Lecture notes on Ancient Indian Writing System, Brahmi Alphabet, its decipherment and Emperor Asoka’s Inscriptions

Dr. Viroopaksha V. Jaddipal, Ph.D.ICCR Visiting Professor

from Indiavvjaddipal@gmail.com

Ancient Indian Writing System [Source http://www.ancientindia.co.uk/menu.html]

Over time, people living in India have used many different writing systems. These systems were generally developed record down different types of information as the need arose.The first Indian script, developed in the Indus Valley around 2600 B.C. is still not deciphered. Thus, it is still not possible to fully understand this civilization, as we have no readable records of their beliefs, history, rulers or literature.

Indus Valley Civilization

Around five thousand years ago, an important civilization developed on the Indus River floodplain. From about 2600 B.C. to 1700 B.C. a vast number of settlements were built on the banks of the Indus River and surrounding areas. These settlements cover a remarkable region, almost 1.25 million kilometers of land which is today part of Afghanistan, Pakistan and north-western India. The civilization mysteriously ended very suddenly as did the Sumerians. It was not discovered until the 1920's. Most of its ruins, even its major cities are still buried underground.

The cities of the Indus Valley Civilization were well-organised and built out of brick and stone. Their drainage systems, wells and water storage systems were the most sophisticated in the ancient world.

The people of the Indus Valley Civilization also developed a writing system which was used for several hundred years. However, we are still unable to read the words that they wrote. The earliest examples of the Indus script date from around 3000 BC. Well over 400 different Indus symbols (some say 600) have been found on seals (stamps), small tablets, or ceramic pots and over a dozen other materials, including a "signboard" that apparently once hung over the gate of the inner citadel of the Indus city of Dholavira. Over 4000 artifacts with Indus Script have been discovered-some as far away as Mesopotamia, so obviously these civilizations traded with each other.

Typical Indus inscriptions are short, usually they are no more than four or five characters in length. Most of the writings are also very tiny for some reason; the longest on a single surface, which is less than 1 inch square, is 17 characters long. The longest on any object has a length of 26 symbols.

Later Indian scripts, like Brahmi and Kharosthi were developed to write both official, literary and local documents. Great epics, royal inscriptions, religious texts and administrative documents were all written using these scripts. The Buddhist text Lalitavistara mentions 64 scripts taught in a lipi-sala/school attended by Lord Buddha. The first script noted in that text is Bambhee, that is Brahmi. Later texts also mention some scripts used for writing.

The Brahmi Script

Brahmi Script seems to be divided into 3 varieties: northern, eastern, and southern. Dialectal differences consisted of the shape of the symbols, though the system remained the same. First separate branches emerged in the 5th century AD. The Brahmi script is the ancestor of all modern Indian writing systems. There are about 40 varieties of them nowadays, including Tibetan, Sinhalese, Sharada, Newari, Bengali, Oriya, Gujarati, Gurmukhi, , Kannada, Telugu, Tamil, Malayalam, Burmese, Khmer, Lao, Old Jawanese, Thai and Devanagari. In addition, many other Asian scripts, even Japanese to a very small extent (vowel order), were also derived from Brahmi script. Languages which used Brahmi as their script: Indo-Aryan (Vedic, Sanskrit, Prakrits, Pali) and Dravidian.

Origin of Brahmi

The origin of Brahmi has been controversial. One of the reason is the sudden appearance of fully developed script in the inscriptions during Ashokan period and absence of inscriptions between Indus valley and Ashokan period(gap of 1500 years). Opinion of scholars of Brahmi is divided to into two camps; Foreign origin by Foreigners and Indigenous independent development by Indians.

The Naarada smrti tells us that in ancient times this script, as eye in the form of writing was created by Lord Brahma for use by people to conduct worldly affairs and transactions. Had Brahma not created this script, the whole world would have become disastrous. It is said

“ likhitam cakshuruttamam/Tatreyamasya lokasya naabhavishyacchubhaa gatih//

Brāhmī is the modern name given to the oldest script used in Indian Sub-continent and Central Asia, during the final centuries BCE and the early centuries CE. This script must have been in use for long time before Ashoka and many of the written records have been lost due to brittleness of writing material like Palm leaf, Birch bark, etc. Only orders of Kings particularly Ashoka have been available due to the fact they were written on stones. The contemporary script of Brahmi was Kharoṣṭhī. This was

used in the areas what is now known as Afghanistan, Pakistan and other Northern part of India.

The best-known Brahmi inscriptions are the rock-cut edicts of Ashoka in north-central India, dated to the 3rd century BCE. Inscriptions in Tamil-Brahmi, a Southern Brahmic alphabet found on pottery in South India and Sri Lanka, may even predate the Ashoka edicts. No authorized body or intellectual has classified the so-called Brahmi letters found in Sri Lanka as Tamil Brahmi even though earliest dated ones found in Sri Lanka.

