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Lessonsfortradenego-a-onsfromdevelopmentandenvironmental
bodiesandprocessesDeborahJames
OurWorldIsNotforSale(OWINFS)globalnetworkCenterforEconomicandPolicyResearch(CEPR)
January27,2016
LessonsfromDevelopmentforTrade
• Impactoftradeonvariousaspectsofdevelopment• Posi-onofdevelopmentfocusedglobalins-tu-ons(UNCTAD,UN)ontrade-relateddevelopmentissues
• ImpactsoftradebodiesWTOandothersondevelopmentpolicies
• Balanceofpowerintradepolicymakingprocess• Acasestudyofeffec-veadvocacyandins-tu-onalchange:TRIPsadvocacyforLDCwaiver
• TheAarhusConven-onofUNECE(UNEconomicCoopera-onforEurope)asapossiblemodelfortransparencyandpar-cipa-onintradenego-a-ons
ASampleofMajorDevelopmentIssuesImpactedbyTrade
• Agriculture(foodconsump-onandexport)• Industrializa-onanddecentjobcrea-on• Accesstohealth,educa-on,andotherpublicservices
• Accesstomedicine• Accesstocleanwaterandacleanenvironment
• Accesstoinforma-on
Agriculture(foodconsump-onandproduc-on/jobs)-majorissues
• Developingcountrieshaveamuchhigherpercentageoftheirpopula-onsinvolvedinfoodproduc-on.
• Manydevelopingcountriesthatusedtobenetexportersarenownetimporters.
• Theworld’ssmallholderfarmersmanagejust12percentofallagriculturalland,yettheyproducemorethan80percentoftheworld’sfood(invalueterms).
• Foodinsecurityisamajorissueindevelopingcountries:TheUnitedNa-onsFAOes-matesthatabout795millionpeopleofthe7.3billionpeopleintheworld,oroneinnine,weresufferingfromchronicundernourishmentin2014-2016.
Agriculture–DevelopmentIns-tu-onsandPolicies
• HumanRightsAgreements:Interna-onalCovenantonEconomic,SocialandCulturalRights-“Therighttoadequatefoodisrealizedwheneveryman,womanandchild,aloneorincommunitywithothers,hasthephysicalandeconomicaccessatall-mestoadequatefoodormeansforitsprocurement.”(CESCR)
• UN:FoodandAgricultureOrganiza-onandtheWorldCommifeeonFoodSecurity(CFS)– Recommendstrongdomes-cinvestmentinfoodproduc-onin
developingcountries– UpholdtheRighttoFood– Recommendpublicstockholding
• TheRomeDeclara-ononNutri-on(ICN2)enshrinestherightofeveryonetohaveaccesstosafe,sufficientandnutri-ousfood,andcommitsgovernmentstopreventmalnutri-oninallitsforms.
