PhotographyGehan de Silva Wijeyeratne

Leopards & otherWildlife of Yala

Leopards & otherWildlife of Yala

Articles and Images on the Wildlife of Yala

Compiled & edited byGehan de Silva Wijeyeratne

with contributions from(alphabetically listed)

Lal AnthonisKaren Conniff

Chandra JayawardanaNamal Kamalgoda

Andrew Kittle & Anjali WatsonChandrika Maelge

Sriyanie MiththapalaAdrian Neville

Shyamala RatnayekeRavi Samarasinha

Charles Santiapillai, Rajnish Vandercone & S. WijeyamohanGehan de Silva Wijeyeratne

Data Sheets designed byChandra Jayawardana, Nadeera Weerasinghe, Nilantha Kodituwakku

& Gehan de Silva Wijeyeratne

Leopards & otherWildlife of Yala

Photography

Gehan de Silva Wijeyeratne

Leopards & otherWildlife of Yala

Design and Layout

Design ConsultantChandrika Maelge

(Jetwing Eco Holidays)

Production and LayoutCopyline (Pvt) Ltd

© CopyrightThe intellectual copyrights areasserted of the authors andphotographer. Certain articles havebeen reproduced with the permissionof LMD, Serendipity, Serendib andAyubowan. The photographic imagesare the copyright of Gehan de SilvaWijeyeratne (gehan@jetwing.lk,www.jetwingeco.com) and cannot bereproduced without his expresspermission.

Published by Jetwing Hotels andJetwing Eco Holidays(www.jetwingeco.com) under theJetwing Research Initiative. FirstEdition June 2004.

CitationYala, Leopards and other Wildlife(2004). Articles and images. Compiled& edited by Gehan de SilvaWijeyeratne with contributions fromvarious authors. Photography byGehan de Silva Wijeyeratne. Publishedby Jetwing Hotels and Jetwing EcoHolidays under the Jetwing ResearchInitiative. Colombo, Sri Lanka.

Individual contributions should becited as follows.Samarasinha, R. (2004) Usingphotographic identification to studythe Leopards of Yala in “Yala, Leopardsand other Wildlife” compiled & editedby Gehan de Silva Wijeyeratne.Colombo, Sri Lanka: Published byJetwing Hotels and Jetwing EcoHolidays under the Jetwing ResearchInitiative.

ImagesThe images in the book are acombination of digital still images andthose taken on slide film(transparencies). All of the images onslide film are on Fuji Provia 100 oroccassionaly on Fuji Sensia 100. Theimages in the book have not had anysubject matter added or removed,through digital manipulation.

It is inevitable that in a compilation of writings from a dozen or soauthors, there will be a multiplicity of styles. This is even morepronounced as the style of writings vary from a light, ‘magazine’style (notably by Gehan) to a style which is semi-technical. Ratherthan homegenise the writing into one style, the different tones ofthe articles have been maintained to cater to the tastes of a wideaudience. In a few cases, the more technical articles have beentoned down to make it more intelligible to a popular audience. Theuse of or abscence of the scientifc or Latin name has also beendictated by the style of the writing. In the more technical articles,the scientific names have been retained. n

A medley of styles

Acknowledgements

This book would not have beenpossible without the support ofmy colleagues at Jetwing. Iextend special thanks to HiranCooray and Lalin de Mel ofJetwing Hotels for theirencouragement. ChandrikaMaelge’s efficiency as TeamLeader of Jetwing Eco Holidayscreated room for me toundertake such a venture. Thecontributors respondedgraciously to my invitation forarticles and were most promptwith their texts in a matter of afew weeks. Thanks to the designteam at Copyline for turning thebook around in a record sixmonths from initiation tocompletion! Dr SriyanieMiththapala helped greatly byundertaking the final round ofcopy editing and proof reading.Vijita de Silva, Ravi

Samarasinha and the enigmaticUS also assisted by reviewing thetext. Any errors which remainare mine.

The naturalist guides of JetwingEco Holidays, Mola’s jeepdrivers at the Yala Safari GameLodge and the trackers of YalaNational Park have given methe benefit of their time andknowledge. The staff at the YalaSafari Game Lodge have alwaysmade me and my guests feel athome. My thanks to Sathi andAnjali Watson for the use oftheir map. Many tour operators,clients and media personnelhave accompanied me on mygame drives. They havecomplied patiently with my twousual requests, ‘Don’t move anddon’t talk’ and occasionally athird, “Don’t even breathe”.

Finally, I wish to thank my wifeNirma and my two daughtersMaya and Amali who havealways given me ‘space’ topursue my publishing efforts.

