Polymers in Industry from A-Z

Leno Mascia

A Concise Encyclopedia

57268File AttachmentCover.jpg

Leno Mascia

Polymers in Industry from A----Z

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Leno Mascia

Polymers in Industry from AZ

A Concise Encyclopedia

The Authors

Dr. Leno MasciaDepartment of MaterialsLoughborough UniversityLoughborough LE11 3TUUnited Kingdom

All books published by Wiley-VCH are carefullyproduced. Nevertheless, authors, editors, andpublisher do not warrant the information containedin these books, including this book, to be free oferrors. Readers are advised to keep in mind thatstatements, data, illustrations, procedural details orother items may inadvertently be inaccurate.

Library of Congress Card No.: applied for

British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication DataA catalogue record for this book is available from theBritish Library.

Bibliographic information published bythe Deutsche NationalbibliothekThe Deutsche Nationalbibliothek lists thispublication in the Deutsche Nationalbibliografie;detailed bibliographic data are available on theInternet at http://dnb.d-nb.de.

# 2012 WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA,Boschstr. 12, 69469 Weinheim, Germany

All rights reserved (including those of translation intoother languages). No part of this book may bereproduced in any form by photoprinting,microfilm, or any other means nor transmitted ortranslated into a machine language without writtenpermission from the publishers. Registered names,trademarks, etc. used in this book, even when notspecifically marked as such, are not to be consideredunprotected by law.

Typesetting Thomson Digital, Noida, India

Cover Design Adam-Design, Weinheim

Printed inPrinted on acid-free paper

Print ISBN: 978-3-527-32964-9ePDF ISBN: 978-3-527-64405-6oBook ISBN: 978-3-527-64403-2ePub ISBN: 978-3-527-64404-9Mobi ISBN: 978-3-527-64406-3

Dedication

To my grandchildren and their future

Contents

Preface IXAcknowledgements XIOverview Guide XIIIList of Acronyms XXIII

Chapter Entries Pages

A Abrasion ResistanceAzeotropic Copolymerization 1B Back-FlowButyl Rubber 24C Calcium Carbonate (CaCO3)Cyanate Ester 37D DABCODynamic Vulcanization 80E Effective ModulusEyring Equation 99F Fabrication Fusion Promoter 126G GateGutta Percha 153H Halogenated Fire RetardantHyperbranched Polymer 157I Impact Modifier Izod Impact Test 163J J integral Joint 175K K ValueKneading 176L Lamella Lder Lines 178M M100 and M300Mylar 191N NafionNylon Screw 215O Oil AbsorptionOzone 225P PaintPyrolysis 229Q Q MeterQuinone Structure 267R Rabinowitsch EquationRutile 268S SagSyntactic Foam 277T TackTyre Construction 301U Ubbelohde ViscometerUV Stabilizer 318V Vacuum FormingVulcanization 326

VII

W Wall SlipWork of Adhesion 335X X-Ray Diffraction (XRD)Xenon Arc Lamp 342Y Y Calibration FactorYoungs Modulus 343Z Z-Blade MixerZisman Plot 347

References 349

VIII Contents

Preface

Polymers are a well-established class of materials both in the commercial sector andin educational curricula. Polymers are the main component of commercial productsknown as plastics, composites, rubber (or elastomers), surface coatings, fibres andadhesives.

Although many books have been published over the past 50 years or so to satisfythe demands of those concerned with the scientific and technological aspects of thesubject, the author feels that there is a need for a reference text that can provide easyaccess to brief and concise information on the terminology, concepts, principles andindustrial practice related to the constitution, manufacture and properties of poly-mer materials.

A compact encyclopaedia provides the easiest and most rapid route for retrievingboth specific and general information about the subject of interest. This is particu-larly valuable when the reader is interested primarily in the basics of the subject.

Although the central focus of this book is on aspects concerned with the con-stitution, properties and processing of polymer-based materials, the treatmentextends into related areas, including synthesis and characterization. The amountof information and details provided for each entry, therefore, varies according to theanticipated needs and interests of the potential reader within the core areas.

The contents covered by the text have been derived with the view that the fieldspans various disciplines and branches of industry and, therefore, the needs of thepotential reader beyond the boundaries of these areas are served by complementarytexts related to other sectors, such as the petrochemical industry and specificmanufacturing concerns.

The information is presented in two sections. The main part of the book consistsof an A to Z encyclopaedic outline, which enables the reader to search directly for aparticular topic or item of interest. This is complemented by the preliminary sectionOverview and Search Guide, which should assist the reader to identify thespecific topic or term for the search. All the terms that appear in the Overviewand Search Guide are identified as individual entries in the main part of the bookthat follows, so that the reader can scan the entire field and select the topics andaspects of the subject that are of interest.

IX

Acknowledgements

A book that covers such a wide field could not have been written without thecontribution of very many authors over a large number of years. Although credithas been given to authors and publishers, there have been a few occasions where theoriginal source could not be ascertained. Some of the diagrams used in the text havebeen taken from personal lecture notes produced as early as 1970. Many of thesewere extracted from the immensely rich literature provided by the industrial sector,whose identity was not recorded at the time. The author wishes to thank theseanonymous contributors and hopes to be able to overcome any such deficiency inany future editions, if the required information is brought to his attention or isotherwise obtained.