The Gupta script of the 5th century is sometimes called "Late Brahmi". From the 6th century onward, the Brahmi script diversified into numerous local variants, grouped as the Brahmic family of scripts. The script was deciphered in 1837 by James Prinsep, an archaeologist, philologist, and official of the British East India Company.

While the contemporary and perhaps somewhat older Kharosthi script is speculated to be a derivation of the Aramaic script, the genesis of the Brahmi script is much discussed. An origin in the Imperial Aramaic script has nevertheless been proposed by some scholars since the publications by Albrecht Weber (1856) and Georg Bühler's On the origin of the Indian Brahma alphabet (1895).

Like Kharosthi, Brāhmī was used to write the early dialects of Prakrit. Surviving records of the script are mostly restricted to inscriptions on buildings and monumental places. 

Earliest Brahmi script writings were found in Anuradhapura, Sri Lanka.  Hence it is possible that Brahmi spread from South to North rather than North to South.

Indigenous origin

The Brahmi script appeared in India most certainly by the 6th century BC, but the fact it had many local variants, which suggests that its origin lies further back in time. The earliest inscription written in Brahmi date back to the 6th century BC found in Srilanka, and by 2nd century BC already there existed several varieties of it. Brahmi quickly became the official script of religious texts and cults, and therefore spread over all India particularly during the time of Ashoka.

But till 1837 Brahmi was not read by any one and it seems, the script was forgotten. It was James Prinsep who deciphered the Brahmi in 1837.

James Prinsep

James Prinsep (20 August 1799 – 22 April 1840) was an English scholar, orientalist and antiquary. He was the founding editor of the Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal and is best remembered for deciphering the Kharosthi and Brahmi scripts of ancient India. He studied, documented and illustrated many aspects of numismatics, metallurgy, meteorology apart from pursuing his career in India as an assay master at the mint in Benares.

Prinsep found a position as an assay master at the Calcutta mint and reached Calcutta along with his brother Henry Thoby on 15 September 1819. Within a year at Calcutta, he was sent by his superior, the eminent orientalist Horace Hayman Wilson, to work as assay master at the Benares mint. Coins were Prinsep's first interest. He interpreted doing from Bactria and Kushan as well as Indian series coins, including "punch-marked" ones

from the Gupta series. Prinsep suggested that there were three stages; the punch-marked, the die-struck, and the cast coins.

Brahmi script philologist

As a result of Prinsep's work as an editor of the Asiatic Society's journal, coins and copies of inscriptions were transmitted to him from all over India, to be deciphered, translated, and published. In a series of results that he published between 1836–38 he was able to decipher the inscriptions on rock edicts found around India. The edicts in Brahmi script mentioned a King Devanampriya Piyadasi which Prinsep initially assumed was a Sri Lankan king. He was then able to associate this title with Asoka on the basis of Pali script from Sri Lanka communicated to him by George Turnor. These scripts were found on the pillars at Delhi and Allahabad and on rock inscriptions from both sides of India, and also the Kharosthi script in the coins and inscriptions of the north-west. The idea of Corpus Inscriptionum Indicarum, a collection of Indian epigraphy, was first suggested by Prinsep and the work was formally begun by Sir Alexander Cunningham in 1877. His studies on inscriptions helped in the establishment of date of Indian dynasties based on references to Antiochus and other Greeks. Prinsep used bilingual Indo-Greek coins to decipher Kharoshthi also.

Maurya Empire in India and Asoka, the Great

Until the 3rd century BC, a large region of the Indian subcontinent was ruled by Chandragupta Maurya (322–298 BC), founder of Mauryan Empire. He was the grandfather of Ashoka. Ashoka’s father Bindusara ruled from 297–270-71 BC. Ashoka, known as Ashoka the Great, after he took over reigns of the Mauryan Empire from his father then expanded and consolidated his grandfather’s region into a much larger empire with command over large swathes of the Indian subcontinent and with his capital at Pataliputra, the present day Patna in Bihar. Ashoka ruled for three decades from 272 BC until 232 BC. During his reign, he underwent a dramatic change in his life-style after winning the Kalinga War of 261 BC, at the cost of immense loss of life.He ruled a truly massive kingdom that stretched from the Hindu Kush to the Bay of Bengal. It was India's first great empire. It is not just that Ashoka ably ruled this huge empire but the quality of social justice that he brought to his already strong administration.In 262 BCE, eight years after his coronation, Ashoka's armies attacked and conquered Kalinga, a country that roughly corresponds to the modern state of Orissa. The loss of life caused by battle, reprisals, deportations and the turmoil that always exists in the aftermath of war so horrified Ashoka that it brought about a complete change in his personality. Thereafter reverence for life, tolerance, compassion and peaceful co-existence were the cornerstones of his administration.

