Lecture -ment Organisation Develop

7/30/2019 Lecture -ment Organisation Develop

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Lecture-1

WHAT IS ORGANISATION DEVELOPMENT?

We are often asked this question as to what is consulting in Organization

Development? Often asked this question because currently theres no agreement on

The meaning of the term organization development, and it is still less clear

what a consultant in organization development is. That is why I am going to explain

what we mean by that. We firmly believe that only companies having an internal

structure corresponding to their goals are able to develop successfully. That is why

our main goal is to help our clients to organize their internal resources in the most

efficient way for their development. For instance, to distribute functions and

authority, to create transparent system of interaction and control, to develop a

common set of values, to unite various divisions into an efficient team for the purpose

of performing clearly defined tasks... For us the key term is

development. And development is a process, and this implies the fact that besides

analysis and advice, helping to carry out organizational changes is also a significant

part of our work. My approach from the very beginning would be from simple to

complex issues for better comprehension of all the concepts both in particular and in

general. Therefore before discussing the intervention techniques I would like you tobe acquainted with the basic concepts like:

What is OD?

What is the Historical background of OD?

Foundations of OD Change and OD Organization Culture and OD

What is Organization Development?

An organization is a system consisting of four interacting subsystems: structure,

technology, people and task. Structure refers to the formal interactions within theorganization as evidenced in the organizational chart or organ gram. Task refers to

the set of activities to be performed. In other words, the behavioural specification

associated with a job. Technology relates to the level of sophistication determining

the workflow and performance of jobs in an organization. Higher technology, most

often, means higher job knowledge and skills of employees. Organizations may be

classified as to their level of technology: high, medium, low or obsolete. People

variable refers to the human input in the organization i.e., individuals (in terms of

their physical and mental skills, personality etc.) working


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in the organization. Organization as a system can be changed and developed to

achieve its goals in the best possible way. The goals of an organization generally are:

survival, stability, profitability, growth and service to society. From one organization

to another, the goal or goals may differ depending upon at what stage of development

the organization is. Organization can achieve its goal if it is able to respond

to changes within the external and internal environment. The external environment

is in terms of forces in the social, political, economic and cultural factors.

Competition from similar organizations, changing needs of the public, knowledge

explosion, and rapid growth of technology

All constitute threat to organizational effectiveness. Organization has also to take into

cognizance its internal environment, which includes existing structure, technology,

needs and expectations of its people and the changing scenario of labor force.

Organization development (OD) is planned approach to respond effectively to

changes in its external and internal environment.


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Lecture 2

Essentially there are two schools of thought in OD:

Programmed Procedure School

System Process School

The Programmed Procedure school:

It is an older approach. According to it, OD is the effective implementation of the

organizations policies, procedures and programmers.

It is concerned with personnel activities that contribute to the overall growth and

development of the organization, such as: recruitment, training, career development,

Compensation, welfare and benefits, labour relations etc. Personnel development

is primarily concerned with OD activities. At present, it is being widely

recognized that personnel functions contribute only partly to OD.

They at best serve the organizational control or maintenance function.

The system process school:

This school considers organization development in the context of both its internal

and external environment. Proponents of this approach view organization as a system,

which can be changed and developed to best, achieve its goals and objectives. Insightsdrawn from recent developments in behavioural sciences have contributed to the

system-process school. An emerging role for OD is system based and

focuses on total organization effectiveness and hence goes beyond the traditional pers

onnel programmers. The emphasis is much more on work groups within and across

departments rather than individuals as such. While personnel programmers Demand

conformity for prescribed policies and procedures, the system process school

encourages openness, and collaborative ways of solving problems so that the out


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comes are advantageous to both the individual and the organization. It is likely that

the objectives of both the schools and contradictory to certain extent.

Programmed Procedure School System Process School

Internal Internal & External

Personnel oriented Department oriented

Individual Group

Sectional Holistic

Prescriptive Open System

Internal Interdisciplinary


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Lecture 3

Definition of OD

OD may be defined as a systematic, integrated and planned approach to improve the

effectiveness of the enterprise. It is designed to solve problems that adversely affect

the operational efficiency at all levels (Koontz ET. Al. 1980). It is based on scientific

awareness of human behaviour and organization dynamics. Being an organization

wide effort, it is directed towards more participative management and integration of

individual goals with organization goals OD is intended to create an internal

environment of openness, trust, mutual confidence and collaboration and to help the

members of the organization to interact more effectively in the pursuit of

organizational goals. Thus, the organization is enabled to cope effectively with

external force in the environment.

Meaning and Nature of Organization Development

Definition of Organization Development

Organization development (OD) is defined as a long-range effort to improve an

organization's ability to cope with 'Change and its problem-solving and renewal

processes through effective management of organization culture which ': involves

moving towards a third wave organization and an attempt to achieve corporate

excellence by fl; rating the desires of individuals for growth and development with

organizational goals.

According to

Richard hard, "Organization development is an effort:

1.Planned, organization wide, managed from the top, to increase organization

effectiveness and health, through planed interventions in the organization's processes

using behavioral science knowledge. "Organization development efforts then, are

planned, systematic OD approaches to change. They involve changes to the total

organization or to relatively large segments of it. The purpose of OD efforts is to

increase the _effectiveness: of the system and. also, to develop the potential of all in

individual members. Finally, a series of planned behavioural science intervention

activities are carried out in collaboration with organization members to. Help find


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improved ways of working together towards individual and organizational goals.