XI

Overview

Additives Modifiers

Materials Properties Processing

Structure Polymerization Morphology Cross-linking

Characterization Degradation

1. Plastics 2. Rubber 3. Adhesives 4. Composites 5. Foams 6. Coatings 7. Functional

polymers

1. Compounding 2. Moulding & Thermoforming 3. Extrusion & Calendering 4. Welding, Prototyping

& Fabrications

1. Chemical structure 2. Crystallinity & heterogeneity 3. Orientation 4. Molecular weights

1. Stabilizers 2. Lubricants 3. Processing aids 4. Colorants 5. Coupling agents 6. Functional additives

1. Impact modifiers 2. Functional fillers 3. Plasticizers 4. Reinforcing fibres 6. Flame retardants

1. Mechanisms & Methods 2. Initiators & Inhibitors 3. Vulcanization & Curatives 4. Ageing & Weathering

Supporting fundamental principles

1. Rheological.. 2. Mechanical.. 3. Electrical 4. Optical 5. Barrier 6. Other properties

jXIII

Search Guide

1. Materials

1.1 Plastics

ThermoplasticsAcetals: Oxymethylene polymer, Polyoxy-methylene, Poly(methylene oxide) (PMO)Acrylics:Poly(methylmethacrylate) (PMMA),

Methylmethacrylatebutadienestyrene(MBS)Barrier polymers: Phenoxy, Poly(vinylidene

chloride) (PVDC), Ethylenevinyl alcoholcopolymer (EVOH)Cellulosics: Cellulose acetate, Cellulose

acetate butyrate, Cellulose nitrate, CellulosepropionateFluoropolymers: Perfluoropolymer (PFA),

Polychlorotrifluoroethylene (PCTFE), Poly-tetrafluoroethylene (PTFE), Poly(tetrafluor-oethyleneethylene) copolymer (PETFE),Poly(tetrafluoroethylenehexafluoropropy-lene) copolymer (FEP), Poly(vinylidenefluoride) (PVDF or PVF2)High-temperature polymers: Polybenzimi-

dazole (PBI), Poly(ether ketone) (PEK), Poly(ether etherketone) (PEEK),Polyketone, Poly(phenylene oxide) (PPO), Polysulfone (PSU),Poly(ether sulfone) (PES), Poly(phenylenesulfide) (PPS), Poly(ether imide) (PEI)Polyamides: Nylon 6 (PA 6), Nylon 4,6 (PA

4,6), Nylon 6,6 (PA 6,6), Nylon 11 (PA 11),Nylon 12 (PA 12)Polyesters: Caprolactone polymer (PLC),

Poly(butylene terephthalate) (PBT), Polycar-bonate (PC), Poly(ethylene terephthalate)(PET), Aromatic polyesterPolyolefins: Chlorinated polyethylene,

Chlorosulfonated polyethylene, Coupledpolypropylene, Ethylenecarbon monoxidecopolymer (ECO), Ethyleneethyl acrylatecopolymer (EEA), Ethylenemethylmethac-rylate copolymer (EMA), Ethylenevinylacetate copolymer (EVA), Ethenoid poly-mer, Polyethylene (LDPE, VLDPE, LLDPE,

MDPE, HDPE, UHMWPE), Polypropylene(PP), Polybutene, Poly(4-methyl pent-1-ene)Styrene polymers: Acrylonitrilebutadiene

styrene terpolymer (ABS), Acrylonitrileacrylatestyrene terpolymer (ASA), High-impact polystyrene (HIPS), Polystyrene (PS),Styreneacrylonitrile copolymer (SAN),Styrenemaleic anhydride copolymer (SMA)Vinyl polymers: Chlorinated PVC, Poly

(vinyl acetate) (PVAc), Poly(vinyl alcohol)(PVA), Poly(vinyl alkyl ether) (PVME),Poly(vinyl butyral), Poly(vinyl carbazole),Poly(vinyl chloride) (PVC, PVC-U), Poly(vinyl fluoride) (PVF), Polyvinylpyridine,Polyvinylpyrrolidone

ThermosetsAmino resins: Melamine formaldehyde(MF), Urea formaldehyde (UF), CaseinEpoxy resins: Bisphenol-A (DGEBA),

Cycloaliphatic, Epoxidized novolac resin,Tetraglycidoxylmethylene p,p0-diphenylenediamine (TGDM)High-temperature resins: Cyanate ester, Dia-

llyl phthalate, Furan resin, PMR, Polyimide,PolybismaleimidePhenolics: Bakelite, Novolac, ResoleUnsaturated polyesters: Resins for compo-

sites, Bulk moulding compound (BMC),Sheet moulding compound (SMC), Vinylester

Other AspectsGel, Recycling, Polymer blend, Thermore-versible gel, Vitrification

1.2 Rubber

Vulcanized/Cross-Linked ElastomersAcrylates: Ethyleneethyl acrylate terpoly-mer elastomer (EAM)

XIVj 1 Materials

Diene elastomers: Acrylonitrilebutadiene(NBR), Gutta percha, Natural rubber (NR),Polybutadiene (BR), Polychloroprene (CR),Polyisoprene (IR), Styrenebutadiene (SBR)Fluoroelastomers: Hexafluoropropylene

copolymer and terpolymerHydrocarbon (polyolefin) elastomers: Butyl

rubber, Ethylenepropylene rubber (EPR),Ethylenepropylenediene monomer rub-ber (EPDM), Chlorosulfonated polyethyl-ene (CSM)Silicone rubber: Polydimethylsiloxane

(PDMS, VMQ), Fluorosilicone (FVMQ)Other elastomers: Epichlorohydrin (ECO),

Phosphazene elastomer, Polycarboranesi-loxane, Polyurethanes (PUR)