Inscriptions/Edicts of Asoka

Ashokan edicts are significant for the message they convey on the teachings of Buddhism. They have been found across his empire, written in several languages and scripts, but most of those found in India are written in Prakrit, using the Brahmi script. To spread the message in the north-western of the empire, edicts were written in Kharoshti

script also. Bilingual and bi-scriptural edicts have also been discovered in Kandhahar and Afghanistan, written in Greek and Aramaic. Ashokan edicts written on rocks or pillars are considered unique and permanent as compared to the palm leaf or bark writings (perishable materials) of the past during the Harappan civilization, or even in early Mauryan Empire edicts.The edicts were intended to propagate the teachings of the Buddha, which his followers believe lead to enlightenment (the universal law of nature), and the constituent elements of the world as it is experienced.

Then in the nineteenth century there came to light a large number of edicts, in India, Nepal, Pakistan and Afghanistan. These edicts, inscribed on rocks and pillars, proclaim Asoka's reforms and policies and promulgate his advice to his subjects. The present rendering of these edicts, based on earlier translations, offers us insights into a powerful and capable ruler's attempt to establish an empire on the foundation of righteousness, a reign which makes the moral and spiritual welfare of his subjects its primary concern.

Numbers of edicts

There are 147 edicts inclusive of all types. Ashoka’s first rock edict is at Girnar in Gujrat state of India. The edicts are of two types: the in-situ rock edicts and the pillar edicts. The rock edicts are further subdivided into two categories, the "major rock edicts" 14 in number and the "minor rock edicts", many in number based on their age. Minor rock edits are the earliest, followed by major rock edicts, and then the pillar edicts.

Major contents of those Inscriptions [http://www.cs.colostate.edu/~malaiya/ashoka.html]

Ashoka defined the main principles of dharma as non-violence, tolerance to all sects and opinions, obedience to parents and other religious teachers and priests, liberality toward friends, humane treatment of servants, forgiveness and generosity towards all.

He created edicts which protect wildlife against sport hunting and promoted vegetarianism in his country on the principles of Buddhism. He initiated the building of universities, irrigation systems and hospitals. He signed peace treaties with many of the neighboring kingdom to follow the path of Buddhism.

Some examples Ashoka’s sayings are given here under-

2nd rock edict; “King Piyadasi, made provision for two types of medical treatment: medical treatment for humans and medical treatment for animals. Wherever medical herbs suitable for humans or animals are not available, I have had them imported and grown. Wherever medical roots or fruits are not available I have had them imported and grown. Along roads I have had wells dug and trees planted for the benefit of humans and animals”

4th rock edict “Beloved-of-the-Gods, King Piyadasi promotes restraint in the killing and harming of living beings, proper behavior towards relatives, Brahmans and ascetics, and respect for mother, father and elders, such sightings have increased.”

6th rock edict “I consider the welfare of all to be my duty, and the root of this is exertion and the prompt despatch of business. There is no better work than promoting the welfare of all the people and whatever efforts I am making is to repay the debt I owe to all beings to assure their happiness in this life, and attain heaven in the next.”

7th rock edict “Beloved-of-the-Gods, King Piyadasi, desires that all religions should reside everywhere, for all of them desire self-control and purity of heart.[14] But people have various desires and various passions, and they may practice all of what they should or only a part of it. But one who receives great gifts yet is lacking in self-control, purity of heart, gratitude and firm devotion, such a person is mean”.

9th rock edict “What does bear great fruit, it is the ceremony of the Dhamma. This involves proper behavior towards servants and employees, respect for teachers, restraint towards living beings, and generosity towards ascetics and Brahmans. These and other things constitute the ceremony of the Dhamma.”

2nd Pillar edict “Beloved-of-the-Gods, King Piyadasi, speaks thus: Dhamma is good, but what constitutes Dhamma? (It includes) little evil, much good, kindness, generosity, truthfulness and purity.”

Important Features of Brahmi Letters

1. Brahmi is a very scientific writing system developed by ancient Indians to express every phoneme capable to be expressed from mouth. It is hoped that this script was used in fairly large numbers by those people to write in those times.

2. It has all sound marks and conforms to the norms of Paninian sound system of Samskrit grammar.

3. Every consonant letter contains the basic sound of ‘a’ in its inherent position.

4. Some vowels are basic vowels and others are derived on the basis of grammatic principles.

5. At later times, this script spread to various parts of India and in fact all modern scripts are derived from Brahmi only

6. It had its influence on South, South-East Asian scripts. The Pallava Granth Script used in South East Asian Inscriptions is also derived from Brahmi.

7. No Brahmi manuscript survives, but only Asoka’s inscript written as Stone edicts are available to us.

Study and Practice of Brahmi Script with small inscription

[as practiced in class]