, did moral

consideration for the stranger (enemy) need to be considered. Today, more thanever, this expansion to a global village has challenged ethical considerations that

once only applied to kin and those whom we were in a cooperative relationshipwith (reciprocal altruism). In some parts of the world cultural diversity in like arunaway train and the governing of behaviours of its citizens has become moreimportant than ever. Multiculturalism, in Western Societies, is now part of the

larger identity. It may not be the experience of all cities and all communities, but


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multiculturalism is still expected and a familiar expereince as one travels to near-

by communities or across borders. In some advanced societies discussions are now

even moving beyond the notion of tolerance. Emerging out of previous generationsof mixed marriages is a generation that no longer feels the same need for clarity of

race in order to secure culture identity.As Western society evolves to accommodate a multicultural presence, once

cherished social norms become less universal and more diversified; specific to

specific communities, and to communities within communities. As well, incomplicated moral situations and in the context of diversity, norms (morals, values,

beliefs, and principles) compete. Theright thing is not always evident. Our diverse,

multicultural, multi-faith, and increasingly nonreligious societies, therefore, areplagued with misunderstanding that often turns into conflicted behaviours. There is

an urgency to better understand these conflicted situations before they erupt intoviolence. This was evident with the African-American civil rights movement in theUnited States during the 1950s and 1960s. And this is evident currently in the

early 21st century with the exaggerated mistrust of Muslims following the eventsof 9/11.

Diversity only exemplifies the complexity that anything more than a shallow

examination of moral dilemmas can expose. Walker (1999) examined the perceivedpersonality characteristics of moral exemplars across moral, religious, and spiritualdomains and he continues to provide empirical research on personality and moral

functioning. While his attention has been on the virtues and attributes associatedwith the moral personality, Walker acknowledges that such a listing of virtueswould be incoherent for one person to embody, that there simply cannot be a

single transcultural ideal or moral personality, and that moral excellence iscontextual to social, political, religious, and linguistic circumstances (pp. 1112).

Within this environment of cultural diversity, moral dilemmas can be more

complicated than ever, with competing values, morals, and principles. Moralreasoning can in fact indicate more than one right solution. To think otherwisewould be a naive, utopian pattern of thinking according to John Gray (2007),

author of Black Mass: Apocalyptic Religion and the Death of Utopia. Grey

challenges unrealistic and utopian patterns of thinking which hold on to the beliefthat a huge revolution could bring about a new world. He argues that althoughthere are certaingoodsthat are good for all human beings and certain evils that are

bad, even universal values conflict, and protecting rightscan lead to violence.

I believe advancing a theory of conscience formation can assist with this globaltransition into diversity and with the perennial challenge of fundamentalism andextremism. The fact that there is now a human rights code being advocated across

the world reflects the emergence of a global village and the collective consciencethat operates within it.

HUMAN RIGHTS AND THE DEMOCRATIC MOVEMENT

Something fundamental is happening in these early years of the 21st century.Although there have been uprisings throughout history demanding change,


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particularly in response to oppressive dictatorships, the pervasive nature of the

current pro-democracy movement across the Arab world is remarkable. Soon after,

and not unrelated I would suggest, the Occupy Movement took root and spreadacross many Western nations. A study of conscience and specifically the collective

conscience could offer much insight into these events. Yet, even within ademocratic nation there is much debate over the rights that democracy entails.Freedom of speech and of assemblythe rights of conscienceare instilled in

both the Canadian Charter of Rightsand Freedoms: Part 1 of the Constitution Act,1982 (Department of Justice Canada, 2002) and the Virginia Declaration of Rights(1776), the basis of theBill of Rights to theU.S. Constitution. In fact, the freedom

of conscience argument was used in court to defend an Occupy Torontooccupation of a public park in Toronto, Canada (OToole, 2011).

Serena Parekh (2008) connects conscience formation with social justiceeducation. She writes, In times of moral crisis, conscience is a better safeguardagainst human rights violations than moral norms alone (p. 178). Parekh believes

that having a subjective foundation of human rights is even more necessary in themodern era (p. 179). Drawing from Charles Taylors work, Parekh suggests,Morality in modernity can be seen as being driven, at least in part, by an ethics of

authenticity, that is, a drive to achieve a unique and original identity (p. 180).She adds, I discover what moral claims are being made on me by looking within,and not simply by following external code or law (p. 180).

