Neuropsychological assessment examines brain- behavior
relationships. Personality testing accesses both underlying
intrapsychic issues and overt behavioral manifestations of each
individuals unique psyche.
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Cognitive Testing the assessment of a wide range of information
processing or thinking skills and behaviors. They include general
neuropsychological functions involving brain- behavior
relationships, general intellectual functions (such as reasoning
and problem solving) as well as more specific cognitive skills
(such as visual and auditory memory), language skills, pattern
recognition, visual perceptual skills, academic skills, and motor
functions.
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Cognitive testing may include aptitude testing= assesses
cognitive potential such as general intelligence achievement
testing= assesses proficiency in specific skills such as reading or
mathematics. Cognitive testing refers to many different types of
tests measuring many different types of thinking and learning
skills.
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Intelligence Testing During the beginning of the field, the
goals of intellectual testing were to evaluate children in order to
help them maximize their educational experience and to assist
teachers for children with special needs. It was also used to
screen military recruits. Now, it is used for vocational planning,
assessing learning disabilities, determining eligibility for gifted
and special education programs, and examining brain-behavior
relationships following head injuries, strokes, or other medical
conditions.
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We can learn about an individuals cognitive strengths and
weaknesses by INT testing. It is used not only to measure INT but
to assess cognitive functioning in general. IQ testing has been
frequently misused by some professionals and the public. Argument
about the reliability, validity, meaning, and usefulness of IQ
scores and testing continues today.
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What Is Intelligence? There is no agreement about definition or
theory of INT. Boring (1923)defined INT as what INT tests measure.
Spearman offered a two-factor theory of INT: general abilities of
INT (referred to as g) and specific abilities of INT (referred to
as s). Thurstone suggested that INT included nine independent
skills or primary mental abilities: verbal relations, words,
perceptual ability, spatial ability, induction, deduction,
numerical ability, arithmetic reasoning, and memory. These distinct
and separate abilities comprise INT.
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Cattell defined fluid abilities as the persons genetic or
inborn intellectual abilities, crystallized abilities are what a
person learns through experience, culture, and various
opportunities arising from interaction with the world. Fluid
abilities resemble Spearmans g and refer to general problem-solving
abilities, abstract reasoning, and ability to integrate and
synthesize information quickly and efficiently. Crystallized
abilities resemble Spearmans s and refer to specific skills
developed by training and experience.
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Piaget added a developmental perspective to intellectual
theory. He suggested that humans have four stages of cognitive
development: sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational,
and formal operations Piaget used the terms assimilation to refer
to gathering information accommodation to refer to changing
existing cognitive structures (or schemes) to allow for the newly
incorporated and assimilated information.
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Contemporary views of INT include practical, creative, and
emotional aspects in addition to more traditional abstract
reasoning and academic abilities. Sternberg and Gardner accept a
more biopsychosocial perspective in the description of INT.
Sternberg offered a triarchic theory of INT. Three categories of
INT: componential factor includes analytical thinking, experiential
factor includes creative abilities. contextual factor refers to
good street smarts and the ability to adapt to and manipulate the
environment.
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Gardner developed a theory of multiple INTs comprising six
different types of intelligence: linguistic, logical-mathematical,
musical, bodily-kinesthetic, spatial, and personal.
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Knowing and managing ones emotions and recognizing emotions in
others are part of emotional INT(EQ) of Goleman. However, Sternberg
and Gardners new views of INT have not resulted in the development
of new tests. The traditional IQ tests have been used.
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How Do Clinical Psychologists Measure Intelligence? There are
different tests for children, adults, ethnic minority group
members, the gifted, and the disabled. Some tests are administered
individually, others are administered in groups. Some are easy to
administer and score, others are very difficult to use. The most
popular and frequently used tests are the Wechsler Scales.The
second most frequently used INT test is the Stanford-Binet (Fifth
Edition).