Yala National Park

Contents

ArticlesYala National Park

An introduction to the yala national park ................................................................................................. 20One evening in yala...... ............................................................................................................................. 28Yala, a photographer’s paradise ................................................................................................................ 30

LeopardsNo elephants for me, please, I’ll take leopards!Using the top carnivore as a keystone for conservation ............................................................................ 36An introduction to the behaviour and ecology of the leopards of yala ..................................................... 42Using photographic identification to study the leopards of yala .............................................................. 50A thumbnail sketch of some leopards of yala ............................................................................................ 54The leopard cubs of kota bendi wewa ....................................................................................................... 56Gmc 5, a star performer ............................................................................................................................ 64Leopard watching in yala .......................................................................................................................... 68

ElephantsThe asian elephant .................................................................................................................................... 84Studying the tuskers of yala ....................................................................................................................... 98Clash of the titans .................................................................................................................................... 104

Other AnimalsSloth bears ............................................................................................................................................... 112The golden jackal .................................................................................................................................... 116Mammals of yala ...................................................................................................................................... 120Reptiles of yala ........................................................................................................................................ 130Crocodiles ................................................................................................................................................ 136

BirdsYala the understated birder’s paradise .................................................................................................... 148Watching shorebirds around yala ............................................................................................................ 164

ButterfliesButterfly watching in yala ........................................................................................................................ 176Butterfly watching reports from yala ....................................................................................................... 180

DragonfliesDragonflies of yala and tissamaharama .................................................................................................. 186

Plant LifeA few common trees of yala ..................................................................................................................... 192

InformationContributing data to leopard research .................................................................................................... 204Signing up as a contributor of video and/or still images ........................................................................ 206Data sheet for logging contributions of video footage ............................................................................ 208Data sheet for logging contributions of still photographs ...................................................................... 210Data sheet for recording information of leopard sightings .................................................................... 212Accommodation at yala ........................................................................................................................... 216Bibliography ............................................................................................................................................ 220The contributors ...................................................................................................................................... 225The writers .............................................................................................................................................. 228

Contents |

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YalaNationalPark

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The Ruhunu National Park,popularly known as YalaNational Park is located in theSouth-east of Sri Lanka lyingbetween longitudes andlatitudes of 600 16’- 600 25’Nand 810 22’ - 810 32' Erespectively, along the coastalbelt, east of Tissamaharama, inthe Hambantota District. It issituated about 300 km fromColombo, and is the premiernational park of the 15 nationalparks in the country. ’Yala’ is infact a complex of NationalReserves comprising five Blocks(97,881.3 hectares), including aStrict Nature Reserve and threeSanctuaries covering an area of151,778.8 hectares. Of the fiveBlocks, only Block I is set asidefor game viewing, at present, anarea of 14,100.6 hectares inextent.

event. But no one really knows forcertain what factor or combination offactors triggered this relatively rapidabandonment of the area.Subsequently, the jungle took over thisonce populated area which is now asanctuary for wildlife.

The area remained a free hunting areafor ‘sportsmen’ until 1900, when it wasdeclared a Game Reserve for controlledhunting. Mr. H.H. Englebrecht, a Boerprisoner of war, was appointed as thefirst Warden. The British did notrelease him to return to his nativeSouth Africa on account of his refusalto swear allegiance to the BritishCrown. The area remained a GameReserve till 1938, when a section of itwas declared a National Park, thepresent day, Yala Block I.

Yala lies in the Arid Zone of thecountry, where the annual rainfall isless than 1,000 mm. The areaexperiences the North-east monsoonfrom about November to January and aspell of short inter-monsoon rainsagain in March and April. The rest ofthe year is dry with a severe drought

An introduction to the yalanational parkCHANDRA JAYAWARDANA

The recorded history of the Yala areadates back to about 500 BC. A youngprince, named Rohana fromneighboring India, established the cityand kingdom of ‘Rohana’ in the‘revenue division’ of Magama Pattu,thus recording the beginning of theRohana dynasty. History furtherrecords that in 307 BC a fugitive princeMahanaga, established an independentsovereignty, making Magama, a smallhamlet near the Kirindi Oya mouth,his capital. The remnants of dagabas(stupas) and ancient artificial reservoirs(tanks or ’wewas’) with a cascadingsystem of water flowing from one tankto another, are present in the area.These, built by competent civilengineers, indicate the existence of anadvanced agricultural civilization in thearea, encompassing the area of the Yalaprotected areas. There are over 40 welldocumented archeological sites andhundreds of ancient, cascading type‘wewas’. However, after about the 10thcentury AD there seemed to haveoccurred a sudden de-populationbringing the golden era to an end.Wars among minor kings, famine anddisease may have contributed to this

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from July to mid October. The annualmean temperature is about 270 C andoccasionally could rise up to about 370

C.

The Yala Protected Area Complex canbe thought of as comprising broadly ofseven major habitat types.