Another way of understanding OD is to know what it is not:

'OD is not a micro approach to change Management development. For example. It

is aimed at changing. Individual behavior. Where as OD is used on the macro goal of

developing an organization-wide improvement in manageable

OD is more than any single technique

Whereas OD consultants use many differingtechniques. Such as total quality

management or job enrichment. No single techniquerepresents the OD discipline.

OD does not include random or ad hoc changes.

OD is based "on a incrementalappraisal and diagnosis of problems leading to specific

types of change, efforts.

OD is aimed at more than raising morale or attitude

OD is aimed: At. Overallorganizational effectiveness. This may include participant

satisfaction an aspect of thechange effort but includes other effectiveness parameters.

2 Organization Development

is an organizational Process for understanding andimproving any and all substantive

process an organization may develop for performingany task and pursuing anyobjectives

3 Organization development

is a set ofbehavioral Science based theories, values, strategies and techniques aimed

at the planned change of organizational work setting for the purpose of enhancing

individual development and improving organizational performance, through

organizational structure, process, strategy, people and culture.Developing new and

creative organizational solutionsDeveloping the organizations Self-renewing

capacity. It occurs through collaboration of organizational members working with a

change agent using behavioral science theory, research and technology.

5

OD can be defined as a Planned and sustained effort to apply behavioral science for

system improvement using reflexive, self-analytical methods. (

Schmuck and miles,1971)

These definitions clarify the distinctive features of OD and suggest why it is such a

powerful change strategy. The participative, collaborative, problem-focused nature of


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OD marshals the experience and expertise of organization members as they work on

their most important problems and opportunity in ways designed to lead to successful

outcomes

OBJECTIVES OF OD

The objectives of OD may be stated as follows:

1.Improved organizational performance as measured by profitability, market

share, innovativeness etc.

2.Better adaptability of the organization to its environment .

3.Willingness of the members to face organizational problems and contribute

creative solutions to these problems

4.Improvement in internal behaviour patterns such as interpersonal relations,

intercrop relations, level of trust and support among role members,

understanding ones own self and others, openness and meaningful

communication and involvement in planning for organizational development.


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Lecture 4

CHARACTERISTIC FEATURES OF OD

To enlarge upon the definition of OD Let us examine some of the basic characteristics

of OD programs.

Planned Change:

It is a planned strategy to bring about organizational Change. This change effort aims

at specific objectives and is based on the diagnosis of problem areas.

Collaborative:

OD typically involves a collaborative approach to change, which includes the

involvement and participation of those organization members most affected by the

changes.

Performance:

OD programs include an emphasis on ways to improve and enhance performance and

quality (TQM).

Humanistic:

OD relies on a set of humanistic values about people and organizations that aims at

gaining more effective organizations by opening up new opportunities for increased

use of human potential systems. OD represents a systems approach concerned with

the interrelationship of various divisions, departments, groups and individuals and

interdependent subsystems of the total organization.

Focal Area

Change is planned by managers to achieve goals. Involves collaborative approach and

involvement. Emphasis on ways to improve and enhance performance. Emphasis

upon increased opportunity and use of human potential relationship among elements

and excellence. Scientific approaches supplement practical experience. An OD

practitioner (either manager or consultant) is a person in an organization responsible

for changing existing patterns to obtain more effective organizational performance.

Organization development practitioners have come to realize that conventionaltraining techniques are no longer sufficient for affecting the type of behavioral


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changes needed to create adaptive organizations. New techniques have been

developed to provide participants with the competence and motivation to alter

ineffective patterns of behavior. One interesting Question is, can OD be used change

nations as well as organizations? There are many OD techniques, and any individual

practitioner may rely on one or a combination of approaches. Regardless of the

method selected, the objectives are to work from an overall organization perspective,

through _increasing the ability of the "whole" to respond to a changing environment.

Organizations have objectives such as making profit, surviving, and growing; but

individual members also have desires to achieve, unsatisfied needs to fulfill, and

career goals to accomplish within the organization. OD then, is a "process for Change,

which can benefit both the organization and the individual. In today's business

environment managers must continuously monitor change and adapt their systems to

survive by staying competitive in a turbulent arena. The roots of OD lie in the famous

Hawthorne experiments carried out at the Western Electric Company by Elton Mayon

and his associates. These experiments highlighted the importance of employee

attitudes and expectations, informal work groups, norms and Values and participation

in decision making as influencing performance all these still central concepts in

various techniques of OD. Though there are divergent opinions and attitudes about the

nature and practice of OD, among its practitioners, a general consensus may benoticed among them as to what the basic characteristics of OD are. In any OD effort

the totality of the organization is to be taken into account. Organization being an

integrated system of sub-systems, changes in anyone sub-system tends to have

consequences for the other sub-systems. The approach should be holistic either for

identifying the need for change within or for planning and implementing a change,

until the intended change is absorbed in the total system, optimal collaboration,

synergism and efficiency cannot be obtained. The theoretical body of knowledge

underlying the concept and practice of OD is eclectic. Recent developments in the

area of behavioral sciences

especially psychology, sociology, anthropology etc., have influenced the OD thought

and practice. The intended changes in OD programmers may be carried out at any of

the sub-system levels such as:

Organization structure

Task accomplishment

Work climate (interpersonal and intercrop relations, work values)


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Methods of decision-making and problem solving

Technology.


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Lecture 5

Foundations of Organization Development

The Emergence of ODOrganization development is one of the primary means of creating more adaptive

organizations. Warren Bennis. A leading OD practitioner has suggested three factors

underlying the emergence of OD.

1 The need jar new' organizational forms

.

Organizations tend to adopt a form that ismore appropriate to a particular time, and

the current rate of change requires moreadaptive forms.

