Lecture NineLecture Nine

Deconstructing Deconstructing Masculinities Masculinities

and and Femininities.Femininities.

Introduction.Introduction.

Gendered discourses an important Gendered discourses an important means of formulating identities. means of formulating identities.

Practices of 'masculinity' and Practices of 'masculinity' and 'femininity'. 'femininity'.

Where do ‘sex roles’ come from?Where do ‘sex roles’ come from? Natural/biological or social/cultural Natural/biological or social/cultural

categories?categories?

DefinitionsDefinitions SexSex is a biologically and physiologically is a biologically and physiologically

determined category, assigned at birth on the determined category, assigned at birth on the basis of genital appearance and reproductive basis of genital appearance and reproductive function. function.

Problems.Problems. The doctor present arbitrarily assigns people of The doctor present arbitrarily assigns people of

indeterminate sex a ‘sex category’ at their birth. indeterminate sex a ‘sex category’ at their birth. There are some that have chromosomes of a There are some that have chromosomes of a female nature but still possess male appendages! female nature but still possess male appendages! It used to be felt that you could change gender It used to be felt that you could change gender but not sex, this is arguably no longer the case.but not sex, this is arguably no longer the case.

GenderGender GenderGender is a social construct it is conceived of as is a social construct it is conceived of as

the social roles allocated to men and women in the social roles allocated to men and women in society. Gender roles include behavior patterns, society. Gender roles include behavior patterns, obligations, and privileges considered appropriate obligations, and privileges considered appropriate for each sex. Some sociologists suggest that for each sex. Some sociologists suggest that gender identities, ideas about masculinity and gender identities, ideas about masculinity and femininity are partly constructed through the femininity are partly constructed through the internalisation and acknowledgment of gender internalisation and acknowledgment of gender stereotypes that freely circulate in our social stereotypes that freely circulate in our social environment. environment.

Consider ‘Fallacy of internalisation’.Consider ‘Fallacy of internalisation’.

‘‘Sex Roles’Sex Roles’

Women. Women. Expressive.Expressive. Soft.Soft. Empathetic.Empathetic. Gentle.Gentle. Nurturing.Nurturing. SubmissiveSubmissive Emotional.Emotional. TalkativeTalkative Anxiety prone.Anxiety prone.

Men.Men. InstrumentalInstrumental StrongStrong Tough/hardTough/hard AggressiveAggressive Ambitious/ providerAmbitious/ provider DominantDominant RationalRational DiscerningDiscerning Heroic/ BraveHeroic/ Brave

Connell (2002).Connell (2002).

‘ ‘ Gender is the structure of Social Gender is the structure of Social relations that centres on the relations that centres on the reproductive arena, and the set of reproductive arena, and the set of practices (governed by that practices (governed by that structure) that bring reproductive structure) that bring reproductive distinctions between bodies into distinctions between bodies into social processes’social processes’

Questions.Questions.

Are these roles natural or cultural?Are these roles natural or cultural? Is this an ethnocentric model?Is this an ethnocentric model? Cultural and historical specificity of Cultural and historical specificity of

gender roles.gender roles. Is there much deviation globally?Is there much deviation globally?

The role of social factorsThe role of social factors

1. language/ discourse (Dale Spender, 1. language/ discourse (Dale Spender, Foucault)Foucault)

2. Gender socialization in the home/ 2. Gender socialization in the home/ family. family.

3. Gender socialization in schools3. Gender socialization in schools

4. Peer group.4. Peer group.

5. Media/ image/ text.5. Media/ image/ text.

Biological/ neuroscientific / Biological/ neuroscientific / psychological research.psychological research.

Ethology- study of animals in their natural Ethology- study of animals in their natural environment- can we extend these findings to environment- can we extend these findings to humans?humans?

Men more aggressive.Men more aggressive. Men have better spatial awareness.Men have better spatial awareness. Women are better at looking after children.Women are better at looking after children. Women are more emotional.Women are more emotional. Male babies have a preference for ‘systems’.Male babies have a preference for ‘systems’. Female babies have a preference for faces.Female babies have a preference for faces.