 Sand dunes dominated by Spinifexlittoreus, Ipomoea pescapre and Launeasarmentosa.

 Scrub forest, chiefly thorn scrub,dominated by Maliththan,Kukulkatu, Kukurumana,Lunuwaraniya, Ranawara, etc.

 Forest cover with dominant treessuch as Palu, Weera, Satin, Kon,Milla and Wood Apple.

 Herbaceous cover dominated byThora, Katupila and grass species.

 Riverine forest dominated byKumbuk, Mee, Helamba, Thimbiriand Epiththa.

 Fresh water bodies (artificial) andlagoons fringed with mangrovesspecies of Avecennia marina,Luminitzera racemosa, Rhizophoramucronata, etc.

 Rocky outcrops with several rockpools.

There are 280 species of trees andplants including many medicinal plantsin these different vegetation types..There are 24 fresh water holes of whichthe Buttuwa Wewa, Mahaseelawa Wewa,Palatupana Wewa, Wilapala Wewa,Koma Wewa and Gonagala Wewa retaina little water during the drought forthe thirst-stricken animals of the park.

The Park is a refuge for 32 species ofmammals. The elephant is the largest

herbivore and an estimated 400 to 500elephants inhabit all five Blocks of thePark. The elephants are also believedto engage in seasonal movements inand out of the Park to areas ofLunugamvehera, Uda Walawe,Bundala, Kumana, Lahugala and GalOya.

The Park is dominated by SpottedDeer, which can be seen in largenumbers especially after the monsoonrains. Spotted Deer can be seen also inlarge numbers during dawn and duskin the open plains. During the hotafternoons, they seek the shade of theforest to avoid the severe heat. TheSpotted Deer form the major foodresource for the leopard. Sambhar, thelargest member of the deer family, canbe seen in the dune areas or in thevicinity of lagoons in small numbers.The Barking Deer is rather difficult toview, being a shy animal. Mouse Deertoo can be seen occasionally. The WildPig, which helps to keep the area clearof dead carcasses, and the WildBuffalo, together hold their own at thenumerous water holes and in openareas (plains) of the Park.

Among the carnivores, the leopard isthe major attraction. It is estimatedthat there are about 35 of them inBlock I. Becouse leopards are toppredators, the can be seen relativelyeasily during daylight in Yala, one ofthe few places in the world where onecan do so. The scrub jungle, open areasand the rocky outcrops offer anexcellent habitat for the leopard. Otherpredators found here include theFishing cat, Rusty-spotted cat and theJungle cat. The Ruddy mongoose,

Stripe necked mongoose and the Greymongoose along with the Ring-tailedCivet (Small civet), Common palm cat(Toddy cat ) and the endemic Goldenpalm civet are other smaller carnivoresfound here. The Jackal is the only wildmember of the order Canidea, foundin Sri Lanka. The Sloth bear is the onlyspecies of bear found in the Country. Itis best seen during the Palu season(June and July), on Palu trees feedingon the sweet yellow berries. Among themonkeys, the Grey Langur and theendemic Toque Monkey can be seen.The Slender loris, being mostlynocturnal, is hardly ever seen. TheIndian porcupine and the Pangolin aretwo other nocturnal mammals whichare rarely seen.

Around 230 species of birds, includingindigenous, endemic and migrantspecies, have been recorded. Theraptors are well represented andvisitors are likely to see the ChangeableHawk Eagle and Serpent Eagle.

Basking crocodiles are a common sightat water holes. The two threatenedspecies, the Marsh and the Estuarinecrocodiles are found here, although itis mainly the Marsh crocodile which isencountered here. All five of thethreatened species of sea turtles visitthe shore for nesting. All five of thefatally poisonous snakes of the countryand non poisonous snakes such as thePython are present, but difficult to see.Three endemic geckos and five speciesof skinks are also found in the Park.The Park also harbors two species offresh water terrapins and the elegantStar tortoise. Among the othertetrapod (four legged) reptiles there

An introduction to the yala national park | Chandra Jayawardana

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are the Land monitor and a few lizards.

The butterfly fauna is well representedby about 40 species. Common amongstthem are the members of the familyDanaidae (crows, tigers and leopards).thirteen species of amphibians havebeen recorded.