2The focus on cultural change

.

Because each organization forms a culture-a system of beliefs and values the only

way to change is to alter this organizational culture.

3.The increase in social awareness

.

Because. Of the changing social climate ,tomorrow's employee will no longer accept

autocratic styles of management; therefore, greater social awareness is required in the

organization. Todays managers exist in shifting organizational structures and can be

the central force in initiating change and establishing the means for adoption. Most

organizations strive to be creative, efficient, and highly competitive, maintaining a

leading edge in their respective fields rather than following trends set by others.

Effective managers are vital to the continuing self-renewal and ultimate survival of

the organization. The Consultant manager must recognize when changes are occurring

in the external environment and possess the necessary competence to bring about

change when it is needed. The manager must also be aware of the internal system and

recognize that the major element in planned change is the organizational culture: the

feelings, norms, and behaviors of its members.


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The Evolution: of Organization Development(Historical Development)

It is not within the scope of this book to provide a detailed history of OD. But a brief

explanation of the evolution 'this field may give you a better understanding of its

application today. Organization development has 'involved over the past 40 years

from the application of behavioral science knowledge and techniques to solving

organizational problems. What has become OD stand in the late 1940s at MIT and is

deeply rooted in the pioneering work of applied social scientists. such as Kurt Lewin,

and also strongly influenced by the work of psychologists such as Carl Rogers and

Abraham Maslow. The term organization Development is widely attributed to Robert

Blake and Jane Mouton(the originators of the Managerial Grid) Herren Shepard (a

leading OD pioneer);however, Richard Beckhard (an OD consultant) claims this

distinction as well. Regardless of who first coined the term, it emerged about 1957

and is generally conceded to have evolved from two basic sources: the application of

laboratory methods by National Training Laboratories (NTL) and the survey research

methods ignited by the Survey Research Center. Both methods were pioneered by

Kurt Lewin in about 1945.

Laboratory- Training methods -In the late I 940s and early 1950s laboratory-

training methods were developed and applied by a group of behavioral scientists at

Bethel, Maine.Douglas McGregor (Theory X and Theory Y with Richard BecKhard,

began applying laboratory-training methods to industry, at General Iills in 1956 and at

Union Carbide in1957. At union Carbide, McGregor and John Paul Jones (an internal

consultant) formed the First internal OD consulting group about the; same time.

Herbert Shepard and Robert Blake were initiating a series of applied behavioral

Science interventions at Esso, using mainly laboratory-training technique to improve

work team processes. These early railing sessions provided the basis for what Blake

and Mouton later developed as an instrumented training system they called the

Managerial Grid. The success of these programs led to a dissemination of such efforts

to her corporations.


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The Extent of OD Applications

From these early beginnings OD has experienced a rapid growth. A growing number

of organizations worldwide applying OD techniques ', including most major

corporations, have formed internal OD consulting groups. The OD network, an

organization of OD practitioners, has been in existence for only a little over two

decades and has grown to a membership of more than 2,000 members. The National

Training Laboratories, American psychological Association, American Society for

Training and Development, and Academy of Management all have professional

divisions relating to organization development. The first doctoral program for training

OD specialists, called the Organizational Behaviour Group, was started by Sheppard

in 1960 at what is now the Department of Organization and Administration at Case

Western Reserve University: Sheppard applied these OD techniques, in an

educational setting, to the development of OD practitioners. The Organizational

Behaviour group has as since graduated over 100specialists. Who are involved in

teaching and consulting throughout? The group. Other universities with graduate

programs bearing on OD include Brigham Young, Harvard. MIT,Southern,

Methodist, UCLA, University of Washington, Gonzaga, Pepperdine, and Yale, with

many others beginning to include OD in the curriculum. Organization development isan exciting rapidly growing field. OD efforts have grown into a multitude of differing

approaches and are now applied in a number of organizations around the world by

expanding number OD practitioners


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Lecture 6

The Organization Culture

The element of an organization system, which a manager needs to understand, is the

organization culture. The term culture refers to a specific civilization, society, or

group that are its distinguishing characteristics. As B. F. Skinner has commented: "A

culture is not the behavior of the people 'living in it'; it is the 'it' in which they live-

contingencies of social reinforcement which generate and sustain their behavior. Is

The organization culture refers to a system of shared meanings, including the

language, dress, patterns of behavior, value system, feelings, attitudes, interactions,

and group norms of the members.) You may examine the patterns of behavior on your

campus Orin your company. How do people dress or wear their hair? What jargon or

unique terms are used these are thee elements that make up a culture: the accepted

patterns of behavior. One example is the culture at Federal Express, carefully crafted

by Frederick Smith, the chairman, to reflect a combat situation. Flights are called

missions" and competitors are "enemies."

GURE Schematic Diagram of Experiential Learning Cycle

The Experiential Approach to Learning To learn OD techniques, a manager or student

needs both the knowledge of content material and the Experience of putting theory

into practice. Consequently, to create a learning environment for the field of

Organization development at either the undergraduate or graduate level, the emphasis

should be on experience .In this course you wiII be experiencing OD techniques by

means of behavioral simulations at the same time .What you are learning OD

theories.. You will perhaps discover a different approach to the study of

organizational change. Many courses in OD approach change in a structured and

traditional manner. By means of lectures and readings, useful concepts and theories

are presented to the student, whose role is largely passive. This book utilizes an

innovative and significantly different approach to teaching OD: the

experiential approach.


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It is used on learning OD techniques experiencing simulated organizational situations.

You will experience situations in which you are developing relationship with a client

or diagnosing a problem rather than simply reading about them.