TECHNOLOGICAL ADVANCEMENT

There is the impression that the current obsession with materialism, consumerism,

capitalism, and technology has weakened morality in modern times. Althoughtechnology seems to have contributed to public desensitization, I wonder, however,if technology also assists in making moral issues public. What technology has

done, particularly news media and now social media, is to accent both the presenceand absence of conscience. Heroic acts of conscience cannot be kept private; moralmistakes can no longer be swept under the rug. An example of this would be the

video from a surveillance camera in China (October, 2011) that recorded a childbeing hit by a vehicle, and who was then ignored by numerous passer-bys beforehelp came forward. Through social media there arose a collective outrage over the

lack of morality that was displayed. It is almost impossible not to be aware of actsof fundamentalism and extremism that take place throughout the world. Yet thereis also an urgency to reign in the viral nature of moral behaviour played out in

social media. Videos of violence abound on social web sites. It does seem there hasbeen a desensitization to the moral moments that should trigger horror and disgust,as if it was only a fictional TV show or movie. With the audience as large as it is,

by necessity there needs to be a higher degree of vigilance to intervene, so that

opportunities for conscience formation are not lost.The relentless attention paid by news and social media to the democratic

movement of Northern Africa and the Middle East played a significant role in thecontagiousness of the movement. When one can identify with the players because


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of age, gender, race, or any point of common discrimination, and when it becomes

ones own story, the passion becomes infectious or contagious. Both of these

wordsinfectious and contagiouspoint to the phenomenon known as theherding instinct. The collective conscience is a type of herding together in moral

action. But the same way that in medical terms these two words, infectious andcontagious, can be harmful, so too can they be harmful in respect to moral

behaviour. The collective is as much capable of evil as it is of good. Technology,

specifically social media and its immediacy, favours herding. Participants can beswept up into immoral actions before taking time for the critical reflection thatwould mark the behaviour as an act of conscience. This was evident in the

Vancouver riots that followed the National Hockey League play-offs in 2011.(Vancouver police arrest more than 100, 2011)

Social media web sites such as Facebook satisfy the need for community which,on first impression, is relational. Within this community there is the promise of

belonging and acceptance. It is not unlike religious communities where there is

also a promise for belonging and acceptance. With the exception of the option tode-friend another person, membership is not typically threatened at the communitylevel. However, the preference to text or twitter rather than have direct contact

does seem to limit the intimacy of human interaction. It is this dilution of intimacythat changes the context for moral formation. In time research may show that thismay in fact prove to contribute to a decline in moral behaviour.

CONSCIENCE SURFACES IN LITERATURE ACROSS MULTIPLE DOMAINS

There is a rich history of literature where the nature and function of conscience is

explored, often in poetic discourse. Wikipedias treatise on conscience lists a longline of writers since biblical times, each offering a unique twist to theirunderstanding of conscience (Conscience, n.d.). This is evidence of the mystery

and confusion that still surrounds conscience and of its perseverance in facingevolutionary forces. All the various fields of humanities, and now even somescientific disciplines, offer their own interpretation and definition of conscience

and its relevance to moral reasoning and moral behaviour. With the advent ofscience in the 17th century, conscience is now surfacing in empirical research (seefor example, Kochanska, Koenig, Barry, Kim & Yoon, 2010; Forman, Aksan, &

Kochanska, 2004).Although conscience rarely commands its own focus of study in current

literature, it silently and persistently surfaces in discourses, crossing multiple

domains, typically embedded in the broader domain of moral behaviour. Forexample:

Nel Noddings (2008) in her writings on the ethics of caring states, If we givedue weight to early childhood, we see their conscience (a sense of right andwrong, not mere internalization of authority) develops as much out of love andattachment as out of fear (p. 231).


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David Tacey (2004) in his work on Spiritual Intelligence writes, Our spirituallives are no longer ruled by bishops and clergy, but by our own inward con-

science, by insights gleamed from self-reflection, reading, meditation, and talkswith friends and spiritual counsellors (p. 38).