A varied matrix of eco systems hasresulted in a high diversity of faunaand flora. The evenings and morningsare the best times to visit the Park.Valuing the advice of the wildlifeguides, avoiding noise and keeping tothe roads are mandatory when viewingwildlife. No litter please. Help to keepthe Park clean. n

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It was noon and the GodaKalapuwa shimmered andglinted like a silver mirrorunder the hot noon day sun,which bakes the sand dune-ridden southern coastal strip ofSri Lanka. It was the 31st ofDecember 2003 and less thanhalf a day was left of the oldyear. I turned, just before thegates of the Yala National Park,into the final kilometer leadingto the Yala Safari Game Lodge.On my left was the nationalpark and on my right, a plaininterspersed with scrub and salttolerant Maliththan trees. Alarge bird, flying against theglare of the sun caught my eye. Ipulled over wondering whatbird could present so large asilhouette. A Black-neckedStork, one of the rarest andlargest birds in Sri Lanka, flew

over, purposefully. A fewminutes later my wife Nirmapointed out to our children, anelephant, on our left. The year2003 was going to end on astrong note and 2004 was goingto get off to a good start.Instinct told me that I was goingto have another good visit to theGame Lodge. A safe prediction,as I have never had adisappointing visit. Set with thecountry’s premier national parkon one side, the sea on anotherand the Goda Kalapuwa, lagoonon the other, the location of theGame Lodge is unmatched.Friendly staff, dining under thestars with backlighting from theswimming pool, game drivesand nature walks - all thesemade visits to the Game Lodeever invigorating.

The naturalists joined us for lunch andI picked their brains. A Sloth bear hadbeen visiting Welmal Kema, a waterhole set in granitic gneiss. On ourevening game drive we headed off toWelmal Kema with Priyantha, one ofthe local jeep drivers at the wheel, andLionel, an experienced tracker. Lionelexamined the tracks on the sand nearWelmal Kema and announced that aSloth bear mother and cub had crossedthe road. A few minutes later heannounced that another Sloth bear hadpassed through recently. We sloweddown and proceeded cautiously. It wasgoing to be another, “If only we hadcome a few minutes earlier”. Wrong.Straight out of a script, the male wason the road, but moved in andvanished into the scrub. We moved onand waited at the water hole. The Slothbear ambled in, in no hurry, drank,and sauntered over the rocks anddisappeared from view into the scrubunder a large Palu tree.

Surely it could not get any better? Butit did. We came across leopard pugs onthe Akasa Chaitiya Road. The trackswere very fresh, and were

One evening in yala......GEHAN DE SILVA WIJEYERATNE(This article was first published in the 2004 first quarter issue of Ayubowan, the newsletter of Jetwing)

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superimposed on jeeps tracks maderecently. It was probably a sub adultwho had begun an early eveningpatrol. It had retreated into the jungle,perhaps on hearing our approach. Wedecided to run the length of the roadagain and were interrupted by a familyof elephants who crossed the road.Elephant families are female-dominated. The adult females werejealously guarding two young, who mayhave been only a few years old. Twoadults stood side by side with a calf inthe middle and stared at us defiantly.Sand was kicked and sprayed over theirbody in a show of force. ‘Come nocloser’ was the message. The two adultsrumbled like thunder. They thenclasped their trunks and in a veryunusual display joined the tips of theirtrunks, as if communicating in hushedwhispers. A loud trumpet from theother side of the road explained theirunusual anxiety. More elephants wereon the other side. We moved away,allowing the rest of the family to mergetogether without obstruction.

Over dinner, I chatted with guests. Thestars shone brightly overhead. A wildpig visited the buffet and was chasedaway. A Common palm civet, anocturnal hunter, slunk through thegrounds. An Indian nightjar churredand a Collared scops owl hooted fromthe Bahunia trees. The year 2003ended on a wild note.

Over the next few days, we had fourleopard sightings, amongst a clutch ofthrilling wildlife encounters. The year2004 will see me back at the Yala SafariGame Lodge, as many times as I canfind reasons to keep going back. n

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Ruhunu National Park or Yalaas it is fondly known, is awildlife photographer’sparadise. Yala is home to a widevariety of photographic subjects.For instance, Yala is home toelephants, leopards, bears,buffalos, deer, plenty of birds,butterflies, etc. What is evenbetter is that most of thesesubjects are, to some degree,habituated to vehicles. Yala hashad a long history of humanvisitation and protection. Thusanimals and birds havedeveloped a degree of toleranceto vehicles. Landscapephotographers need not feel leftout, Yala has some stunningbeaches, awe inspiring rockyoutcrops, scenic water holes,open plains, lagoons, shrubjungle and riverine forests. Yalais also home to over two

hundred species of birds,migratory and resident. Thisnational park has also got agood road network, with waterholes within easy viewing fromthe road. This is an ideal recipeto make Yala a true wildlifephotographer’s paradise.

Getting an early start will help.Leopards, in particular, are seen earlymorning or in the evening. Bring somewater and snacks, as one never knowshow long you will have a willingsubject. Bring plenty of film, themiddle of the jungle is not a practicalplace to run out of film. Freedom Cafenear the park entrance and the wildlifeshop at the Yala Safari Game Lodge areyour last chance. If you useprofessional film, buy it in Colombo.Wear earth coloured clothes, greensand browns are preferable. If you aredriving yourself, drive at a slow steadypace, and you will see a lot more.Approach animals and birds slowly andthey are less likely to be frightened byyou.