Basic Concepts of Experiential Learning

Experiential learning is based upon three basic concepts: You learn best when you are

involved in the learning experience. Concepts have to be experienced or discovered

by you. the learner, if they are to change your behavior. Your commitment to learning

will be greatest when you are responsible for setting your own learning objectives. n

the experiential approach, the major responsibility for learning is placed upon you, the

learner. You will determine your own learning objectives and influence how the class

goes about achieving these objectives. You attain your own goals, decide which

theories you. want to learn, practice the skills or techniques you want to improve, and

develop the behavioral style you want to develop .experiential learning also involves

an active, rather than a passive role. The experiential laming program can be

presented a four-stage cycle'

1 Gaining conceptual Knowledge and Theories

-

You will be reading about OD concept; and theories and doing pre class preparation.

2Activity in behavioral simulation

.-You. will be problem solving, making decisions, and communicating , actively

practicing the concepts and theories.

3 Analysis of Activity

-You will be analyzing, critiquing. and the way you solved problems, and comparing

the results of different approaches. Connecting the theory and activity. with prior on-

the-job or life situations-You will be connecting your Learning past experiences

reflecting upon the results, and generalizing into the future. The end result should be

proved skill and performance in applying ,these learnings to 1ife and job situations.

Student centered" learning places a learning responsibility upon you. There will be

an opportunity in the class for a high level of participation and for a challenging

learning experience. Small-group learning environments. will be formed wherein you

may share learning with others, thus encountering feedback. Each of to be learning


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-units presents a conceptual background and a framework for a behavioral simulation.

The focal point of each chapter is the action-oriented behavioral simulation. As part of

the experiential learning model in OD, feelings, and emotions represent important

data for learning. open and authentic relationships in which you share your feelings

with others and provide honest feedback are necessary part of the learning situation.

Each chapter is organized to help you learn concepts and skills, and each provides

cases, simulations, and diagnostic instruments to help you learn more about OD.

Although experiential learning can .be stimulating and often fun, it is important to

remember that you learn from the combination of theory and experience.


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Lecture 7

Systems theory

A systems approach ta

Systems theory

A systems approach takes a big picture perspective of organizational change. It is

based on the notion that any change, no matter how large or small, has a cascading

effect through out an organization.16 For example, promoting an individual to a new

work group affects the group dynamics in both the old and new groups. Similarly,

creating project or work teams may necessitate the need to revamp

compensation practices. These

examples illustrate that change creates additional change. Todays solutions are

tomorrows problems. A systems model of change offers managers a framework to

under stand the broad complexities of organizational change. The three main

components of a systems model are inputs, target elements of change, and outputs

Inputs

All organizational changes should be consistent with an organizations mission,vision,

and resulting strategic plan. A

Mission statement

represents the reason an organization exists, and an organizations

vision

is a long-term goal that describes what an organization wants to become.Consider

how the difference between mission and vision affects organizational change.Your

university probably has

a mission to educate people. This mission does notnecessarily imply anything about c

hange. It simply defines the universitys overall

purpose. In contrast, the university may have a vision to be recognized as the best

university in the country. This vision requires the organization to benchmark itself aga

inst other world-class universities and to create plans for achieving the vision. While

vision statements point the way, strategic plans contain the detail needed to create

organizational change. A


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strategic plan

outlines an organizations long-term direction. And actions necessary

to achieve planned results. Strategic plans are based on considering an organizations

strengths and weaknesses relative to its environmental

opportunities and threats. This comparison results in developing an organizational

strategy to attain desired outputs such as profits, customer satisfaction, quality, and

adequate return on investment.

Target elements of change

Components of an organization that may be changed. Finished vans sit at the end of

a production line in the Avon Lake, Ohio, Ford assembly plant. The plant assembles

the Ford Mercury Villager, Nilsson Quest, and the Ford Econo line Vans.How will

Fords inflexible plant design affect its ability to respond to changes in consumer

preferences? AP/Wide World photos volumes. Toyota Motor Corp.

and Volkswagen, for example, could be big winners, since both are skilled at

incorporating shared components among different models to save money.

Outputs

represent the desired end results of a change. Once again, these end results

should be consistent with an organizations strategic plan. Returning to the aboveexample regarding Ford, the organizational changes are geared toward increasing

flexibility, decreasing costs, and decreasing the time intakes to bring a new car to

market.

Parallel Learning structures

Parallel learning structures, specially created organizational structures developed to

plan and guide change programs, constitute another important foundation

of organization development. Dale Zand introduced this concept under the label

collateral organization

in 1974, and defined it as: Us supplemental organization coexisting with the usual,

formal organization. USO The purpose of the collateral organization into

deal with ill-structured problems that the formal organizations unable to resolve.

Parallel structures help people break free of the normal constraints imposed the

organization, engage in genuine inquiry and experimentation, and initiate needed

changes. We believe parallel learning structures are a foundation of ad because they

are prevalent in so many different00 programs. The quality of work life programs of