• SustainableDevelopmentGoal2.Endhunger,achievefoodsecurityandimprovednutri-onandpromotesustainableagriculture
Goal2.Endhunger,achievefoodsecurityandimprovednutri-onandpromotesustainableagriculture
• 2.1By2030,endhungerandensureaccessbyallpeople,inpar-cularthepoorandpeopleinvulnerablesitua-ons,includinginfants,tosafe,nutri-ousandsufficientfoodallyearround
• 2.2By2030,endallformsofmalnutri-on,includingachieving,by2025,theinterna-onallyagreedtargetsonstun-ngandwas-nginchildrenunder5yearsofage,andaddressthenutri-onalneedsofadolescentgirls,pregnantandlacta-ngwomenandolderpersons
• 2.3By2030,doubletheagriculturalproduc:vityandincomesofsmall-scalefoodproducers,inpar-cularwomen,indigenouspeoples,familyfarmers,pastoralistsandfishers,includingthroughsecureandequalaccesstoland,otherproduc-veresourcesandinputs,knowledge,financialservices,marketsandopportuni-esforvalueaddi-onandnon-farmemployment
• 2.4By2030,ensuresustainablefoodproduc:onsystemsandimplementresilientagriculturalprac:cesthatincreaseproduc-vityandproduc-on,thathelpmaintainecosystems,thatstrengthencapacityforadapta-ontoclimatechange,extremeweather,drought,floodingandotherdisastersandthatprogressivelyimprovelandandsoilquality
• 2.5By2020,maintainthegene:cdiversityofseeds,cul-vatedplantsandfarmedanddomes-catedanimalsandtheirrelatedwildspecies,includingthroughsoundlymanagedanddiversifiedseedandplantbanksatthena-onal,regionalandinterna-onallevels,andpromoteaccesstoandfairandequitablesharingofbenefitsarisingfromtheu-liza-onofgene-cresourcesandassociatedtradi-onalknowledge,asinterna-onallyagreed
• 2.aIncreaseinvestment,includingthroughenhancedinterna-onalcoopera-on,inruralinfrastructure,agriculturalresearchandextensionservices,technologydevelopmentandplantandlivestockgenebanksinordertoenhanceagriculturalproduc-vecapacityindevelopingcountries,inpar-cularleastdevelopedcountries
• 2.bCorrectandpreventtraderestric:onsanddistor:onsinworldagriculturalmarkets,includingthroughtheparallelelimina-onofallformsofagriculturalexportsubsidiesandallexportmeasureswithequivalenteffect,inaccordancewiththemandateoftheDohaDevelopmentRound
• 2.cAdoptmeasurestoensuretheproperfunc:oningoffoodcommoditymarketsandtheirderiva-vesandfacilitate-melyaccesstomarketinforma-on,includingonfoodreserves,inordertohelplimitextremefoodpricevola-lity
Development-FocusedTradePolicyinAgriculture-1
• Countriesshouldhavetherighttosupporttheproduc-onoffoodthatisconsumeddomes-cally.Thus,PublicStockholdingprogramsforFoodSecuritymustbeconsideredaspartoftheGreenBox,andthusnotsubjecttolimitsorreduc?onscommitments.
Development-FocusedTradePolicyinAgriculture-2
• Countriesshouldhavetherighttosupporttheproduc-on
offoodthatisconsumeddomes-cally.Thus,PublicStockholdingprogramsforFoodSecuritymustbeconsideredaspartoftheGreenBox,andthusnotsubjecttolimitsorreduc-onscommitments.
• Countriesshouldnothavetherighttodamageothercountries’markets.Thus,exportsubsidiesshouldbebanned,ashasalreadybeenagreedintheWTO.Thisincludesdomes?csubsidiesthatgotowardsproductsthatareexported.Domes-callysubsidizedfoodshouldnotbeexportedinawaythatdamagesothers’markets,whetheritwasthroughapublicstockholdingprogramorthroughtheuseofdomes-callysubsidizedfeedorotherinputs.
Development-FocusedTradePolicyinAgriculture-3
• Countriesshouldhavetherighttosupporttheproduc-onoffoodthatis
consumeddomes-cally.Thus,PublicStockholdingprogramsforFoodSecuritymustbeconsideredaspartoftheGreenBox,andthusnotsubjecttolimitsorreduc-onscommitments.
• Countriesshouldnothavetherighttodamageothercountries’markets.Thus,exportsubsidiesshouldbebanned,ashasalreadybeenagreedintheWTO.
• Countriesshouldhavetherighttoprotecttheirdomes-cmarketsfromdumpingbyothercountries.Forsomecountries,importsurgesareasignificantproblem,andthustheyshouldbeabletoincreasetariffsinthecaseofanimportsurge.TheyshouldhaverecoursetoaSpecialSafeguardMechanism(SSM)thatisworkableintheircontext.TheSSMproposedinRev4isinadequatebecauseithastoomanyonerouscondi-onali-esandtriggersthatwouldmakeitnearlyimpossibletouse.