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Wechsler Scales for Adults The Wechsler- Bellevue INT Scale was
developed in 1939. The Wechsler Adult INT Scale (WAIS) in 1955 The
Wechsler Adult INT Scale-Revised (WAIS-R)in 1981 in WAIS-III in
1997 WAIS-IV in 2008 The WAIS-IV consists of: 4 verbal subtests:
Information, Similarities, Vocabulary and Comprehension, 5
perceptual reasoning subtests: Picture Completion, Block Design,
Matrix Reasoning, Visual Puzzles and Figure Weights. 3 working
memory subtests: Arithmetic, Digit Span, Letter-Numbering
Sequencing 3 processing speed subtests: Symbol Search, Coding and
Cancellation.
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Wechsler Scales The WAIS-IV generally takes about one to
one-and-a- half hours to individually administer to someone between
the ages of 16 and 74. Four IQ scores are determined using the
WAIS-IV: Verbal Comprehension Index Score Perceptual Reasoning
Index Score Working Memory Index Score Processing Speed Index Score
+++++ Full Scale IQ score
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Wechsler Scales The mean IQ score is 100 with a SD of 15.
Scores between 90 and 110 the average range of intellectual
functioning. Scores below 70 are considered to be in the mentally
deficient (MR) range, Scores above 130 are considered to be in the
very superior range.
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Wechsler Scales Kaplan have developed WAIS-R as a
Neuropsychological Instrument (WAIS-R NI) with additional subtests
(Sentence Arrangement, Spatial Span, Symbol Copy) as well as
modifications for administration and scoring in order to measure
individuals who have brain dysfunction. We can make inferences
about cognitive strengths and weaknesses by examining the pattern
of scores obtained on each WAIS-IV subtest.
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Wechsler Scales High scores on the vocabulary subtest relative
to very low scores on the block design subject might suggest that
the person has good use of language in solving problems and a
poorer ability to solve problems using perceptual and motor
integration skills. We can learn about neuropsychological problems
such as brain damage. For example, low scores on performance
subtests of the WAIS-IV relative to high scores on the verbal
subtests has been associated with alcoholism and dementia.
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Wechsler Scales For Children The Wechsler INT Scale for
Children (WISC) in 1949 The Wechsler INT Scale for Children-
Revised (WISC-R) in 1974 The Wechsler INT Scale for Children-Third
Edition (WISC-III) in 1991 The Wechsler Intelligence Scale for
Children-Fourth Edition (WISC-IV) in 2003. The WISC-IV was
developed for children aged 6 to 16.
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Wechsler Scales For Children four categories: Verbal
Comprehension: Similarities, Vocabulary, and Comprehension
Perceptual Reasoning: Block Design, Picture Concepts, and
MatrixReasoning Working Memory: Digit Span,Letter-Number Sequencing
Processing Speed: Coding, Symbol Search
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Wechsler Scales For Children The WISC-IV provides four index
score IQs +++++++ a full-scale IQ score. These IQ scores all are
set with a mean of 100 and a standard deviation of 15. Subtest
scores have a mean of 10 and a standard deviation of 3.
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The Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of INT (WPPSI) The
WPPSI in 1967 the WPPSI-R in 1989 the WPPSI-III in 2002, the
current version The WPPSI-III is used for children ranging in age
from 2 to 7. four IQ scores: Verbal IQ: Information, Vocabulary,
and Word Reasoning Performance IQ: Block Design, Matrix Reasoning,
and Picture Concept Processing Speed IQ: Symbol Search and Coding
Subtest +++++ Full Scale IQ. IQ scores have a mean of 100 and a
standard deviation of 15, while the subtest scores have a mean of
10 and a standard deviation of 3.
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Stanford-Binet Scales The first standardized INT test,
developed by Alfred Binet in 1905. The test has been revised many
times and most recently, in 2003. It can be used with individuals
from 2 years of age through adulthood. It consists of Nonverbal
(NV) and Verbal (V) domains +++++ a full-scale IQ score. The age of
the subject determines which subtests are used in any evaluation.