Nature or Nurture?Nature or Nurture? Could all of these be framed in terms of cultural Could all of these be framed in terms of cultural

explanations?explanations? Are newborn babies inscribed with culture?Are newborn babies inscribed with culture? Do cultural factors modify us physiologically.Do cultural factors modify us physiologically. Le Doux – Plasticity of brain, brain inscribed with Le Doux – Plasticity of brain, brain inscribed with

culture.culture. Reification. Gender becomes ‘thing-like’ fixed, Reification. Gender becomes ‘thing-like’ fixed,

immutable. immutable. Social relations seem to be beyond the control of Social relations seem to be beyond the control of

humanshumans However reproductive capacities have impactHowever reproductive capacities have impact

Fox and Tiger’s 4 biological Fox and Tiger’s 4 biological rules.rules.

Question. Question. Are these rules socially or biologically Are these rules socially or biologically determined?determined?

Everything can be reduced to biological rules. Everything can be reduced to biological rules. Four biological rules which govern social Four biological rules which govern social

institutions.institutions.1 Women have children.1 Women have children.2 Men impregnate women so they can have children2 Men impregnate women so they can have children3 Close kin practice sexual avoidance.3 Close kin practice sexual avoidance.4 Men control and dominate women.4 Men control and dominate women. Only 1 and 2 are grounded in biology- 3 and four Only 1 and 2 are grounded in biology- 3 and four

are just assumptions. are just assumptions. Aren’t these rules socially constructed/ culturally Aren’t these rules socially constructed/ culturally

and historically specific. and historically specific.

Social constructionism.Social constructionism. People actively construct their social world. People actively construct their social world. Marginalises genetic and biological aspects of Marginalises genetic and biological aspects of

human life. human life. Knowledge and reality are contingent upon social Knowledge and reality are contingent upon social

relations and are made and re-made out of relations and are made and re-made out of continuing processes such as reification, continuing processes such as reification, habitualization and sedimentation. habitualization and sedimentation.

Schutz’s phenomenology- an analysis of the Schutz’s phenomenology- an analysis of the structure of the common sense world of everyday structure of the common sense world of everyday life- is an important influence. life- is an important influence.

For symbolic interactionists and For symbolic interactionists and ethnomethodologists psychological and biological ethnomethodologists psychological and biological factors can be explained by reference to social factors can be explained by reference to social facts.facts.

Four main doctrines revisited.Four main doctrines revisited. How can we apply these to gender?How can we apply these to gender?1 A critical stance towards taken for granted 1 A critical stance towards taken for granted

knowledge -all concepts are contestable knowledge -all concepts are contestable etcetc

2 Historical and Cultural specificity. 2 Historical and Cultural specificity. Universal rules do not exist they are local Universal rules do not exist they are local to particular times/placesto particular times/places

3 Knowledge sustained by social processes3 Knowledge sustained by social processes4 Knowledge and social action go together. 4 Knowledge and social action go together.

How you think about something shapes How you think about something shapes how you act towards it. ie gender and how you act towards it. ie gender and sexualitysexuality

These four doctrines can be These four doctrines can be reduced to two main strands.reduced to two main strands.

Anti-Realism. Anti-Realism. Concepts do not always Concepts do not always reflect something that is real does gender reflect something that is real does gender pre-exist the social ?pre-exist the social ?

Anti-essentialism. Anti-essentialism. There isnt necessarily There isnt necessarily for any one concept a singular essence, is for any one concept a singular essence, is there a masculine/ feminine essence?.there a masculine/ feminine essence?.

Essential/real features of things are a Essential/real features of things are a product of how we as social actors product of how we as social actors think/feel/act about things.think/feel/act about things.

Garfinkel and EthnomethodologyGarfinkel and Ethnomethodology

Ethnomethodology- approach Ethnomethodology- approach associated with Garfinkel. associated with Garfinkel.