Development-FocusedTradePolicyinAgriculture-4
• Countriesshouldhavetherighttosupporttheproduc-onoffoodthatis
consumeddomes-cally.Thus,PublicStockholdingprogramsforFoodSecuritymustbeconsideredaspartoftheGreenBox,andthusnotsubjecttolimitsorreduc-onscommitments.
• Countriesshouldnothavetherighttodamageothercountries’markets.Thus,exportsubsidiesshouldbebanned,ashasalreadybeenagreedintheWTO.
• Countriesshouldhavetherighttoprotecttheirdomes-cmarketsfromdumpingbyothercountries.
• Countriesshouldbeabletousetariffstoprotectdomes-cfoodmarkets.Inanyfuturenego?a?ons,developingcountriesshouldnothavetocuttariffs.Inthecasethattherewouldbeanyfuturetariffcuts,thendevelopingcountriesshouldbbeabletoexcludeagricultureproductsnecessaryforfoodsecurityfromthetariffcuts.DevelopedcountriesshouldalsobeabletomaintaintariffsthatprotectFoodSecurity.
ActualTradeRulesDotheOpposite
• GoalofWTOandFTAsistoincreasetrade(marketaccess)ratherthanensuringthattraderulessupportdevelopment.
• WTOrulesallowrichcountriestosubsidizeagricultureandtoexportsubsidizedagriculturalproducts,damagingdevelopingcountrymarkets.
• WTOruless-llallowrichcountries’tariffescala-on• Developingcountriesarenotallowedtosubsidizefoodforexports• Developingcountriesarenotallowedtosubsidizefoodfor
domes-cconsump-onbeyondalimitedamount• Developingcountriesarenotallowedtoraisetariffsbeyond
UruguayRoundlevelsinthecaseofanimportsurge• Developingcountriesarepressuredtocuttariffsintrade
agreements(EPAs,FTAswiththeU.S.)
EffectofTheseDiscussionsontheBalanceofPower:WhichInterna-onal
Ins-tu-onsMaketheRules?• UNSpecialRapporteurontheRighttoFoodhasclashedopenly
withtheWTOaboutpublicstockholdingandrighttofood.• CFShasafemptedtokeeptradeoutofthedebatesthere.• HeadofFAObroughtintosupport“trade”inagriculturewithout
discussingactualrulesornego-a-ons.• UNCTADfocusesonhelpingcountriesusetraderulesfor
development,butalongthelinesoftheWTOwithoutfigh-ngforbeferrules.Won’tchallengeWTOontradepolicy.
• SDGsdeferredtoWTOonglobaltradepolicy.• Agribusinessexportersindevelopedcountriessettherulesthrough
poli-calinfluenceofUS,EU,otherdevelopedcountrypolicymaking.• FoodsecurityadvocatesinUS,EUnotinvolvedintradepolicy.• MostofcivilsocietyinagriculturefocusesonCFSwhichhasamuch
moreinclusiveprocess.Stakeholdersareintheroomwhendecisionsaremade.Perhapsbecausetheydon’tsettherules?
Industrializa-on&JobCrea-on• UnitedNa-onsIndustrialDevelopmentOrganiza-on(UNIDO)• UN’sInterna-onalLaborOrganiza-on(ILO)hasaDecentWorkAgenda:
– Jobcrea-on– Rightsatwork– SocialProtec-on(safeworkingcondi-ons,work-familybalance)– SocialDialogue
• Laborrightsarekeytodevelopment–toensurethatgainsfromgrowthgototheworkersandnotjustcapital
• WTOargumentisthattradeincreasesgrowth,sogoalistopromotetrade–withouteverevalua-ngifgrowthisincreased–orifexpandedgrowthleadstojobcrea-onorpovertyreduc-on,orincreasesinequality
• WTOandFTAs–racetothebofomonslashingtariffsbutdonotincludelaborrightsorsocialprotec-on
• Tripar-testructureofILO–governments,workers,andemployers• EvenITUCdoesnothaveaplaceattheWTO!Represents176million
workersin156countriesandterritoriesandhas325na-onalaffiliates.