Zohar & Marshall, (2000), also writing about spiritual intelligence, state,SQ,our deep, intuitive sense of meaning and value, is our guide at the edge. SQ isour conscience (p. 1314).

Walker (1999) in his research on moral exemplars found conscientiousnessand agreeableness common attributes across moral, religious, and spiritualdomains.

Covey defines conscience as that still, small voice within that assures you ofwhat is right and that prompts you to actually do it. (p. 5). Covey, suggests that

in order to Express Your Voice, conscience is one of the four componentsneeded. When you engage in work that taps your talent and fuels your passion

that rises out of a great need in the world that you feel drawn by conscience

to meet therein lies your voice, your calling, your souls code (p. 5).

Now, at the beginning of the 21st century, joining the traditional disciplines ofphilosophy, theology, and psychology, the fields of neuroscience, evolutionarybiology, even behavioural economics and law, are taking an interest in moral

behaviour. Current research topics include: emotional intuitions and theneuroscience of emotions (Keltner, Horberg, & Oveis, 2006); the universal

goodness impulse (Flores, 2007, Ariely, 2009); independent practical reasoning(MacIntyre, 1999); a model of moral judgment (Haidt, 2001); moral motivation

(Leffel, 2008); truth telling and dishonesty (Mead, Baumeister, Gino, Schweitzer, &Ariely, 2009); self conscious emotions (Lewis, 2000); and, integrity (Killinger,2010). I advocate that it is time to call it what it is, conscience.

MORALITY IS WEAKENING

There is no shortage of authors arguing that our moral standards are weaker than they

use to be (Killinger, 2010); if not weakening then certainly changing. For many thechange is disturbing, confusing, and complex. Why is it that so many corporate,

political, and public figures appear to have crossed moral integrity lines, sometimeswithout suffering much consequence? What is happening to what was our mostintimate social unit, the family? Why must there be such polarization around issuesof abortion and the death sentence? It has been suggested that even the fate of

democracy may be affected by the loss of integrity (Killinger, 2010,

p. xi). This confusion, this disturbance to our moral stability, is reason enough towant to understand the fundamentals of moral formation. Killinger argues that in

todays world, there is a move away from relationships, leading to alienation and

impersonal detachment (p. viiii). Morality and conscience are social constructs.Conscience is grounded in a relational framework. The moral principles, values, and

beliefs that guide conscience come from within the self but they are regarding ones

relation to the other-than-self, the self-in-other, and with the community.


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If we are truly becoming less relationalconnecting less with the otherthen

morality and conscience are truly weakening. Killinger believes that materialism

and its partner, consumerism, nurture the evils of greed, envy, lust, and shame all[are] enemies of integrity. Narcissism is the antithesis of integrity (p. 4). If,

however, it is only howwe are relating that is changing, than it is time to come to abetter understanding of this, by naming what is happening, using the more precisevocabulary of conscience, and refining the education initiatives being implemented.

THE THEOLOGICAL SHIFT

As mentioned above, conscience is part of a long historical discourse that is framed

by Western theology. Early philosophers spoke from a theological framework.

Philosophy and theology were inseparable both in the time of the Greekphilosophers and of the early Christian Church. Even in modern times, whether

intentionally supporting religious doctrine or arguing against it, the starting pointwhen discussing morality is often still theological. With the vast increase in theinfluence of science, the perpetual questions about the meaning and purpose of life

for much of Western civilization is no longer answered by notions of sin andsalvation and heaven and hell. At the same time there is no scientific evidence to

prove that God (transcendent) does not exist. All the while spiritual yearnings

continue. It should be no surprise, then, that in the field of theology there is a

liberal movement attempting to break free of prescribed theological doctrines, andchoosing instead to step back to the primal spiritual, pre-theological experience

that is at the core of all religious interpretations of human experience.