Yala, aphotographer’sparadiseNAMAL KAMALGODA

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Yala, a photographer’s paradise | Namal Kamalgoda

The next factor is noise. This has to bekept at a minimum. Sudden braking orengines revving, and chatter fromwithin the vehicle are all sure-fire waysof disturbing your potential subject. Ifyou have to talk, whisper. Keep noisedown to the level of the sound of thecamera shutter.

I noted earlier that animals and birdsare habituated to vehicles, but I did notmention humans. Most animals seemto tolerate vehicles better thenhumans. Pointing hands, stickingheads out of windows and popping outof sunroofs will not help. The latter isnot only a good way to chase an animalor bird away but it is also against thepark rules. All creatures have a comfortzone for vehicles and humans. Usuallythe comfort zone for vehicles is lessthan for humans. As long as all bodyparts are inside the vehicle, noise is itat a minimum and you approachslowly, you are likely to have longer andcloser sightings. Basically, if the qualityof your sightings are better, it will leadto better photos. If your subject is onthe wrong side of the photographer,drive past, turn at a safe distance andcome back prepared for the photosession.

Camera-shake is the wildlifephotographer’s worst enemy. Becausephotography is permitted only fromwithin the vehicle, it prevents the useof tripods (unless you are in one of thesafari jeeps) . So steady your camerawith a beanbag or rest your hands onthe window. What is a beanbag, youmay ask? It is a small pillow-shaped bagfull of, what else but dried beans,although rice is a common substitute.

This bag, when draped across thevehicle windowsill and the camerarested on it, offers remarkable stability.In Yala, you may often see seasonedwildlife photographers driving aroundwith platforms attached to theirwindows. This is not to rest theirelbows on, but to hold the beanbag.

Lighting in Yala can be tricky.Throughout most of the year, thelighting is good, but light fades fast inYala, so be prepared to use fast film,assuming your lens is not fast. Fast filmhas more grain, but is more useful inlow light conditions. Modern fast filmssuch as 400 ISO are relatively low ingrain. This is fine, if you are notplanning to publish your images. Formost photographers a slightly grainyimage is better then no image at all. Inthe dry season dust can also be aproblem in Yala, so remember to coverup your equipment with a soft cloth.Remember that in the dry season life isconcentrated around the waterholes, sobe prepared to spend sometime at

these water holes. Keep yourselfinformed of the latest animalmovements by asking either theWildlife Department guide or thenaturalists at the Yala Safari GameLodge. (There is a useful wildlifesightings news board at the GameLodge). This will give you a head startin your search.

One single factor will determine yourlong-term ability as a wildlifephotographer and that is patience. Youcan not expect to be lucky all the timenor can you hurry wild animals. I hadto wait hours in the hot sun for my bestleopard sighting. Never alter thebehaviour of your subject. Don’tdisturb nesting birds or provokeelephants to charge for a photo. Usecommon sense when you intrude intotheir lives.

The last but most important lesson isto enjoy yourself and enjoy the bountyof Yala. n

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Leopards

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The other day, in my continuousand losing battle to keep mybookshelves in order, I foundthree management plans writtenfor the conservation ofelephants in Sri Lanka. I shallnot write about their content(which, over three successivedecades, was much the same)nor how much of these planshave been implemented (on ascale of 1 to 10, possibly 0).What I shall present in this essayis the point of view thatalthough much attention hasbeen paid to this charismaticspecies, our focus in Sri Lankashould be directed instead to itstop carnivore - the leopard,Panthera pardus.

In an ecosystem, all species that eat thesame type of food such as herbivores,which eat plants, belong to a singletrophic level. Because some energy is

always lost in metabolism and wasteproducts, each trophic level cansupport a smaller number of animalsthan the previous trophic level. Thisresults in decreasing groups ofnumbers that form a pyramid, knownas the ecological pyramid of numbers.At the lowest and most numerous level,are the primary producers, plants (seeFigure). At the next level, lower innumbers but higher on the pyramid,are the primary consumers, herbivores.Next come the secondary consumers,carnivores, still fewer in numbers. Atthe very apex, very scarce in number,are the top carnivores – a single,‘reigning’ species of predator. In 1989,

the late and great mammalogist, JohnEisenberg wrote ‘The removal of a topcarnivore from an ecosystem can have animpact on the relative abundance ofherbivore species . . . In the absence ofpredators, usually one or two herbivorespecies come to dominate the community.The consequence is often a direct alterationof herbaceous vegetation near to the base ofthe food web. Top carnivores have animportant role to play in the structuring ofcommunities and ultimately of ecosystems.Thus, the preservation of carnivores becomesan important consideration in the disciplineof conservation biology.’