AccesstoPublicServices• KeyaspectofmanySDGsisaccesstohealth,educa-on,energy,sanita-on,otherservices.
• HumanRightstohealth,educa-on,energy,sanita-on,etc.
• WTOandothertradeagreementshavenomandatetoensurethattheyfacilitatethoserights,butinsteadfacilitatemoretradeinthoseservices-limi-ngdomes-cregula-on,andfacilita-ngpriva-za-onandderegula-on.
• Nomechanismtoevaluateimpactonaccess.• Thesearenottradeissuesbuttradeagreementsincludethemanyways–mechanismtolimitdomes-cregula-on.
ModelforDevelopment-OrientedImpactonTradePolicy:Health
• Challenge:Trade-RelatedIntellectualPropertyRules(TRIPS)agreementdistortstradeinmedicinesinfavorofpatentmonopolyholders
• Newdrugforhepa--sC,sofosbuvir,issoldforUSD84,000fora12weekcourse,orUSD1,000apill.ProfitsforthecompanyGileadhaverunatmanybillionsofdollarsalready.Thoughthecompanyhasnowofferedthatsomepoorercountriescanhaveaccesstogenericversionsatlowerprices,themajorityofpeopleintheworld,indevelopedcountriesandmiddleincomedevelopingcountries,cannothavethisaccess.Thereare170millionpeoplelivingwithhepa--sCworldwide,andaround350,000deathseveryyear.
• Progress:RighttoHealthincludesrighttoaffordablemedicine• WTOincludes2001Declara-onontheTRIPSAgreementandPublicHealth-
posi-vebutinadequate• Exampleofsuccess:recentwaiveronTRIPSimplementa-onforLeastDeveloped
Countries(LDCs)whoholdavery-nyminorityofglobalpatents• 46percentofpeopleinLDCslivebelowthepovertyline(US$1.25aday),about
50%ofhealthexpenditureisoutofpocket.Atendof2013,only36%ofthe10.7millionpeoplelivingwithHIVinLDCshadaccesstoan-retroviraltherapy.
ModelforDevelopment-OrientedImpactonTradePolicy:Health
• LDC’stransi-onperiodforTRIPSimplementa-onoriginally10years.In2001,LDCsgivenextension-specificexemp-onfrompatentsandtestdataprotec-onforpharmaceu-calproductsun-l2016.
• In2015,LDCsdemandedthatthepharmaceu-calexemp-onbeextendedforaslongascountriesareLDCs.Alsorequestedformailboxandexclusivemarke-ngright(EMR)waivers.
• LDCgovernmentsandNGOsadvocateswagedyearlongcampaignincluding:– Tablingstraighrorwardrequestin-me,inlinewithWTOmandates– ConstantmonitoringandupdatesofdevelopmentsbyNGOs,par-cularlyfromThirdWorldNetwork,
MédecinsSansFron-èresandKnowledgeEcologyInterna-onal,– Understandingwhoisopposingtheextensionandlobbyingatthatlevele.g.inUS,Switzerland– Holdingmee-ngswithrelevantmissionsthatmaybeopposed–US,Switzerland,EC– RighttohealthanddevelopmentadvocacyNGOlefersofsupport(interna-onalandLDCNGOs)– LDCGrouprepslobbyingothercountriestosupport– Supportfrominterna-onalagencies:UNITAID,UNAIDS,UNDP,andWHO– SupportfrommembersofUSCongress– SupportfromagenericsuppliertoLDCs– NoofficialprocessinWTOforexpertpolicybestprac-ce,scien-ficinput
• Advocatescreatedpoli-calclimatewherelongerextensionwaspoli-calreality;USresistanceeventuallyworndown.
• LDCsgot17yearspharmaceu-calexemp-onandwaiversfrommailboxandEMR!Theperiodisslightlylongerthanthedura-ongrantedin2001andgotanaddi-onalwaiverfrommailboxwhichwasnotgrantedin2001.