AT THE INTERSECTION OF MORALITY AND SPIRITUALITY, HUMANISM

AND RELIGION

Citing Arendts writings, Parekh (2008) quotes, Since conscience was understood

as our internal connection to a divine or transcendent source, it is not surprisingthat it has dropped out of fashion in the West in the 20th century (p. 179). Parekh

also points out Arendts observation that traditional morality (what was thought tobe eternal and inevitable) in the first half of the 20th century, has collapsed.Morality seemed to have lost the authentic ground that it was anchored in and

became no more than a way of acting that was socially sanctioned. (p. 181). As

much of our society appears to be turning away from formal religion, does itnecessarily imply that society is then also turning away from morals? Parekh doesnot think so. Exploring the role of conscience in the justification of human rights,

Parekh believes that a subjective foundation of human rights is even morenecessary in the modern era. She argues that a focus on conscience will advance

the human rights movement. As will be discussed further in Chapter Three,morality as a social construct existed before notions of gods and formal religions.At their most primal experience, morality/conscience is about an innate incentive

to be nice to others; a natural disposition to be good, that is, where there is co-operation and reciprocal altruism.


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previously noted, validating the importance and role of moral emotions is critical

in the theory of conscience formation. This link may not feel as strong when one is

speaking of ethical behaviour. Finally, even though morality need not necessarilyimply the divine, it does imply ones relation to the unknown, mystery, infinite; it

implies the sacred. The notion of ethics does not go to this depth in the personalexperience, but stays within the realm of the accepted rules of conduct. Ofcourse there are other ways to look at this. Thomas Moore (2002), a former monk

and professor of psychology, writes, The soul of ethicsrelies less on principleand more on the voice of conscience (p. 218). Not to dwell anymore on semantics,this treatise focuses on conscience. For all the reasons given above, it is the idea of

conscience that needs attention. Conscience is the prime denominator for moral orethical behaviour.

WHAT CHOICE DOES PUBLIC EDUCATION HAVE?

In the late nineteenth century Canada, conscience held a prominent place in thepublic education system. Egerton Ryerson wrote, This capacity of power which

discerns and pronounces within us upon the moral quality of actions, is calledconscience, or the moral sense (1871, p. 51). Over a 100 years later, Parker Palmer(1983) suggests that for many education is supposed to deal with the tangible

realities of science and the marketplace (p. 10). Yet students, Palmer says and

all those who love learningcarry within themselves questions of meaning andpurpose that directly impact the effectiveness of educational initiatives.

When we fail to honor the deepest questions of our lives, education remainsmired in technical triviality, cultural banality, and worse: it continues to be

dragged down by a great sadness things unworthy of the human heartagrief that may mask itself as boredom, sullenness, or anger, but that is, at

bottom, a cry for meaning. (1998, p. 8)

For as much as the education system may try to promote academic excellence, the

health of education is a mirror of both the health of acquired knowledge and skills,

and of the ethical application of that knowledge and those skills. It is in theapplication that conscience resides. Charles Haynes (2009), writing from a

United States perspective, understands conscience as the essence of the FirstAmendment and passionately argues for its place in education, transformingclassrooms into places for acts of conscience.

BEHAVIOUR MANAGEMENT/GOVERNANCE

Behaviour management through rewards and punishment, although often necessary

and practical, is often ineffective. Management that comes from withinaninternal management or self-governanceis more sustaining and more promisingfor the overall well-being of the community. Green (1999) defines governance as

the effective regulation of conduct and believes that self-governance lies at theheart of moral education. Good behaviour management initiatives need good moral


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education initiativesthey work best together. As with the development of any

innate disposition, such as a musical talent, sporting interest, or academic enquiry,

there needs to be nurturing in order to attain a sufficient level of intelligence andpossibly excellence.

Parekh (2008) argues that conscience is presupposed in our moral, political, andlegal theory. The very foundation of human rights presupposes this capacity of

judgment, that we are able to recognize the moral correctness of an action without

relying on pre-given norms or laws (p. 180). Quoting Arendt, Parekh writes, Wemust distinguish between legality and moralitylegality is morally neutral, that is,a legal order does not require moral integrity, only law-abiding citizens....In order

to account for the ability to distinguish between legality and morality one mustassume the phenomenon of conscience (p. 182). The education system must risk

looking past legality with its focus on external management and rules, and look tomorality with a focus on internal management. It must look to conscience.