Thermoplastic Elastomers (TPE)Block copolymers: Styrenebutadienestyrene (SBS), Styreneethylene/butylenestyrene (S-EB-S), Styreneisoprenestyrene(SIB), Poly(butylene terephthalate-b-tetra-methylene oxide) (TPE-E), Poly(amide-g-alkylene oxide) (TPE-A), Poly(urethane-g-ester/alkylene oxide) (TPU)Dynamic vulcanizates: Thermoplastic

polyolefin (TPO), Plasticized PVC/NBRblend, NR/EPR blend

Other AspectsCoagulum, Crepe, Fluidized bed, Latex,Mastication, Microwaving, Vulcanizate

1.3 Adhesives

Hot MeltsEthylenevinyl acetate copolymer (EVA),Ethyleneethyl acrylate copolymer (EEA),Polyamide, Polyester, Phenoxy

Curable AdhesivesAcrylic, Cyanoacrylate, Epoxy, Phenolic

Water-BornePoly(vinyl acetate), Styrenebutadienecopolymer (SBR), Poly(ethylenevinylacetate) copolymer (VAE)

Pressure-Sensitive AdhesiveElastomer, Tackifier

Other AspectsAdherend, Adhesive test, Adhesive wetting,Anodizing, Debonding, Cold plasma,Corona discharge, Critical surface energy,Critical wetting tension, Joint, Lap shear,Pot life, Tack, Work of adhesion

1.4 Composites

Fibre ReinforcementContinuous fibres: Aramid fibre, Carbonfibre, Glass fibre, Graphite fibreShort fibres: Asbestos, Carbon fibre,

Chopped strandmat laminate (CSM), Glassfibre

Particulate ReinforcementFillers: Barite, Bentonite, Calcium carbon-ate, Carbon black, Channel black, Clay,Fumed silica, Functional filler, Glass flake,Kaolin, Mica, Quartz, TitaniaNanofillers: Carbon nanotube, Exfolia-

tion, Montmorillonite, NanoclayFire retardant andAntitracking: Aluminium

trihydrate, Antimony oxide, Magnesiumhydroxide, Molybdenum oxideOther fillers: Bioactive filler, Magnetic

filler, Molybdenum disulfide, Metal powder

MatrixThermosets: Unsaturated polyester, Epoxyresin, Phenolic, Cyanoacrylate, PMR,PolyimideThermoplastics: Coupled polypropylene,

Polyamide, Poly(ether ketone), Poly(etherimide), Poly(phenylene sulfide)

NanocompositesCeramer, Exfoliated nanocomposite, Organicmodified filler, Organicinorganic hybrid

Other AspectsDebonding, BET isotherm, Commingledfibre, Composite manufacture, Composite

1 Materials jXV

property prediction (Reinforcement theory),Composite test, Coupling agent, Criticalfibre length,Gel coat,Graphene, Exfoliation,Intercalation, Ion exchange capacity (IEC),Interfacial bonding, Laminate, Low profileadditive, Modulus enhancement factor, Oilabsorption, Prepreg, Reinforcement factor,Size, Sizing/Finishing, Zeta potential

1.5 Foams

AspectsClosed cell, Foam density and properties,Foam formation mechanism, Foam manu-facture, Open cell, Structural foam, Syntac-tic foam

1.6 Coatings

Ac Curable VarnishesAcrylic, Alkyd, Drying resin, Epoxide,Phenolic, Urethane

Water-Borne DispersionsMicroemulsions: Polyurethane, EpoxidePolymer emulsions: Poly(vinyl acetate),

Acrylic

PowdersCurable thermosetting systems: Epoxide, Poly(esterepoxide), PolyurethaneThermoplastic powders: Polyester, Acrylic

Other AspectsAnodizing, Blistering, Cold plasma, Con-tact angle, Critical surface energy, Criticalwetting tension, Dip coating, Electrolyticdeposition, Electrostatic spraying, Film for-mation, Metallization, Gel coat, Intumes-cent coating, Pinhole, Plating, Pot life,Primer, Roughness factor, Sputtering, Sur-face energy, Work of adhesion, Zisman plot

1.7 Functional Polymers

BiopolymersChitin, Chitosan, Esteramide polymer,Ethylenecarbonmonoxidecopolymer (ECO),

Poly(lactic acid), Polylactide, Oxo-biodegrad-able polymer, Poly(hydroxy alkanoate), Poly(hydroxybutyrate),Polypeptide,Polysaccharide,Starch

Conductive PolymersPolyacetylene, Polyaniline (PANI),Polypyrrole

Ionomeric PolymersIonomer, Ion exchange resin, Nafion,Polyelectrolyte

Other AspectsCross-linked thermoplastic, Dendrimer,Doping, Engineering polymer, Heat-shrink-able product, Light-sensitive polymer,Liquid-crystal polymer, Shape memorypolymer, Nonlinear dielectric polymer,Piezoelectric polymer, Photoresist, Poly(amic acid), PTC polymer, Spandex fibre

2. Properties

2.1 Rheological properties

RheologyBarus effect, Binghambody, Carreaumodel,Complex viscosity, Consistency index,Converging flow, Couette flow, Deborahnumber, Deformational behaviour, Dieswell, Dilatant fluid, Drag flow, Elongationalflow, Elongation rate, Elongational viscosity,Ellis equation, Extension viscosity, G0 andG00, Gel time (gel point), Melt elasticity,Mooney equation, Newtonian behaviour,Non-Newtonian behaviour, Normal stressdifference, First normal stress coefficient,Plug flow, Power law, Power-law index, Thix-otropy, Trouton viscosity, True shear rate,True viscosity, Viscosity, Zero-shear viscosity