• Poorinnon-LDCdevelopingcountriesnotincluded
ViewsonotherDevelopmentProcesses-UNDP
• UNDPhasbothformalandinformalchannelstoenableCSOstoinfluenceitsthinkingonmajordevelopmentissues.Annually,wehosta2daymee-ngwithNGOs–frombothNorthandSouth–andtheydecideontheissuestheywanttocover.
• UsuallyCSOsmakeshortpresenta-onsonissuesofmutualinterestfollowedbyUNDP’sfeedbackandac-vi-esinthesameareaandadiscussiononareasthatcouldbereinforced(orwheretheremaybedisagreement).
• Onamoreinformallevel,CSOsovensendUNDPtheirpolicypapersondifferenttopicsandweregularlymeetwithCSOrepresenta-vesaswellasdojointresearchandjointevents/panelpresenta-onsondifferentthemes.Asisthenaturewiththesethings,someUNDPstaffersaremoreopenthanothersbutonthewholeI’dsaywe’reprefygoodandmostpeoples’doorisalwaysopen!
OtherDevelopmentProcesses-UN• TheUNpolicymakingprocess,intheGeneralAssembly,isbyfarthemostinclusive
outofalltheinterna-onalorganiza-ons.Civilsocietymakesregularinterven-ons,havetransparentaccesstothenego-a-ondocumentsandcanalsoconductadvocacyanddialoguedirectlywithgovernmentdelegatesandnego-ators.
• TheUN'sstakeholderinputmechanismisstructuredbothformallyandinformally.Formally,sincetheRio+20nego-a-onsbeganinlate2011andearly2012,the"MajorGroups"systemhasbeenenshrined:
Ø Women'sMajorGroup YouthMajorGroupØ IndigenousPeople Non-GovernmentalOrganiza-onsØ LocalAuthori-es WorkersandTradeUnionsØ BusinessandIndustry FarmersØ Scien-ficandTechnologicalCommunity
• ThereisnoguaranteethattheadvocacycontentoftheMajorGroupsistakenupbythegovernmentdelegates,butthetrackrecordintermsofwitnessedexperienceshowsthatthereisindeedagreatdealofabsorp-onandimpactofCSOinput.Forexample,duringtheSDGnego-a-ons,whentheWomen'sMajorGrouporganizednumerouspe--onsandcampaignsaroundSRHR(sexualandreproduc-vehealthandrights),theimpactwastangiblewhengroupsofmemberstateslenttheirsupportanddravedtheirownstatementsuppor-ngSRHRtargetsandlanguagewithintheSDGgoalforgenderequalityandwomen'srights.
OtherDevelopmentProcesses-UN• Theinformalchannelisthroughdirectadvocacywithmemberstates.
• OntheMOI-thestructuralreformsinglobaltradeandfinancearchitectures,systemicissues,righttodevelopment-intheSDGs,CSOworkreceivedagreatdealoftrac-onfromkeydevelopingcountrynego-atorswhotookourinputandintegratedourcontent,sta-s-cs,figures,analysisandlanguageintotheirproposalsoftheG77andChinagroupasawhole(134countrygroup,thelargestdevelopinggroup).
• IntheFFDprocesstherewerenomajorgroups,however,therewasageneric"CSO"slotduringallthenego-a-ons,meaningthatauptoacertainnumberofCSOscouldmakeinterven-onsduringtheFFDnego-a-ons.
• Whenthenego-a-onsgointo"informal"oreven"informalinformal"modeCSOsarenotguaranteedaccess.Thesedelibera-onsoventakeplaceinverysmallroomswheretheremayormaynotbeenoughsea-ngforCSOs.Evenwhenthereare,theremaybesomeobjec-ons.However,theseareusuallyputonwebcast,soCSOscanalwaysaccessthedelibera-ons.