In Teaching for Wisdom, Hart (2001) advocates that, Defining oneself

authentically involves rejecting authority. It means turning inward to rely on ourown knowing rather than on someone elses (p. 10). He advises using the experts

but also finding your own truth.

In education we have not overcome the habit of looking primarily outside forauthority, to the teachers, texts, sciences, leaders, and so forth. Unlesschildren are weaned from this suckling on external authority, their internal

decision-making and skills of discernment do not mature. We teachobedience at the cost of insight and wisdom. (p. 10)

While compliance and obedience are often the hidden desired outcome of moraleducation, thereby achieving management, it is the obedience commanded by

ones internal compass that has the final word. Covey (2004) writes,

Conscience profoundly alters vision, discipline and passion by introducing us

into the world of relationship. It moves us from an independent to aninterdependent state. When this happens, everything is altered. You realizethat vision and values must be shared before people will be willing to accept

the institutionalized discipline of structures and systems that embody thoseshared values. Such shared vision creates discipline and order withoutdemanding them. (p. 81)

While effective educational initiatives in conscience formation can lead to a moreinterdependent state with shared values, governance is not necessarily easy.

Conscience will always be changing how things are seen. Conscience can set apartnot only an individual from the group, but a collective conscience can lead todivision in a community. In Harper Lees 1960 novel, To Kill a Mockingbird, the

lawyer, Atticus Finch states, The one thing that does not abide by majority rule isa persons conscience. There will always be the possibility, even probability, thata minority will challenge the rule of the majority. If membership respects this and

makes room for disagreement then governance can still be served.


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A TRANSFORMATIVE EXPERIENCE

Parker Palmer, an author, educator, and activist, believes that every mode of

education is a mode of soul-making. Palmer hopes for a transformation ofknowing such that every way of knowing becomes a way of living; every

epistemology becomes an ethic. In his Michael Keenan Memorial Lecture, TheViolence of Our Knowledge: Towards a Spirituality of Higher Education,Palmer(1993) argues that to move from a knowing that is violent, i.e., violating the

integrity or the nature of the other, means that truth is personal, truth is communal,truth is mutuality of reciprocity, and truth is transformational.

The vocabulary of conscience formation is transformational. As will be

discussed in a later chapter, a moral maturity is associated with the notion

of wisdom. Hart (2001) states, Wisdom is not taught but nurtured (p. 11).It is an awakening, the fire of heart that propels us beyond mere self-

interest into concerns of depth and meaning, social justice and caring (p. 13). Ifthere is change or correction in moral behaviour then there has beentransformation, and transformative learning continues to be the ideal in

educational initiatives.

A SHELTER FOR DISOBEDIENCE AND DISORDER

Before moving on, I want to reflect on the possible reasons why the term

conscienceis currently out of favour in contemporary vocabulary. Ever since re-discovering the concept early in my studies, I have struggled with its seeming

absence. At first, I simply concluded that it must be fear. I wondered if theremight be a fear that a construct which seems at first blush to focus exclusively onthe individual, would not serve the wider community nor enable the sought-after

levels of behaviour management. Aside from this potential misunderstanding ofthe concept, I do believe, however, there are possibilities buried deeper in historythat can inform its current disuse. These other possibilities point more to the

fundamentals of what conscience is, which will be explored in Chapter Four.

However, I want to present here one analysis that offers an interesting insightinto the possible avoidance of the term conscience. I am specifically referring tothe thoughts as presented by Carol Loar (2010) in her article, Under Felt Hats

and Worsted Stockings: The Uses of Conscience in Early Modern EnglishCoroners Inquests. In her essay, Loar describes conscience in medieval times asa double-edged sword. Quoting the document Discourse ConcerningConscience,

Conscience, which among other ends, was given to Mankind for aPreservative, and Security of the Publick Peace; for the Effectually ObligingMen to Unity, and Obedience to Laws; yet should often be a means of setting

them at distance, and prove a Shelter for Disobedience, and Disorder: That

God should command us to Obey our Governours in all Lawful things forConscience sake, and yet that we should disobey them in Lawful things forConscience sake too. (p. 400)