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the 1970s and 1980s used parallel structures composed of union leaders, managers,

and employees. Most socio technical systems redesign efforts and open systems

planning programs Use parallel structures. Parallel structures are often used to

coordinate self-directed teams in high-performance organizations. A steering

committee and working groups were used to coordinate the employee involvement

teams at Ford Motor Company. Parallel learning structures are often the best way to

initiate change in large bureaucratic organizations, especial-lee when the change

involves a fundamental shift in the organizations methods of work and/or

culture. Bushel and Shani recount a number of examples from variety of settings

where this intervention was used to great advantage. Parallel learning structures are

a powerful tool for creating organizational change


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Lecture 8

A normative Reductive strategy of changing

At the beginning of this chapter, we spoke of the importance of models and theories

of planned change. Here we address another foundation of OD in terms of the

strategy

of change that underlies most organization development activities. Organization

development involves change, and it rests on particular strategy of changing that has

implications for practitioners and organization members alike. Chin and Benne

describe three types of strategies for changing.54 First there are the empirical-rational

strategies, based on the assumptions that people are rational, will follow their

rational self-interest, and will change if and when they come to realize the change is

advantageous to them .The second group of strategies is the normative-reeducative

strategies, based on the assumptions that norms form the basis for behaviour,

and change comes through a reeducation process in which old norms are discarded

and supplanted by new ones. The third set of strategies is the power-coercive

strategies, based on the assumption that change is compliance of those with less

power to the de-sires of those with more power. Evaluated against these three change

strategies, 00 clearly falls within the normative-reeducative category, althoughoften 00 represents a combination of the normative-reeducative and the empirical-

rational strategies. Chin and Benne indicate the nature of the normative-reeducative

strategy: A second group of strategies we call normative-reeducative.

These strategies build upon assumptions about human motivation different from those

underlying the first. The rationality and intelligence of men are not denied. Patterns of

action and practice are supported by socio cultural norms and by commitments on the

part of the individu-103als to these norms. Socio cultural norms are supported by the

attitude and value systems of individuals-normative outlooks which under-gird

their commitments. Change in a pattern of practice or action, ac-cording to this view,

will occur only as the persons involved are brought to change their normative

orientations to old patterns and develop commitments to new ones. And changes

in normative orientations involve changes in attitudes, values, skills, and significant

relationships, not just changes in knowledge, information, or intellectual-al

rationales for action and practice. Our definition of organization development

refers to improving and managing the organizations culture-a clear reference to


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socio-cultural norms and to the normative nature of organizational

change. Since norms are socially accepted beliefs about Appropriate and

inappropriate behaviors held by groups, focusing on the group, not the individual,

could best change norms. Burke writes: the

application of behavioral science knowledge, practices, and skills

in ongoing systems in collaboration with system members


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Lecture 9

THE PROCESS OF CHANGE

SEQUENTIAL PROCESS OF CHANGEChange takes place through steps or phases. By this we mean the processes through

which a given innovation becomes an accepted part of the personality and way of

working of individuals, is usually evolutionary. Seldom does a new idea or practice

become accepted in one step, small or large. Perhaps a better way of putting it is that

people who accomplish successful change go through a number of sequential stages in

reaching their goal. This latter way of putting the matter is important because it

implies that people, not the innovation, go through the steps. This point is often lost

sight of in large-scale development projects. Sometimes the planning is done by one

group, usually a group of high-level administrators, and those who are expected to use

the innovation may have experienced none of the development thinking involved.

This is very likely to lead to uninformed, insensitive and different implementation, if

implementation takes place at all. The dangers of this way of handling the stages of

development can be minimized by indirect involvement in planning and evaluation,

and by good communications among all the people who will eventually be touched by

the new practice. But the problem remains one to be kept in mind in the planning and

steering of any development effort. Several models of sequential steps or stages in

change have been suggested. All these models envisage change as a continuous

process involving several stages.

The following eight stages are proposed here as framework of organizational

change:

1.Initiation:

Invitation is the stage of vocalization of the need for change. Organizationalchange

starts when someone takes the initiative of proposing that something has to bedone at

the level of the corporate management where the concern for some dimension of

organizational functioning is shared and discussed. The idea may be mooted at the

level of the corporate management, at times based on observations or

recommendations by some other level of the organization, and sometimes as are result

of discussion at the level of the corporate management. This usually leads to the


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hiring of a consultant fromo tside, or discussion with the appropriate set of people

within the organization

.2.Motivation:

Motivation is the stage of the involvement of people in detailed thinking about the

proposed change. At this stage both the corporate management and the expert who

helps in the organizational change take necessary steps to involve at large section of

the organization in thinking about the various dimensions of the change process.

3.Diagnosis:

Diagnosis is an attempt to search for the main cause of the symptoms encountered.

4.Information Collection:

At this stage detailed information is collected on the dimension indicated by the

diagnosis. Based on the diagnosis the necessary information is collected.

5.Deliberation:

The deliberation stage is concerned with evaluating various alternatives generated for

change.

6.Action Proposal:

This is the stage of framing up an action proposal.

7.Implementation:

Implementation is concerned with translating the proposal in to action8.Stabilization:

Stabilization is the stage of internalisising change and making it a part of the

organizations normal life. The various stages in the process of organizational change

may be useful to pay attention to the process in the beginning much more and this will

help to pay less attention to the process as the organizational change proceeds further.

Later much more attention can be given to the task. It is necessary to understand the

psychological process behind each stage of change, and the behavioral outcomes or

indicators.

THE PROCESS OF TRANSFORMATIONAL CHANGE

The process of change assumes qualitatively different dimensions in large and

complex organizations. There are demands by the external environment and varying

pressures from internal groups. In complex organizations, with rapid change in the

environments. The process of change is one of transition from the present to the

future. In such a case vision becomes an important process of collectively creating


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models of the future, and helps most people to move towards these models. Changes

are complex, involving the Structure, systems, processes, and new norms and

behavior. Continuous, monitoring is needed. Change has to continuously balance

innovation with stability. When an organization undertakes to respond to a new

challenge, to complex and changing environments, it needs to re-examine and re-

define its mission, create a vision for the members of an organization, and develop

broad strategies of mobilizing for the members of the organization to move into the

future. Such a change will be called transformational change. Beck hard (1989)

suggests four types of changes as transformational: a change in what drives the

organization, a fundamental change in the relationship between and among

organizational parts, a major change in the ways of doing work, and a basic change in

means, values or reward systems. Beck hard suggests 10 pre-requisites for success of

and 8 steps in the process of transformation change the role of the top executives are

critical in transformational change.