• Ingeneral,CSOshaveasignificantandovenevenpowerfulimpacttheycanmakeonpolicyandlanguageinthenego-a-onsandoutcomedocuments,thenorma-velanguageandtheissuestakenupintheUN.However,theprocessisoneofinfluenceandvoice.Deliveringstatements,makinginterven-ons,speakingonpanelsviatheformalmechanisms,anddialogue,bilateraladvocacyandinputstothedravnego-a-ondocumentsintheinformalstrategy.
• Butofcourseintermsofanactualvote-onlymemberstatesareallowedtovoteintheadop-onofGeneralAssemblyresolu-ons.
OtherDevelopmentProcesses-CFS• TheCFSdecisions,unliketheWTOarelargelyvoluntaryandnotbinding
oncountries,butitisagoodmodelformember-statesleddiscussions.Unfortunatelythereisveryliflebywayofdirectstakeholderinput.
• However,theCFSprocessesallowforthistohappenbyhavingtheCivil
SocietyMechanism(CSM)representedintheroominallthesessionsandgroups.TheagendaoftheCFSisalsoguidedbytheAdvisoryBureauwhichhasCSMrepresenta-on.Itisthereforemorepar-cipatory.Theyevenhaveasimilarmechanismfortheprivatesector(PSM)thoughitiss-lllimitedinitsoutreachandworkattheCFS.ThisisabigdifferencebetweentheWTOandCFSasintheWTOcivilsocietyisnotintheroomintheministerial,thegreenroomsoranydiscussionsatall.
• TheCSMiscomprisedofregionalrepresenta-ves(withsome-mesmorethanoneregionpercon-nent)andcons-tuencyrepresenta-ves(thosethataremostaffectedbyhunger)-forexamplepastoralists,fishworkers,agriculturallabouretc.
AarhusConven-onofUNECE• TheUnitedNa-onsEconomicCommissionforEurope(UNECE)ishomeofthe
AarhusConven-ononAccesstoInforma-on,PublicPar-cipa-oninDecision-makingandAccesstoJus-ceinEnvironmentalMafers.
• Whereasmostinterna-onalagreementsgrantrightsonlytostates,theAarhusConven-onprovidessignificantrightstothepublic,including:
• ●Therighttoaccessenvironmentalinforma-on(Ar-cle4),coupledwithadutyuponeachpartytocollectanddisseminatesuchinforma-on(Ar-cle5).
• ●Therighttopublicpar-cipa-onindecisionswithenvironmentalimpact:– ○rela-ngtospecificenvironmentally-sensi-veac-vi-essuchasmineral– extrac-onorrefinement(Ar-cle6);– ○concerningplans,programmesandpoliciesrela-ngtotheenvironment– (Ar-cle7);and– ○duringtheprepara-onofexecu-veregula-onsand/orgenerallyapplicable– legallybindingnorma-veinstruments(Ar-cle8).
• ●Accesstojus-ce--thatis,toindependentreviewofaparty'sdecisions(Ar-cle9).
LessonsfromTradeandDevelopment• Non-tradearenasallowformul--stakeholderinputs,butCSOsare
increasinglyconcernedaboutcorporatecapture(likeintheWHO).• Officialtradenego-a-onshaveruleswhichdonotallowformul--
stakeholderinputs,asinotherarenas;butcorpora-onshaveinfluenceinagenda-se}ngandpolicydelibera-ons.
• Corpora-onsusetradeagreements–increasinglyonnon-tradearenasofdecision-making–toachievebindingpoliciesthatwouldnotbeapprovedthroughdemocra-cprocesses,andthatovenitisnotinthepublicinteresttohaveincludedintradeagreements.
• Corpora-onsusetreaty-shopping(WTO,bilaterals,BITs)asmechanismtogettheirviewstobeaccepted.
• Theyonlyneedone“win”whereasadvocatesmustwinevery-me.• Development-friendlypolicieshavebeenacceptedintrade
ins-tu-onsonlywhendevelopingcountrygovernmentsandstrategiccivilsociety(withpowerfulthird-partyvalidatorsandrelevantUNagencies)worktogethertoinfluencetheprocessasimposedbydeveloped-countrygovernmentsandcorpora-ons.