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This double-edged sword metaphor suggesting that conscience can be a shelter for

disobedience and disorder, perhaps says much about why present day society

might be hesitant to embrace the notion of conscience in educational initiatives. Ifone is operating under the assumption that moral education should assure the

development of goodness and obedience, and that goodness is associated withconscience, then one may not be hesitant to use the term, conscience. However, asLoar found, the shift to the subjective (self) creates conflict over what constitutes

good or true conscience. In her research Loar concludes that conscience was athorny issue in early modern history. The reliability of conscientious

judgments is one criteria Hill (1998) used to examine four conceptions of

conscience. Perhaps it is the fear of disagreement and disorder, and theunreliability of conscience that contribute to the reluctance to use this concept in

moral education. I would suggest that it is not the attainment of agreement andreliability that should be the goal of moral education, rather the striving forauthenticity and integrity. I will return to this line of thinking later in this book.

There are other obvious and very simple reasons why conscience may not be anactive word in current vocabulary. When moral character is on ones mind,typically, it has not come to ones attention because of the good moral emotions

that one feels, such as gratitude or humility. Rather ones conscience is far morelikely to come to ones attention because of the more uncomfortable moralemotions such as guilt and shame. Brene Brown (2006), featured in a You Tube

video,Is Shame Good?, reports finding repeatedly that no one wants to talk aboutshame. What she also found is that the less we do talk about shame, the more

power we turn over to it. Vulnerability is what is required in order to examine

shame, and then proceed to change or correct the shameful behaviour, or thejudgment. Establishing a classroom where vulnerability is welcomed is not for thefaint of heart. It takes good leadership.

Historically, conscience has been set into a negative narrative with too muchattention to guilt and shame. As long as conscience is narrowly understood in thisnegative light, we will inevitably avoid examining it. If the moral emotions of

conscience could be recognized for the diversity and complexity they contain, and

if the required vulnerability is addressed by providing learners with a safeenvironment, conscience need not be painted with such negative brush-strokes.This is a challenge to the designers of education curricula, both because educatingfor conscience requires personal integrity of leadership and because it necessitates

the re-framing of a concept that has been deemed negative in order that it can beexamined in a broader and constructive light.

CONCLUSION

Whatever the terms of definition, most agree on the existence and importance of

conscience; of its tremendous and often crushing power we have frequentillustrations (Ryerson, 1871, p. 55). There is no single psychological function thatcan substitute for conscience. Conscience bridges the gap between judgment andaction, it accounts for reason and emotions, and it addresses the self in the context


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CHAPTER 2

of the other-than-self. It embraces critical thinking, intuition, and imagination.

Conscience is not afraid of diversity nor of its own complexity. Conscience is the

thread embedded in the evolutionary tapestry of ethical and moral conduct.Conscience is where the secular and religious worlds can meet.

It was once said that conscience has an image problem (Lehmann, 1963). Atthat time in the mid 20th century Lehmann argued that the tortuous record of thedecline and fall of conscience forces upon us a sharp alternative: either do the

conscience over or do the conscience in. Ethical theory must either dispose ofthe conscience altogether or completely transform the interpretation of its ethicalnature, function, and significance (p. 327). In response, I would argue that

conscience, historically, has been hijacked by theologians. Its historical associationwith religion may be a reason why publicly funded schools are not addressing it in

curricula. However, with the indisputably enduring and persistent nature ofconscience, along with the above tasting of a more expansive understanding ofconscience, I propose that we are called to do the conscience over. Conscience

formation offers a new landscape for understanding the development of moralintelligence. Its time to liberate conscience, to take it back from the exclusive holdthat formal religion has had on it. Why not call moral behaviour what it is,

conscience. Why not take a fresh look at the praxis of moral, or charactereducation, by looking at the vocabulary first? Why not add a new vocabulary, thelanguage of conscience formation, to the planning process in curriculum design? In

this book, I will explore what a new vocabulary and a new way to exploreconscience formation might look like. It is to the hijacking of the understanding ofconscience that I now turn.

Documents

Let’s Call It What It is a Matter of Conscience