Since Eisenberg’s far seeingobservation, catch-phrases and termshave been coined to highlight this roleof predators. Top carnivores have beencalled ‘keystone species’ like keystonesin ancient buildings (prior to concreteand the advent of lintels), which,because of their position, held up thewall over the door and with it, theentire room. Top carnivores, likekeystones, are believed to ‘hold’ or‘maintain’ the ecosystems in which theyexist.

No elephants for me, please,I’ll take leopards!Using the top carnivore as a keystone forconservationSRIYANIE MITHTHAPALA

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Using the top carnivore as a keystone for conservation | Sriyanie Miththapala

Because they ‘maintain’ the ecosystemsof which they are a part, top carnivoresfunction much like umbrellas, whichprovide shade, to afford protection tothe ecosystem.

In the 1990s, another catch phraseentered the terminology ofconservation biology: ‘top downconservation’ indicating that theprocesses that maintain ecosystems areexerted from the topmost level of theecological pyramid to the bottommostlevel.

I do not believe that it is an issuewhether one uses the phrase keystonespecies or top-down conservation.What is important is that it has beenproven that predation, as renowned bigcat specialist John Seidensticker says,‘plays a pivotal role in structuring andpreserving biodiversity in terrestrialcommunities’ and that ‘criticallyendangered populations of topcarnivores are indicators of . . .declining ecosystem[s].’

Notwithstanding their critical role inecosystems, historically, largecarnivores have faced multiple threatsfrom humans. Often, cats such aspumas (Puma concolor) in NorthAmerica, were viewed for severalcenturies as serious threats to livestockand considered vermin. Bounties wereplaced on their heads and they werehunted and extirpated in many areasof the US. Other top carnivores, suchas tigers in Asia, were threatenedbecause they were considered prizedgame species during the period of theBritish Raj. This ‘sport’ continued intothe 1960s and it is reported that from

the 1950s to the early 1960s, trophyhunters killed more than 3,000 tigers.Mercifully, these practices were haltedand made illegal in the 1960s and1970s.

More insidious was an ever-burgeoninghuman population, which strippedforests to make way for itsdevelopment; fragmented ecosystemsso that once contiguous forests lay inbits and pieces; and then degradedmost of what was left. Large, vagile (farranging) carnivores such as tigers whoare known to travel 8 –24 kilometres insearch of prey and have home rangesin the far East that extend up to 1,000square kilometres were suddenly‘cabin’d, cribb’d, confin’d’ in isolatedpatches which restricted theirmovements and exposed them to newand menacing dangers: direct conflictwith humans and their livestock thatled to poisoning, hunting and killing;exposure to new diseases fromlivestock; death due to road accidentsbecause highways were built betweenhabitat patches; and increasedpoaching as a consequence of an everspiralling demand for skins and forbody parts that are used in traditionalmedicine.

Isolated populations were also at risk ofhomogenisation of their geneticdiversity because they were unable todisperse and breed outside their natalareas.

There is no doubt about it - topcarnivores are in trouble.

Unlike us Sri Lankans, who have spentdecades theorising and focusing on

elephants and are now attempting ahodgepodge of projects to conservebiodiversity in Sri Lanka, ourneighbour India decided some thirtyyears ago to focus on their topcarnivore, the tiger, Panthera tigris.

In 1973, based on therecommendations by a special taskforce of the Indian Board for Wildlife,the Indian government, then lead byIndira Ghandi, launched Project Tigerat Corbett National Park. Its aimsprimarily were to maintain a viablepopulation of tigers in India and topreserve for future generations areasthat carried tigers as being biologicallyimportant. Specifically, the governmentbanned habitat destruction, habitatdegradation, poaching of any speciesincluding prey species (whichcontributed to a decrease in the preybase), cattle grazing, and harvesting offorest products in these areas. Itrelocated entire villages to set asidenine reserves, with extensive bufferzones to ensure the increase of tigerpopulations. These reserves have sinceincreased in number to 23.

Since its inception, scientific and long-term research has been carried out inmany Project Tiger reserves not only tofind out details of tiger biology andecology, but also on the biology andecology of its prey species. India nowhas an extensive database of knowledgeof its top carnivore, so that solidscientific management plans can beformulated and implemented not atthe level of ecosystems, but at the levelof landscapes i.e., not working withinNational Parks but on a national scaleand regional scale, to ensure the

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conservation of not only its topcarnivore, but also a multitude of othernative and endemic species.