Unspoken rules of social interaction.Unspoken rules of social interaction. Asks where do we get our notions of Asks where do we get our notions of

sexuality and gender. sexuality and gender. He claims that all our thoughts on He claims that all our thoughts on

sexuality are social. sexuality are social. We have what Garfinkel calls a We have what Garfinkel calls a

‘‘Natural idea of Sexuality’Natural idea of Sexuality’

4 part model of the Natural Idea 4 part model of the Natural Idea of Sexuality.of Sexuality.

1 There are 2 sexes- male and 1 There are 2 sexes- male and female.female.

2 Everybody has one or the other.2 Everybody has one or the other.

3 They are invariant3 They are invariant

4 Sexual organs determine what 4 Sexual organs determine what sex you are.sex you are.

Gender as PerformanceGender as Performance For Garfinkel sexuality is a game of For Garfinkel sexuality is a game of

presentation and convincing by role presentation and convincing by role playing.playing.

Notions of masculinity and femininity Notions of masculinity and femininity change overtime. change overtime.

The notion of the sexes is socially The notion of the sexes is socially constructed- Garfinkel uses the notion of constructed- Garfinkel uses the notion of transexualism to test our ides of the transexualism to test our ides of the natural body. natural body.

Garfinkel says you can change your sex Garfinkel says you can change your sex but only by becoming ‘other’but only by becoming ‘other’

Yes! 2 sexes but they are not invariant. Yes! 2 sexes but they are not invariant.

Reproducing Orderliness in Reproducing Orderliness in Everyday lifeEveryday life

Garfinkel identifies a series of practices through which Garfinkel identifies a series of practices through which we continually reproduce orderliness in our day to day we continually reproduce orderliness in our day to day lives.lives.

Indexicality,Indexicality, context dependant context dependant language/statements/utterances/actions. We become language/statements/utterances/actions. We become experts in documentary interpretation as we experts in documentary interpretation as we constantly re-interpret and unpick what people constantly re-interpret and unpick what people actually mean. actually mean.

AccountabilityAccountability. We constantly give accounts of what . We constantly give accounts of what we do and why. Accounts are always situated, they we do and why. Accounts are always situated, they are glossing practices, they mobilise attitude, make are glossing practices, they mobilise attitude, make sense of action, help us to order the world. Accounts sense of action, help us to order the world. Accounts are never neutralare never neutral

Naïve RealismNaïve Realism. Also called a natural attitude. The . Also called a natural attitude. The statement/ view “Its only natural” is for Garfinkel statement/ view “Its only natural” is for Garfinkel naïve realism. naïve realism.

Reproducing Orderliness in Reproducing Orderliness in Everyday life 2Everyday life 2

ReflexivityReflexivity. We make the world fit our naïve . We make the world fit our naïve realist expectations through constant verbal and realist expectations through constant verbal and symbolic affirmation and expectation. The symbolic affirmation and expectation. The stability of the social world is not based on laws stability of the social world is not based on laws and rules but mutual expectation and a reciprocal and rules but mutual expectation and a reciprocal exchange of that expectation. Gender not all exchange of that expectation. Gender not all about rules but reciprocal expectations.about rules but reciprocal expectations.

PassingPassing. A term originally used in deep south . A term originally used in deep south usa for Black men and women trying to behave as usa for Black men and women trying to behave as if white, by inventing false histories etc. G’s use if white, by inventing false histories etc. G’s use misleading as orig means passing as what you misleading as orig means passing as what you are not. For G it is about passing as what you are. are not. For G it is about passing as what you are. Behaving in certain ways commensurate with Behaving in certain ways commensurate with your role- as male, female, mother, lover, your role- as male, female, mother, lover, husband, child, manager, teacher etc, etchusband, child, manager, teacher etc, etc

Ian Hacking- ‘The Social Ian Hacking- ‘The Social construction of What?’construction of What?’

Examines the social construction Examines the social construction thesis. thesis.

Because concepts are socially Because concepts are socially constructed does it really follow that constructed does it really follow that the thing that the concept refers to is the thing that the concept refers to is also? also?

Are we dealing with the social Are we dealing with the social construction of construction of ideas ideas or or practicespractices? ?

How far do we take this thesis?How far do we take this thesis?