RheometryBagley correction, Brookfield viscometer,Capillary rheometer, Cone-and-plate rhe-

XVIj 2 Properties

ometer, Coaxial cylinder rheometer, Die-exit phenomena,Dynamic (oscillatory)flow,Gelation, Entry effect, Melt flow index (Meltflow rate), Melt fracture, Melt strength,Monsanto rheometer, Mooney viscometer,Parallel-plate rheometer, PVT diagram,Rabinowitsch correction, Sharkskin, Slipanalysis, Slit rheometer, Torque rheometer,Weissenberg rheogoniometer

Other AspectsCritical chain length (Zc), Deformationalbehaviour, Entanglement, Flow curve,MarkHuggins equation, Radius of gyration,Reptation, Rubbery state, Viscous state

2.2 Mechanical Properties

Elasticity and ViscoelasticityBulk modulus, Compliance, Complexcompliance, Complex modulus, Creep,Creep compliance, Creep curves, Creepmodulus, Creep period, Damping factor,Deflection under load temperature, Defor-mational behaviour, Dynamic mechanicalspectra, Effective modulus, Elasticity, Elas-tic behaviour, Elastic memory, Elastic re-covery, Flexural modulus, Forcedeflec-tion curve, Forcedeformation curve, For-ceextension curve, Heat distortion tem-perature (HDT), Hundred-percent (100%)modulus, KelvinVoigt model, Loaddeflec-tion curve, Loaddeformation curve, Loa-dextension curve, Loss angle, Loss compli-ance, Loss factor, Loss modulus, Loss tan-gent, Master curve, Maxwell model, Modu-lus, M100 and M300, Nonlinear viscoelasticbehaviour, Phase angle, Recovery, Recover-able strain, Reduced time, Relaxation time,Retardation time, Relaxation modulus, Re-laxed modulus, Rubber elasticity, Shearmodulus, Shift factor, Standard linear solidmodel, Tan d, Tangent modulus, Tensilemodulus, Time-dependent modulus,Timetemperature superposition, Visco-elastic behaviour, Voigt model, Youngsmodulus

Failure and Fracturea/W ratio, Brittle fracture, Brittle point,Brittle strength, Brittletough transition,Cold-flex temperature, Cold flow, Com-pression set, Crack initiation, Cracklength, Crack opening displacement(COD), Crazing, Creep rupture, Criticalcrazing strain, Critical strain energy re-lease rate (Gc), Critical stress intensity fac-tor (Kc), Ductile, Ductilebrittle transition,Ductile failure, Environmental stresscracking, Fatigue life, Flex cracking, Flexlife, Flexural strength, Fracturemechanics,Griffiths equation, Impact strength, Inter-laminar shear strength (ILSS), J-integral,Luder lines, Notch sensitivity, Peelstrength, Permanent set, Plastic deforma-tion, Tear strength, Tenacity, Tresca crite-rion, Von Mises criterion, Yield criteria,Yield failure, Yield point, Yield strength,Youngs modulus

Test MethodsBall drop, Bending test, Charpy impacttest, Compression test, Creep test, Dila-tometer, Dumb-bell specimen, Dynamicmechanical analysis (DMA), Dynamicmechanical thermal analysis (DMTA),Extensometer, Falling-weight impact test,Fatigue test, Fracture test, Impact test, Izodimpact test, Mechanical spectroscopy, Mi-crohardness, Notch, Peel test, Pendulumimpact test, Rubber elasticity, Tensile test,Viscoelasticity

Other AspectsAbrasion resistance, Anisotropy, Boltz-mann superposition principle, Compres-sion, Compact tension specimen, Damagetolerance, Damping, Deformation, Delami-nation, Distribution of relaxation times,Distribution of retardation times, Dynamicmechanical spectra, Flexural properties,Friction coefficient, Hardness, Hydrostaticstress, Life prediction, Load, Microvoid,Poissons ratio, Rockwell hardness, Rub-bery state, Shear stress, Shore hardness,

2 Properties jXVII

Stiffness, Strain, Strain rate, Stress, Stressconcentration, Tack, Transmissibility, Ten-sor, Torque, Torsion pendulum, Toughness,Vicat softening point, Vickers hardness,Volumetric strain

2.3 Electrical Properties

Low VoltageCapacitance, ClausiusMossotti equation,Complex permittivity, Conductance, Con-ductivity, Corona discharge, Currentdensity, Dielectric, Dielectric constant,Dielectric properties, Dielectric thermalanalysis (DETA), Direct current, Electrostat-ic charge, Loss angle, Loss factor, Loss tan-gent, Permittivity, Polarization, Resistivity,Specific impedance, Stress concentration,Surface resistivity, Tan d, Volume resistivity

High VoltageBreakdown voltage, Comparative trackingindex (CTI), Dielectric strength, Dry band,Electrical failure, Electric strength, Tracking

Other AspectsDipole, Electronic conductivity, Electrostaticcharge, Ionic conductivity, Polarity, Stressgrading, Nonlinear dielectric, PTC polymer

2.4 Optical Properties

AspectsBackscatter, Birefringence, CIE chromaticitydiagram, Colour, Colour matching, Directreflection factor, Extinction index, Forwardscatter, Gloss, Haze, Light microscopy, Lightscattering, Light transmission factor, Opticalbrightener, Optical microscopy, Optical pathdifference, Orientation, Photoelasticity, Re-flection factor, Refractive index, See-throughclarity,Stressopticalcoefficient,Transparency

2.5 Barrier Properties

AspectsDiffusion, Diffusion coefficient, Fickian be-haviour, Permeability, Solubility, Time lag