IQ scores are based on a mean of 100 and a standard deviation of
15.
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Stanford-Binet Scales five areas: Fluid Reasoning (FR): Object
Series/Matrices, Early Reasoning, Verbal Absurdities, and Verbal
Analogies Knowledge (KN): Vocabulary, Procedural Knowledge, and
Picture Absurdities Visual-Spatial processing (VS): Form Board,
Form Patterns, Position and Direction Working Memory (WM): Block
Span, Memory for Sentences, and Last Word Quantitative Reasoning
(QR): Quantitative Reasoning
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Other Tests of Intellectual Ability Other tests are available
for specific populations such as gifted children, hearing impaired
individuals, or with minority group members. Kaufman Tests (Kaufman
Assessment Battery for Children [K-ABC-II] Peabody Picture
Vocabulary Test- Revised, Woodcock-Johnson Psychoeducational
Battery, Ravens Progressive Matrices, General Ability Measure for
Adults, System of Multicultural Pluralistic Assessment (SOMPA)
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Neuropsychological Testing Other tests focus on brain-behavior
relationships and neuropsychological functioning. Brain impairment
is due to head injury, substance abuse, stroke, or other illnesses
and injuries. Brain impairment impacts the cognitive ability to use
language, think and make appropriate judgments, perceive and
respond to stimuli, and remember old or new information.
Neuropsychological testing assesses intellectual, abstract
reasoning, memory, visual-perceptual, attention, concentration,
gross and fine motor, and language functioning.
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Neuropsychological Testing Neuropsychological test batteries:
The Halstead-Reitan Battery and the Luria- Nebraska Battery are the
most commonly used. The Halstead- Reitan Battery can be
administered to persons aged 15 through adulthood and consists of
12 separate tests, the MMPI-2 and the WAIS-III. It takes 6 to 8
hours to administer. The Luria-Nebraska Battery consists of 11
subtests which assess reading, writing, speech, memory, arithmetic,
and other skills. It takes about 2.5 hours to administer. Bilnot
Battery, Prof. Dr. Sirel Karaka
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Neuropsychological Testing Another neuropsychological testing
approach, the Boston Process uses a subset of a wide variety of
tests in order to answer specific neuropsychological questions.
Performance on one test determines which tests or subtests will be
used next. The testing process could be short or long involving few
or many tests. Individual neuropsychological tests: the Wechsler
Memory Scale-III, the Benton Visual Retention Test, the WAIS-R as a
Neuropsychological Instrument and Wisconsin Card Sorting Test.
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Neuropsychological Testing Physiological tests such as evoked
potentials, electroencephalography (EEG), and reaction time
measures may be useful in the assessment of INT and cognitive
abilities. Evoked potentials assess the brains ability to process
the perception of a stimulus. EEG measures electrical activity of
the brain. We are currently not licensed to administer neuroimaging
techniques such as computerized axial tomography (CAT), magnetic
resonance imaging (MRI), and positron emission tomography (PET),
these techniques investigate brain structure and function.
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In the SCH, AD, anorexia nervosa, alcoholism, and mood
disorders, cortical atrophy or actual loss of brain tissue has
occured. Neuropsychological tests are used with clinical
interviews, behavioral observations, and other cognitive,
personality, and physiological assessment tools. Neuropsychological
testing is not isolated from other evaluation techniques.
Neuropsychologists must have a high level of information about
brain structure and functioning.
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Questions on IQ and Cognitive Testing ARE WE BORN WITH A
CERTAIN IQ? For some people, we are born with an innately
determined level of IQ that is not influenced by social, emotional,
and environmental factors. For some, there are some IQ differences
among different racial groups. The book, The Bell Curve (Herrnstein
& Murray, 1994) suggested African Americans