Pre-requisites of success of Transformational Change

1. Commitment of top leaders

2. Written description of the changed organization

3. Conditions that preclude maintenance of the status quo

4. Likelihood of a critical mass of support5. A medium to long-term perspective

6. Awareness of resistance and the need to honor it

7. Awareness of the need for education

8. The conviction that the change must be true

9. Willingness to use resources

10. Commitment to maintaining the flow of information.

Steps in Transformational Change

1. Designing the future state

2. Diagnosing the present state

3. Extrapolating what is required to go from present state to the transitional state

4. Analyzing the work that occurred during the transitional state

5. Defining the system that is affecting the problem

6. Analyzing each of the members of the critical mass with regard to readiness

andcapacity.


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7. Identifying the power relationships and resources necessary to ensure the

perpetuationsof change


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Lecture 10

Concepts of Intervention

The major task of diagnosis, as mentioned earlier,is

.to seek information knowledge while the task of intervention is to act/ take action. A

clear-cut line of division is not possible as Knowing and doing are

inextricably linked up in human experience. Indefining intervention

French and Bell (1990) supports the view that intervention is primarily concerned

with activities directed towards or antirational c go. 1hey

say, We prefer however, that emphasis be plated 6n the activity nature of inter

palliations interventions are things that happen Activates, in an organizations

life... OD interventions are sets of structured activities in which selected

organizational units (target groups or individuals) engage in a task or a sequence of

tasks her task goals are related directly .a indirectly to organizational improvement.

The definitions offered by Frenchand Bell (and similar other definitions too)

obviously poses some Publics. First of all, QP interventions are not the only

interventions in organization change it is only a subset

of interventions. Secondly, emphasis placed on task may be re-exanimate as there are

hundred other things than task that an organization, even a work organization, is preoc

cupied with. Personal development may not bean part of goal directed tasks or instru

mental to the organizations improvement. Set the organization may make provisions

for it. Thirdly, the concept of improvement is to be properly understood. In using the

term improvement conceptually a value mention of movement form bad to good,

dysfunctional to functional, immature to mature is implied. Interventions are also

needed to maintain the state of maturity if an organization has attained the maturity.The desire of a healthy person to maintain his health may require interventions that

may lot be Seen, as improvement in health. Similarly, all organization may need

interventions that maintain its present level of maturity. The scope of intervention for

managing change may be further elaborated if the concept of o (generational change

proposed by Chat () pathway and Pareek (1982) is taken into consideration

In their view, Organizational change will be conceived as a restively as a relatively

enduring alteration of the present state of an organization or its components functions,

in totality or partially, in order to gain greater viability in the context of the present


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and anticipated future environment (p.XVI). Any mental or physical activity that

introduces or facilitates the change in an

organization is in retention for organizational change. The chugged activities, for exa

mple, as Chattopadhyay and Pareek (.1982) observe, include

Amalgamation and bifurcation.

Diversifications, reorganization,

Restructuring,

Change in design or the introduction of new systems encompassing the organizations.

It will also mean change of people, task technology of the organization. The change

may be directed to one or more aspects:

Types of Intervention

Organizational change interventions could be divided into broad categories;

1. Interventions that are directed towards manifest change in the organization: for Exa

mple restructuring, re-organizing, introducing new systems, diversification, etc.

2. OD interventions that deal with processes, basic assumptions, beliefs, value, etc.

,which are underlying the manifest changes and directly or indirectly influence them

manifest changes


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Hope - participant see others learn, achieve their goals, improve, and cope

moreeffectively

Vicarious Learning - participants pick up skills and attitudes from others

Catharsis - participants experience a sense of release or breakthrough

A Description

The T-group provides participants with an opportunity to learn about themselves,

their impact on others and how to function more effectively in group and

interpersonalsituations. It facilitates this learning by bringing together a small group

of people for theexpress purpose of studying their own behavior when they interact

within a small group.A T-Group is not a group discussion or a problem solving

group.The group's work is primarily process rather than content oriented. The focus

tends to beon the feelings and the communication of feelings, rather than on the

communication of information, opinions, or concepts. This is accomplished by

focusing on the 'here andnow' behavior in the group. Attention is paid to particular

behaviors of participants not onthe "whole person", feedback is non-evaluative andreports on the impact of the behavior on others. The participant has the opportunity to

become a more authentic self in relationto others through self disclosure and receiving

feedback from others. TheJohari Window is a model that looks at that

process.The training is not structured in the manner you might

experience in an academic program or a meeting with an agenda or a team with a task

to accomplish. The lack of structure and limited involvement of the trainers provides

space for the participants todecide what they want to talk about. No one tells them

what they ought to talk about. Thelack of direction results in certain characteristic

responses; participants are silent or aggressive or struggle to start discussions or

attempt to structure the group.In the beginning of a T-Group participants are usually

focused on what they experienceas a need for structure, individual emotional safety,

predictability, and something to do incommon. These needs are what amount to the

tip of the iceberg in most groups in their back home situation. By not filling

the group's time with answers to these needs, the T-Group eventually begins to notice

what is under the tip of the iceberg. It is what is alwaysthere in any group but often
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unseen and not responsibly engaged . So, participantsexperience anxiety about

authority and power, being include and accepted in the group,and

intimacy.Depending on forces, such as, the dynamics of the group,

the past experience andcompetence of participants, and the skill of the trainers -- the

group, to some extent,usually develops a sense of itself as a group, with feelings of

group loyalty. This cancause groups to resist learning opportunities if they are seen as

threatening to the group'sself-image. It also provides some of the climate of trust,

support and permission neededfor individuals to try new behavior.