Project Tiger, like all projects, has itsflaws and periods during which it haslimped along, faltered, stopped andstarted again. There are endlessdebates about the science of researchcarried out in some national parks andthe national estimates of tigerpopulations which have been obtainedby census, not sampling (the latter isthe more rigorous, repeatable andscientific method of estimatingpopulations). Project Tiger is by nomeans a perfect model. Yet at the endof the day, Indian scientists andwildlife managers, have data on whichto base their efforts of biodiversityconservation. Because the currenttrend in conservation biology hasshifted from the conservation ofecosystems to the conservation oflandscapes that cut across state andnational boundaries, Indian scientistsand wildlife managers are able tocontribute effectively and meaningfullyto global efforts of saving the tiger andto global efforts of biodiversityconservation.

We, Sri Lankans, on the other hand,know very little about our topcarnivore, the leopard. Except for aseminal study in the 1970s by JohnEisenberg and his collaborators on theecology of leopards in WilpattuNational Park, a study in the 1980s byCharles Santiapillai and others in YalaNational Park and ongoing studies inYala by Andrew Kittle and AnjaliWatson, and also by Ravi Samarasinha,we have scant knowledge of the exact

distribution, home range size and use,dispersal patterns, habitat use and preyselection in the rest of the country. Wehave no national picture of the leopard– what we have is piecemealknowledge.

In the ‘90s, my doctoral researchshowed that the Sri Lankan sub-species(Panthera pardus kotiya) is uniquegenetically and morphologically. Weknow that in other parts of the world,the leopard is a highly adaptable cat,which lives in a variety of habitats fromthe cold Russian far east, to the humidcloud forests of Malaysia, to the desertsof Namibia. We know that in mostparts of the world it eats medium sizedhoofed mammals but can alsopreferentially eat primates or evensmall mammals when hoofed mammalsare scarce. We know that unlike tigers,it can live in close proximity tohumans.

With such a diversity of habitats in ourisland, is our unique subspecies ofleopard as adaptable in these differenthabitats? We know that there areleopards outside national parks, livingon the edge of survival, as we haveheard of reports from Hantana ofleopards coming into villages to preyon dogs. But do we know exactly whereelse they are, in what kinds of habitatsthey live and how many of theseleopards there are in the whole island?Apart from counts from Yala NationalPark, do we have scientific estimates ofleopard populations in other protectedareas? Do we know whether Sri Lankanleopards switch prey in lean times?Apart from Yala National Park, do weknow how far and where leopards

travel daily? We know their homeranges in Yala National Park, but whatare their home ranges in other parks,in other habitats? We know thatshooting, spearing, snaring andpoisoning leopards is increasing in SriLanka, but do we know whether thereare specific threats in specific areas?

We need to know these answers,because each bit of research fits like apiece in a jigsaw puzzle to give us theentire picture. We need to learn aboutthis unique sub-species across its entirerange in Sri Lanka, so that we candevelop the big picture that transcendspark boundaries and ecosystems. Weneed to know these answers because ofthe reality conveyed in the axiom ‘goodconservation is based on good science’.Without data, we have no basis forconservation.

It is essential that the conservation ofthe leopard, our top carnivore does notfollow the path of the conservation ofthe elephant, our flagship species inSri Lanka. We need to ensure that theroad map for the conservation ofleopards is not only based on goodscience, but is results-driven, notactivity-driven. We need a goal and avision for the conservation of leopardswhich we should all work towards,using a holistic approach that includesall stakeholders. For several decades,Sri Lanka has suffered from theaffliction of preparing conservationplans that are rarely implemented. Wesuffer from the disease of excessiveworkshops and flurries of activities thatare never sustained. We need to breakfrom that stranglehold for theconservation of leopards.

Using the top carnivore as a keystone for conservation | Sriyanie Miththapala

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The following information isbased on the results of anintensive study that spanned a20-month period from October2000 to June 2002. Involvingboth day and night timefieldwork. This research hasprovided an insight to a numberof important aspects of this aridzone population of leopards.The scope of the study includedpopulation size anddemography, home rangeattributes, feeding ecology andbehaviour. This information isessential for the development ofan efficient and informedconservation strategy –something that will be requiredin Sri Lanka in the near future ifthis magnificent feline is to besafeguarded from the combinedpressures of habitatfragmentation, encroachment

and poaching. This articlefocuses on the demographicelements of the Yala leopardpopulation. The residentpopulation numbers are specificto the time period of the study.However, it is posited that thispopulation will remain relativelystable with only minorfluctuations if habitat conditionsin Block I remain as they are.

We shall continue our study of leopardsin other selected sites on the island, indiffering habitats. It is only withknowledge of leopard populations inthe varying habitats in which they arefound, that a conservation strategy canbe developed for the Sri Lankanleopard.