2.6 Other Properties

TypesAcoustic: Attenuation, Loss factorFire resistance: Cone calorimeter, Flash

point, Limiting oxygen index, Pyrolysis,Self-extinguishing, Thermal gravimetricanalysisThermal properties: Dilatometer, Dilata-

tion coefficient, Thermal conductivity, Ther-mal expansion coefficient

3. Processing

3.1 Compounding

AspectsBanbury mixer, Decompression zone,Devolatilization, Dispersion, Dispersive mix-ing, Dry blend, Formulation, Master batch,Melting,Miscibility,Mixing,Mixer, Pelletizer,Plastication, Plastograph, Purging, Recipro-cating screw mixer, Thermal degradation,Torque rheometer, Twin-screw extruder

3.2 Moulding and Thermoforming

Machine and MouldsClamping force, Clamping system, Ejectionmechanism, Film gate, Gate, Hot runnermould, Lockingmechanism,Mould design,Nozzle, Nylon screw, Reciprocating screw,Runner, Sprue, Stripper plate

OperationsAir-slip forming, Blow moulding, Cavityfilling, Cavity packing, Compressionmoulding, Co-injection moulding, Drapeforming, Injection blow moulding, Injec-tion moulding, Plastication, Plug-assistedvacuumforming, Purging, Reactionmould-ing, Reaction processing, Resin transfermoulding, Rotational moulding, Stretchblow moulding, Thermoforming, Transfermoulding, Vacuum forming

XVIIIj 3 Processing

Other AspectsBack-pressure, Demoulding, Distortionand Warping, Flash, Gel coat, Internalstress, Moulding cycle, Moulding defect,Pre-form, PVT diagram, Residual stress,Sink mark, Spiral flow moulding, Void,Weld line

3.3 Extrusion and Calendering

ExtruderBarrel, Barrier flights screw, Co-rotating,Counter-rotating, Decompression zone,Devolatilization, Extruder screw, Gearpump, Nylon screw, Twin-screw extruder

Extrusion DiesDie gap, Die lip, Fish-tail die, Land length,Sizing die, Spider leg, Mandrel

Other AspectsAdiabatic heating, Back-flow, Blocking,Blow-up ratio, Blown film, Breaker plate,Calender, Cambering (Roll crowning),Chill-roll casting, Co-extrusion, Crow feet,Extrusion theory, Die analysis, Die drool,Drag flow, Draw ratio, Drawdown ratio,Extrudate, Fish eye, Flow analysis, Flowinstability, Foam extrusion, Lamination,Leakage flow, Parison, Plastication, Plateout, Pressure flow, Purging, Screwdie in-teraction, Surging, Tubular film, Weld line

3.4 Welding, Prototyping and Fabrications

Hot-plate welding, Friction welding, High-frequencywelding,Ultrasonicwelding,Rapidprototyping, Stereolithography, Casting, Ma-chining, Powder sintering, Tyre construction

4. Structure, Morphologyand Characterization

4.1 Chemical Structure

Acid number, Aliphatic, Atactic, Attenuatedtotal reflectance spectroscopy, Block copoly-

mer, Carbonyl index, Chain configuration,Chain regularity, Chain stiffness, Chemicalshift, Configuration, Conformation, Conju-gated double bond, Coordination, Copoly-mer, Critical chain length, Cross-link,Degree of cross-linking, Degree of poly-merization, Dendrimer, Electron spin res-onance, Electron spectroscopy for chemi-cal analysis (ESCA), Free radical, Fluores-cence, Functionality, Head-to-head, Head-to-tail, Heterochain, Hydrogen bond,Hydrophilic, Hydrophobic, Hydroxylequivalent (number), Hygroscopic, Hyper-branched polymer, Infrared spectroscopy(IR, FTIR), Interpenetrating polymer net-work (IPN), Isotactic, Network, Non-polarpolymer, Oligomer, Orientation, Oxiranering, Polarity, Quinone structure, Radia-tion, Radical, Radius of gyration, Ramanspectroscopy, Random copolymer, Sidegroup, Spectroscopy, Spectrum, Syndiotac-tic, Tacticity, UV spectroscopy, X-ray, X-rayphotoelectron microscopy (XPS)

4.2 Crystallinity and Heterogeneity

Amorphous polymer, Atomic force mi-croscopy (AFM), Birefringence, Chainfolding, Cluster, Cold crystallization, Col-loidal, Co-continuous domain, Core andshell, Crystalline polymer, Crystallization,Degree of crystallinity, Dielectric thermalanalysis (DETA), Differential scanningcalorimetry (DSC), Differential thermalanalysis (DTA), Dynamic mechanical ther-mal analysis (DMA, DMTA), Exfoliation,Emulsion, First-order transition, Fractal,Fringe micelle, Intercalation, Lamella, Lightmicroscopy, Light scattering, Melting point,Microscopy, Microcavitation, Microemul-sion, Microvoid, Optical microscopy, Scan-ning electronmicroscope, Secondary crystal-lization, Shish-kebab crystal, Small-angleX-ray scattering (SAXS), Spherulite, Trans-mission electron microscopy (TEM), Unitcell, Wide-angle X-ray diffraction (WAXS),X-ray

4 Structure, Morphology and Characterization jXIX

4.3 Orientation

Anisotropy, Annealing, Biaxial, Birefrin-gence, Draw ratio, Extension ratio, Fibre,Heat settingHeat-shrinkable polymer, Monoaxial,

Monofilament, Optical path difference, Ori-entation function, Wide-angle X-ray diffrac-tion (WAXS)