As an individual participant begins to experience some degree of trust (in themselves,

thegroup and the trainers) several things become possible --

The participant may notice that his/her feelings and judgments about the behavior of

others is not always shared by others. That what he/she found supportive

or threatening was not experience in that way by others in the group. That how

oneresponded to authority, acceptance and affection issues different from that

of others (more related to ones family of origin than to what is happening in

thegroup). Individual differences emerge in how experiences are understood.

The participant may begin to try on new behavior. For example, someone who

hasalways felt a need to fill silence with noise and activity tries being quieter andstill.

Participants begin to ask for feedback from the group about how their behavior

isimpacting others.

Participants may find that they are really rather independent and have a relativelylow

level of anxiety about what is happening in the group. They will exhibit

a broader range of behavior and emotions during the life of the group. In

fact their leadership is part of what helps the group develop.

The role of the trainers

To help the group and individuals analyze and learn from what is happening in

thegroup. The trainer may draw attention to events and behavior in the group


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andinvite the group to look at its experience. At times the trainer may offer

tentativeinterpretations.

To offer theory, a model or research that seems related to what the group islooking at.

To encourage the group to follow norms that tend to serve the learning process,e.g.,

focusing on "here & now" rather than the "then & there".

To offer training and coaching in skills that tend to help the learning process,

e.g.,feedback skills, EIAG, etc.

To not offer structure or an agenda. To remain silent, allowing the group toexperience

its anxiety about acceptance, influence, etc.

To be willing to disclose oneself, to be open with the group. On occasion beingwilling

to offer feedback and challenge a participant

To avoid becoming too directive, clinical, or personally involved.

Possible Problems

T-Group methods usually encourage self-disclosure and openness, which may

beinappropriate or even punished in organizations. This was an early learning.When

managers thought they could take the T-group method into the

back homeorganization, they discovered that the methods and the assumptions of a T-

groupdid not fit. T-groups consisted of participants who were strangers. They didn't

have a history or a future together and could more easily focus on here and

now behavior. Another issue was that in the organization there were objectives,deadli

nes and schedules related to accomplishing the work of the company or group. Groups

with a task to accomplish could not take the same time that would be used in a T-

Group. These difficulties helped lead to the development of Organization Developme

nt and team building. What had been learned in T-Groups was combined with other

knowledge and these new disciplines emergedas ways to address the values raised by

the T-Group experience.


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The T-Group experience can open up a web of questioning in a participant. Waysof

behaving that the person has used for many years may be called into question by

others in the group and oneself. This has in some cases brought the participantto

question relationships in the family or at work. While this can be a veryconstructive

process that leads to the renewal of relationships, it has on occasionlead to the

breakdown of a relationship. While such a breakdown may have, intime, come to the

relationship without participation in a T-Group, it remains a painful and possibly

damaging experience.

Participants being forced or pressured to attend, by an employer or other personwith

influence, are on the whole less likely to have a positive learning

experience.Employers or others who want to require the participation of others may

enhancethe chance of having a productive outcome if -- they attend a lab

themselves before sending others; they speak with the lab coordinator before the event

todiscuss what might realistically be expected and what the leader could do to assistin

the learning process when the participant returns home.

Very rarely there have been situations in which a participant has apsychiatric problem. One report said "The possibility of negative psychiatric effects o

f ST,and especially its role in inducing psychiatric symptoms, is yet to be

clarified."This reinforces the value of participation based on intrinsic motivation; a

normthat discourages people in therapy from attending without the approval of

their therapist; and trainers staying focused on the learning areas suited for T-

Groupexperiences.

Lecture -12

Team Interventions


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Most of us have either participated in or watched games that involve team work. A

team is a group of individuals with complementary skills who depend upon one

another to accomplish a common purpose or set of performance goals

for which they hold themselves mutually accountable. Teamwork is work done by

members, all subordinating personal prominence for the good of the team.

In effective teams, members are open and honest with one another. There is support

and trust; there is a high degree of cooperation and collaboration, decisions are

reached by consensus, communication channels are open and well developed. And

there is a strong commitment to the team goals. Many management theorists suggest

the team-based organization is the wave of the future. The self-

managed team should be one of the basic building blocks of the organization

and may well become the productivity breakthrough of the 1990s .Management

consultant. W. Edwards Deming (management guru to the Japanese and responsible

for much of Japanese post-war industrial success). Once said in interview ,An

example of a system well managed is an orchestra. The various players are not there

as prima donnas-to play loud and attract the attention of the listener. Theyre there to

support each other. In fact, sometimes you see a whole section doing nothing but

counting and watching. Just sitting there doing nothing. Theyre there to support each

other. Thats how business should be. In this chapter, we examine some reasons forusing team building and discuss several work-team interventions, including team

developmentt, outdoor experiential laboratory training, role negotiation, and role

analysis techniques. Other team and intergroup interventions, such as goal setting and

self-managed work teams, are discussed in succeeding chapters.

Techniques and exercises used in team building:

1.Role Negotiation Technique- Roger Harrison

Role negotiation, is directed at the

work relationships

among team members. The technique involves a series of controlled negotiations

between participants. During the role negotiation, managers frankly discuss what they

want form each other and explain why.