Adult MalesAdult male leopards in the study areaoccupy home ranges, on average, 38square km. These are considerablylarger than adult female home ranges.

In Yala National Park, Block I, thereare about four (3-5) resident adult maleleopards, each one having a homerange that overlaps the home ranges ofapproximately five females. Adultmales share portions of their homeranges with other adult males; however,they also possess ‘core areas’ which arenot shared. Males frequently patroltheir territories, often repeatedly usingcertain roads or pathways. They usescented secretions as well as urine andeven faeces to mark important areas oftheir range. This form of non-visualcommunication allows leopards to ‘talk’to each other without actually meetingface to face. It is thought that thisreduces the number of meetings andtherefore, aggressive interactionsbetween animals. Adult male leopardshunt for themselves, but they are alsofrequent scavengers, eating the killsmade by individual females withintheir range.

Adult FemalesAdult females in Yala National Park,Block I inhabit small home ranges (onaverage, 15 square km of core area)

An introduction to thebehaviour and ecology of theleopards of yalaANDREW KITTLE AND ANJALI WATSON

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due to the relative abundance of preyand year-round access to freshwater.There are approximately 19 adultfemales resident within this Block eachof whose home range is overlapped byat least one adult male. Unlike males,female leopards do not have to searchfar and wide for new territory afterthey reach adulthood; instead theysettle down either within the range oftheir mother or in an area adjacent tohers. The most important role that afemale leopard plays within thepopulation, is as a provider. Startingwith her first litter – usually of two orthree cubs – at the age of 33-36months, a female leopard will spendmost of her life providing for heryoung. She will remain with each set ofcubs between 16 and 24 months, atwhich time she will give birth to thenext litter. Females prefer rocky areaswith caves and ledges for cub rearingand these outcrops are often includedwithin an individual’s home range.Female leopards are generally regardedas better hunters than their malecounterparts as they must hone theirskills in order to provide continuallyfor their cubs.

Sub-adultsGenerally, leopards are considered sub-adults from approximately 18–36months of age. During this time, theygradually stop relying upon theirmother and begin to seek out a homerange of their own. For females, thismeans staying within or next to theirnatal or birth area. For males, however,this means dispersing from the natalarea in search of available land inwhich to establish himself. Usually, a

young male will make several foraysfrom his mother’s home-range, duringwhich he effectively scouts out the layof the land and the structure of thepopulation in the surrounding area.These forays can last for a few days toseveral weeks, but initially, the youngmale always returns to the natal area.The young males are, by necessity,entering the home-ranges ofestablished adult males and frequentlycrossing paths with other young maleson a similar search for unoccupiedterritory. Consequently, the probabilityof conflict is increased. This is a vitallyimportant time for these sub adultanimals and mortality is often highduring this age period. The age ofdispersal for this age of animal is oftendependent on prey abundance andhabitat quality. In our study area,dispersal occurred at approximately 26months of age, with variation betweenlocales.

CubsMost leopard cub litters consist of twoor three animals born after a 90–105day gestation period. In Yala NationalPark, Block I there does not appear tobe a particular birth season and youngare born throughout the year. Duringthe first couple of months, the cubs arehidden away in a den area, which isusually located in a rocky outcrop inclose proximity to water and prey.Leopard cubs are dependent on theirmother’s milk for the first two monthsof life before being introduced slowly tomeat. It is difficult to determine themortality rates of young cubs as theyare infrequently seen during the earlystages of life; however it is estimated

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that almost half of the cubs born diewithin the first year. Cubs rely entirelyupon their mothers for food. However,they tend to be very curious creaturesand can be seen frequently stalking allmanner of animals from peacocks totortoises, pond herons to landmonitors. When first born, leopardcubs are a light grayish colour, onlyattaining the typical spotted tawnyyellow coat after approximately threemonths. In addition, they have blue-hued eyes, which similarly change tothe traditional yellowish hue, as theyget older. During our study, 23 cubs in

17 litters were observed. At the veryend of the study period, another litterwas born in the north west of the parkand the two cubs (one male, onefemale) have been seen by manyvisitors.

SightingsThe most frequently seen leopards inYala National Park, Block I are youngmales, either cubs or sub-adults. Theyare much less elusive than either adultanimals or their female siblings andoften appear as interested in observers

as observers are of them! With theexception of kill sites or rock sightings,most observations made at closeproximity for long periods of timeinvolve this age and sex class. Whenthey get older these animals generallybecome more secretive, which is anecessary trait for survival. n

Under the Jetwing Research Initiative,Andrew Kittle and Anjali Watson werehosted at the Yala Safari Game Lodge forover a year, during the conduct of theirstudy on the leopards of Yala.

An introduction to the behaviour and ecology of the leopards of yala | Andrew Kittle and Anjali Watson

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