4.4 Molecular weights

Dispersity index, Distribution of molecularweight, Gel permeation chromatography,Huggins constant, Intrinsic viscosity, Mo-lar mass, Molecular weight, Monodisperse,Measurement of molecular weight, Mar-kHouwink equation, Number-averagemo-lecular weight, Osmotic pressure, Osmom-etry, Relative viscosity, Weight-average mo-lecular weight, Size exclusion chromatogra-phy, Staudinger, Ubbelohde viscometer,Viscometer, Viscosity

5. Polymerization Cross-linking and Degradation

5.1 Initiators, Inhibitors and Vulcanization

Accelerator, Activator, Cobalt naphthanateand octoate, Co-agent, Cure time, Curing,Efficient vulcanization, Fatty acid, Kicker,Mechanical degradation, Mercaptan, Micro-waving,Peroxide,Photoinitiator, Post-curing,Scorch time, Retarder, Thiouram, Zinc oxide

5.2 Polymerization and Cross-Linking

MechanismsAddition polymerization, Anionic polymer-ization, Cationic polymerization, Chainstopper, Condensation reaction, Condensa-tion polymerization, Copolymerization,Depolymerization, DMP-30, Free-radicalpolymerization, Ionic polymerization,Metallocene catalysis, Propagation reaction,

Reactivity ratio, Termination reaction,Ziegler catalyst, ZieglerNatta catalyst

MethodsBulk polymerization, Electron beaming,Emulsion polymerization, Heterophase orHeterogeneous polymerization, Mass poly-merization, Mechanical degradation, Phaseinversion, Photopolymerization, Radiationprocessing, Reaction processing, Seed po-lymerization, Solid-state polymerization,Surfactant, Suspension polymerization

5.3 Ageing and Weathering

Depolymerization, Chalking, Chain scis-sion, Composting, Environmental ageing,Fogging, Hydrolysis, Induction time, Lifecycle analysis, Life prediction, Ozone, Phys-ical ageing, Propagation reaction, Radia-tion, Recycling, Secondary crystallization,Solar radiation, Thermal degradation, Ul-traviolet (UV) light, UVdegradation, Xenonarc lamp, Yellowness index

6. Additives and Modifiers

6.1 Additives

StabilizersAntidegradant, Antioxidant, Antiozonant,Chelating agent, Excited state quencher,Hindered amine light stabilizer (HALS),Hindered phenol, Hydrolysis stabilizer,Lead stabilizer, Metal deactivator, Phenolicantioxidant, Primary stabilizer, Processingstabilizer, Radical scavenger, UV stabilizer

Lubricants and Processing AidsAntiblocking agent, Antifoaming agent,Blocking, Cationic surfactant, Externallubricant, Factice, Flow promoter, Fusionpromoter, Internal lubricant, Low-profileadditive, Lubricant, Peptizer, Stearate, Stea-ric acid, Tackifier, Thickener, Thixotropicagent

XXj 6 Additives and Modifiers

ColorantsAnatase, CIE chromaticity diagram, Dye,Mineral pigment, Pigment, Rutile, Ther-mochromic pigment

Coupling AgentsCompatibilizing agent, Interfacial bonding,Silane, Size (Sizing), Surfactant

Functional AdditivesAntifoaming agent, Antimicrobial (biocidal)agent, Antistatic agent, Antitracking additive,Blowing agent, Flocculant, Fungicide, Nucle-ating agent

Other AspectsAdditive concentrate, Compounding,Fogging, Law of mixtures, Master batch,Miscibility, Mixing, Solubility parameter,Stabilization, Synergism

6.2 Property Modifiers

Fire (Flame) RetardantsAluminium trihydrate, Antimony oxide,Brominated compound, Chlorinated fireretardant, Magnesium hydroxide, Molybde-num oxide

Impact ModifiersAcrylonitrilebutadienestyrene terpolymer(ABS), Amine-terminated acrylonitrilebutadienestyrene terpolymer (ATBN), Car-boxylic acid-terminated acrylonitrilebuta-dienestyrene terpolymer (CTBN), Metha-crylatebutadienestyrene terpolymer(MBS), Liquid rubber, Polymer alloy, Poly-mer blend, Telechelic oligomer

Functional FillersBarite, Bioactivefiller,Carbonblack,Carbonnanotube, Magnetic filler, Metal powder

PlasticizersEpoxidized soya-bean oil, Extender, Low-temperature plasticizer, Non-migratoryplasticizer, Organosol, Primary plasticizer,Reactive diluent, Secondary plasticizer

Reinforcing FibresGlass fibre, Carbon fibre (Acrylic fibre),Aramid fibre

Other AspectsAntiplasticization, Cold-flex temperature,Compatibility, Glass transition tempera-ture, Internal plasticization, Lower criticalsolution temperature (LCST), Miscibility,Mixing, Plasticization, Plastisol, Solubilityparameter, Upper critical solution tempera-ture (UCST)