Difference and Otherness.Difference and Otherness.

Focus on differenceFocus on difference Emphasis on measuring differenceEmphasis on measuring difference For biologists difference naturalFor biologists difference natural For social constructionists difference For social constructionists difference

mostly social.mostly social. One femininity/ One masculinity?One femininity/ One masculinity? Gendering an othering process.Gendering an othering process. Binary models with femininity negatively Binary models with femininity negatively

valued.valued.

Hegemonic MasculinityHegemonic Masculinity A Dominant MasculinityA Dominant Masculinity White/ heterosexual/ misogynistic/ intuitional and personal/ performance.White/ heterosexual/ misogynistic/ intuitional and personal/ performance. But not performed by all men.But not performed by all men. ‘‘Ideal of Masculinity’Ideal of Masculinity’ Is this masculine ideal attainable or desirable?Is this masculine ideal attainable or desirable? Other masculinities subordinated (Homosexual, black etc)Other masculinities subordinated (Homosexual, black etc) Vietnamese boys in schools Vietnamese boys in schools ResistanceResistance Masculinity needs to be proved. Masculinity needs to be proved. Man is forever at war. (Norman Mailer in Segal 1990) Man is forever at war. (Norman Mailer in Segal 1990) masculinity is in a state of uncertainty; it continually has to be provedmasculinity is in a state of uncertainty; it continually has to be proved Butlers ‘Queer Theory’ celebrates the symbolic disruptions of gender Butlers ‘Queer Theory’ celebrates the symbolic disruptions of gender

categories like 'man', 'woman' and 'gay' (Connell, 1995)categories like 'man', 'woman' and 'gay' (Connell, 1995) Foucault -there is no essential masculine quality because the body and Foucault -there is no essential masculine quality because the body and

every other aspect of masculinity is subject to re-interpretation.every other aspect of masculinity is subject to re-interpretation. Men can be masculine in different ways. Men can be masculine in different ways.

Femininity.Femininity. Can it be hegemonic?Can it be hegemonic? No subordination of an ‘other’.No subordination of an ‘other’. More femininities that masculinities- De Beauvoir many More femininities that masculinities- De Beauvoir many

femininities.femininities. Limited scope to construct institionalised power (Connell Limited scope to construct institionalised power (Connell

1987)1987) Feminine qualities devalued.Feminine qualities devalued. Discursive construction of femininity subordinates.Discursive construction of femininity subordinates. Mens collective power over womenMens collective power over women Gendered economy.Gendered economy. Women subordinated through language. (Dale Spender Women subordinated through language. (Dale Spender

Invisible women)Invisible women) Sign, signifier, signified- link to de Saussure.Sign, signifier, signified- link to de Saussure.

Doing Gender.Doing Gender. Subversion of gendered categoriesSubversion of gendered categories Butch dykes/ drag queens/ TransButch dykes/ drag queens/ Trans Transgressing boundaries.Transgressing boundaries. Donna Haraways cyborgs.Donna Haraways cyborgs. Butler (1990) emphasizes performance of genderButler (1990) emphasizes performance of gender Gender fluid.Gender fluid. More or less male or female in different contexts.More or less male or female in different contexts. Gender fluid.Gender fluid. Sue Lees- ‘Slags and drags’- oppression and Sue Lees- ‘Slags and drags’- oppression and

transgression.transgression. Do we have identity choices? Do we have identity choices?

Conclusion.Conclusion. Gender as performance.Gender as performance. More choices in contemporary world?More choices in contemporary world? Only within certain parameters.Only within certain parameters. Many possibilities but historical, spatial and Many possibilities but historical, spatial and

cultural factors exert considerable influence.cultural factors exert considerable influence. Postmodern ‘play’ not available to all.Postmodern ‘play’ not available to all. Many models of fluid gender profoundly Many models of fluid gender profoundly

ethnocentric.ethnocentric. Gender/ sexual identity embodied.Gender/ sexual identity embodied. Some aspects more fixed than others- sex/ Some aspects more fixed than others- sex/

gender distinction.gender distinction.