7. SupportingFundamental Principlesand Terminology

Absorbance, Activation energy, Activationvolume, Alpha transition, Alternating cur-rent, Aprotic polar solvent, Arrhenius equa-tion, BeerLambert law, Beta transition,Boundary condition, Case II diffusion,Cluster, Cohesive energy density, Coldplasma, Colligative properties, Colloidal,Conformation, Configuration, Conserva-tion law, Continuummechanics, Coordina-tion, Current density, Deconvolution, Di-rect current, Elasticity, Electromagnetic ra-diation, Empirical, Endothermic, Engineer-ing design, Enthalpy, Entropy, Exothermic,Extinction coefficient, Fickian behaviour,First-order transition, Fluorescence, Frac-tal, Fractography, Free radical, Fundamentalproperty, Gibbs free energy, Hookes law,Hydrogen bond, Hydrolysis, Hydrophilic,Hydrophobic,Hydrostatic pressure,Hydro-static stress, Hydrothermal stress, Hygro-scopic, Induction time, Insulation, Interac-tion, Interfacial polarization, Intermolecu-lar, Internal energy, Intramolecular, Isother-mal, Isotropic, Law of mixtures, Linearbehaviour, Linear elastic, Lower bound, Lu-brication approximation, Melting point,Modulus, Momentum, Momentum equa-tion, Morphology, Non-destructive test,

7 Supporting Fundamental Principles and Terminology jXXI

Non-polar, Nuclear magnetic resonance,Ozone, Photoelasticity, Plane strain, Planestress, Plastic, Poiseuille equation, Poissonsratio, Polarity, Polarization, Polarized light,

Radical, Solar radiation, Spectrum,Stiffness,Stokes equation, Synergism, Tensor, Torque,Transesterification, Van der Waals forces,Vector

XXIIj 7 Supporting Fundamental Principles and Terminology

List of Acronyms

AAA acetoxyacetoanilideABA acetoxybenzoic acidABS acrylonitrilebutadienestyrene (terpolymer)AC alternating currentACM acrylic rubber, copolymer of ethyl acrylate and butyl

acrylateAED anionic electrolytic depositionAFM atomic force microscopyAIBN azo-bis-isobutyronitrileANA acetoxynaphthoic acidASA acrylonitrileacrylatestyrene (terpolymer)ATBN amine-terminated butadieneacrylonitrile oligomerATH aluminium (or alumina) trihydrateATR attenuated total reflectance (spectroscopy)a/W ratio ratio of length of crack (or notch), a, to width of specimen,W,

used in evaluation of the toughness of materialsAZBN azo-bis-dibutyronitrileAZDN azo-bis-dibutyronitrilebis-MPA bis(hydroxymethyl)propionic acidBMC bulk moulding compoundBMI bismaleimide (resin)b.p. boiling pointBP benzophenoneB-stage term used to describe an intermediate state of cure of

thermosetting resins, particularly phenolic systemsBUR blow-up ratioCA cellulose acetateCAB cellulose acetate butyrateCAD computer-aided designCAP cellulose acetate propionateCBT cyclic butylene terephthalateCEC cation exchange capacity

XXIII

CED cationic electrolytic depositionCED cohesive energy densityCFRP carbon-fibre-reinforced plasticsCIE Commission International de lEclairageCN cellulose nitrateCNT carbon nanotubeCOD crack-opening displacementCP cellulose propionateCPE chlorinated polyethyleneCR chloroprene rubberCSM chlorosulfonated polyethyleneCSM chopped strand matCT compact tension (specimen)CTBN carboxyl-terminated butadieneacrylonitrile oligomerCTI comparative tracking indexDABCO 1,4-diazabicyclo[2.2.2]octane (tertiary cyclic diamine)DAI diaryliodoniumDAP diallyl phthalateDBP dibutyl phthalateDBTL dibutyl tin dilaurateDC direct currentDCB double cantilever beam (method)DDS 4,40-diaminodiphenylsulfoneDDSA dodecylsuccinic anhydrideDEAP diethoxyacetophenoneDEN double edge notchDETA dielectric thermal analysisDETA diethylenetriamineDGEBA diglycidyl ether of bisphenol A (resin)DIAP diallyl isophthalateDICY dicyanodiamideDIDP diisododecyl phthalateDIOP diisooctyl phthalateDLTDP dilaurylthiodipropionoateDMA dynamic mechanical analysisDMC dough moulding compoundDMF dimethylformamideDMP-30 tertiary amine used as curing agent for epoxy resinsDMPA dimethoxyphenylacetophenoneDMTA dynamic mechanical thermal analysisDOA dioctyl adipateDOP dioctyl phthalateDOS dioctyl sebacateDSC differential scanning calorimetryDSTDP distearylthiodipropionoate

XXIV List of Acronyms

DTA differential thermal analysisDULT deflection under load temperatureEAM ethyleneethyl acrylate (copolymer)ECO epichlorohydrinethylene oxide (copolymer)ECO ethylenecarbon monoxide (copolymer)EDS energy-dispersive scanning (analysis)EDX energy-dispersive X-ray (analysis) (same as EDS)EEA ethyleneethyl acrylate (copolymer)EM electromagneticEMA ethylenemethyl methacrylate (copolymer)ENF end-notched flexure (test/specimen)EPDM ethylenepropylenediene monomer (rubber)EPR ethylenepropylene rubberESCA electron spectroscopy for chemical analysisESCR environmental stress cracking resistanceESR electron spin resonanceETER epichlorohydrinethylene oxidediene terpolymerETPV engineering thermoplastic vulcanizateEV efficient vulcanizing (cure)EVA ethylenevinyl acetate (copolymer)EVOH ethylenevinyl alcohol (copolymer)EW equivalent weightFEP poly(tetrafluoroethylenehexafluoropropylene) copolymerFIR far-infraredFKM designation for a fluoroelastomerFRP fibre-reinforced polymerFTIR Fourier transform infraredFVMQ designation for a fluorosiliconeGc critical strain energy release rateGCC ground calcium carbonateGIc, GIIc, GIIIc critical strain energy release rates for fracture

modes I, II and IIIGOTMS c-glycidyloxypropyltrimethoxysilaneGPC gel permeation chromatography, known also as size

exclusion chromatography (SEC)GPTMS c-glycidyloxypropyltrimethoxysilaneGRP glass-reinforced plasticHALS hindered-amine light stabilizerHDI hexamethylene diisocyanateHDPE high-density polyethylene (density 0.9350.955 g/cm3)HDT heat distortion temperatureHHPA hexahydrophthalic anhydrideHIPS high-impact polystyreneHP-PE high-pressure polyethyleneIEC ion exchange capacity

List of Acronyms XXV

IIR isobutyleneisoprene rubberILSS interlaminar shear strengthIPN interpenetrating polymer networkIR infrared spectroscopyIR isoprene rubberIRH international rubber hardness (scale)Kc critical stress intensity factorKIc, KIIc, KIIIc critical stress intensity factor for fracture modes I, II and IIIK value empirical parameter used for molecular weight of PVCLARC tradename for a variety of PMR products of

NASA-LangleyLCP liquid-crystal polymerLCST lower critical solution temperatureLDPE low-density polyethyleneLEFM linear elastic fracture mechanicsLLDPE linear low-density polyethyleneLOI limiting oxygen indexLP low-profile (additive)M100, M300 modulus of a rubbery material at 100% and

300% extensionMBS methyl methacrylatebutadienestyrene

(terpolymer blend)MBT mercaptobenzothiazoleMDI diphenylmethane-4,40-diisocyanate [4,40-methylene

diphenylene isocyanate]MDPE medium-density polyethylene (density =

0.9250.935 g/cm3)MEK methyl ethyl ketoneMF melamine formaldehyde (resin)MFI melt flow index, also known as melt index or melt flow rate

(MFR)MFR melt flow rate, also known as melt flow index (MFI)MNA methylnadic anhydrideMPD m-phenylenediamineMW molecular weightMWD molecular-weight distributionMWNT multiple-walled (carbon) nanotubeN1 first normal stress differenceNBR butadieneacrylonitrile rubberNBR nitrile rubberNIR near-infraredNMP N-methylpyrrolidoneNMR nuclear magnetic resonanceNR natural rubberODA oxydianiline

XXVI List of Acronyms

PACM 4,40-methylene-bis-cyclohexanaminePAN polyacrylonitrilePANI polyanilinePB poly(but-1-ene)PB polybutadienePBI polybenzimidazolePBT poly(butylene terephthalate)PC polycarbonatePCBT poly(cyclo(butylene terephthalate))PCL polycaprolactonePCTFE polychlorotrifluoroethylenePCTP pentachlorothiophenolPDLA poly(D-lactic acid)PDLLA poly(D,L-lactic acid)PDMS polydimethylsiloxanePE polyethylenePEEK poly(aryl ether ether ketone)PEG poly(ethylene glycol)PE-g-MA polyethylene-graft-maleic anhydridePEI poly(ether imide)PEK poly(aryl ether ketone)PEM proton exchange membranePEN poly(ethylene naphthanate)PEO poly(ethylene oxide)PES poly(ether sulfone)PET poly(ethylene terephthalate)PETFE poly(tetrafluoroethyleneethylene) copolymerPF phenol formaldehyde (resin)PFA perfluoroalkoxy (polymer)PHA polyhydroxyalkanoatePHB poly(3-hydroxybutyrate)phr parts per hundred parts resinPI polyimidePLA poly(lactic acid)PLLA poly(L-lactic acid)PMDA pyromellitic dianhydridePMDI poly(diphenylmethane-4,40-diisocyanate)PMMA poly(methyl methacrylate)PMO poly(methylene oxide)PMP poly(4-methylpent-1-ene)PMPS polymethylphenylsiloxanePMR polymerization of monomer reactants

(NASA-Langley process)POM polyoxymethylenePP polypropylene

List of Acronyms XXVII

PPG poly(propylene glycol)PPO poly(phenylene oxide)PPS poly(phenylene sulfide)PS polystyrenePSA pressure-sensitive adhesivePTBAEMA poly(2-t-butylaminoethyl methacrylate)PTC positive temperature coefficient (polymer)PTE thermoplastic elastomerPTFE polytetrafluoroethylenePU polyurethanePVA poly(vinyl alcohol)PVAc poly(vinyl acetate)PVB poly(vinyl butyral)PVC poly(vinyl chloride)PVDC poly(vinylidene chloride)PVDF poly(vinylidene fluoride)PVEE poly(vinyl ethyl ether)PVF poly(vinyl fluoride)PVF2 poly(vinylidene fluoride)PVME poly(vinyl methyl ether)PVP polyvinylpyridinePVP polyvinylpyrrolidonePVT pressurevolumetemperature (diagram)Q symbol sometimes used for polydimethylsilicone rubberQ meter apparatus used to measure permittivity and loss factor

of dielectricRF radiofrequencyRIM reaction injection mouldingRMS root mean squareRTD residence time distributionRTM resin transfer mouldingRTV room-temperature vulcanizationSAN styreneacrylonitrile (copolymer)SAXS small-angle X-ray scatteringSBR styrenebutadiene rubberSBS styrenebutadienestyrene (thermoplastic elastomer)SEBS styreneethylenebutylene (thermoplastic elastomer)S-EB-S styreneethylene/butylenestyreneSEC size exclusion chromatographySEM scanning electron microscopySEN single edge notchS-EP-S styreneethylene/propylenestyrenesemi-IPN semi-interpenetrated polymer networkSIS styreneisoprenestyrene (thermoplastic elastomer)SLS standard linear solid (model)

XXVIII List of Acronyms