The steps of role negotiation include the following-


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1. Contract setting. Each member prepares a list for each other member with three

headings.

(a) things to do more.(b) things to do less, and (c) things to do the same.

2. Issue diagnosis.

Each member writes out a master list combining the lists written about him or her, and

posts this list on the wall. Members are then asked to clarify any items that need

explanation.

3.Influence trade.

After the clarification, members decide which items they want most and form into

pairs to negotiate, usually with a third party to help in the process.

4. Written role negotiation. The outcome of the role negotiation is set of written

agreements spelling out the agreements and concessions which each party finds

satisfactory.

Role Analysis

Another team development intervention, called role analysis technique (RAT), isdesigned to clarify

role expectations

. Team norms influence member behaviors or attitudes associated with a particular po

sition. These set of behaviors or attitudes associated with a particular position in a

team is called a

role

.At times team members develop discrepancies between what is expected of each

other.Role analysis is used to clarify suchrole discrepancies. Leading to improved

cohesiveness and functioning. Role expectations are those behaviors of one member

(role incumbent) expected or prescribed by other team members, while role

conception refers to the focal persons own ideas about appropriate role behavior.

Role ambiguity refers to the role incumbents being unaware of or lacking sufficient

knowledge of the expectations of others. In other words, he or she does not fully

know what others expect. When there is an incongruence or a discrepancy between

the role expectations and the role conception, the role conflict occurs. Incongruence


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between

formal job descriptions and actual role demands is another source of role conflict

.Because the team members have a stake in each persons performance. They develop

attitudes and expectations about what a member should or should not do. Role

analysis provides a means for dealing with such problems. This intervention is based

on the premise that consensual agreement about team member roles will lead to a mor

e productive and satisfied team. The steps of role analysis technique include the

following

.1. Role analysis. T

he role incumbent sets forth the role as he or she perceives it, listing perceived duties,

behaviors, and responsibilities. The role conception. Other team members add to

or modify this list until all members are satisfied with the role description.

2. The role incumbents expectations of others.

The role incumbent lists his or her expectation of other group members. This list

describes those expectations of others thataffect the incumbents role and impinge

upon his or her performance. Again the wholeteam adds to or modifies this list until

they agree upon a complete listing.

3. Role Expectations by other.

The other members list their expectations of th4e role incumbent. This list includeswhat they expect him or her to do as it affects their role performance. The work team

modifies this list until they all agree.

4. Role profile. Upon agreement of the role definition. The role incumbent is

thenresponsible for making a written summary called a role profile. He or she

distributes acopy of the completed role profile to each member.

5. the team follows the preceding procedure until each member has a written role

profile.

6. periodically, the team reviews role expectations and role profiles, since these

maychange over time and group mission or members also may change.

As with other OD techniques, there are reports of increased effectiveness from role

analysis techniques. But there is little empirical evidence upon which to base any

conclusion


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Lecture 14

Responsibility Charting

Responsibility Charting helps to clarify who is responsible for what with respect to

various decisions and actions. It is a simple, relevant and effective technique

for improving team functioning and ensuring clarity of responsibilities during a

change process .A responsibility charting session can quickly identify who is to do

what in relation to new initiatives, as well as helping to pinpoint reasons why previous

decisions are not being accomplished as desired. Responsibility charting is a good

intervention to use to:

improve the task performance of a team with their existing work.

to clarify roles and responsibilities before, during or after a change process.

It can also be particularly useful where decision making is embedded in a complex

committee structure as the tool can be adapted to indicate which committees or

interest groups need to be involved in approving change and which need to be kept

informed The first step is to devise a Decision Matrix form. Down the left side list the

decisions that are at issue. They may be decisions relating to policy and procedure or

to the practicalities of implementation. Across the top fill in the actual and/or potential

actors who are relevant to the listed decisions. The next step is to agree the definitions

of behaviors associated with the decision making process.

A typical set of terms is:

A = APPROVE a person who must sign off or veto a decision before it is

implemented or selected from options developed by the R role; accountable for

the quality of the decision.

R = RESPONSIBLE the person who takes the initiative in the particular area,

develops the alternatives, analyses the situation, makes the initial

recommendation, and is accountable if nothing happens in the area.


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C = CONSULTED a person who must be consulted prior to a decision being reached

but with no veto power.

I = INFORMED a person who must be notified after a decision, but before it is

publicly announced; someone who needs to know the outcome for other related tasks

but need not give input.

DK = DON'T KNOWA blank indicates no relationship. Actors Decisions The tool is

similar to the RAEW Analys is used in Process Review and can indeed be used as part

of a continuous improvement approach to reviewing institutional decision

making processes.
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Lecture 15

Force Field Analysis

Force Field Analysis is a method for listing, discussing, and evaluating the various

forces for and against a proposed change. When a change is planned, Force Field

Analysis helps you look at the big picture by analyzing all of the forces impacting the

change and weighing the pros and cons. By knowing the pros and cons, you can

develop strategies to reduce the impact of the opposing forces and strengthen the

supporting forces .Forces that help you achieve the change are called "driving forces."

Forces that work against the change are called "restraining forces. "Force Field

Analysis can be used to develop an action plan to implement a change. Specifically it

can . . .

1.Determine if a proposed change can get needed support

2.Identify obstacles to successful solutions

3.Suggest actions to reduce the strength of the obstacles

Types of forces to consider

Available Resources Attitudes of people Values

Traditions Regulations Desires

Vested interests Personal or group needs Costs

Organizational structures Present or past practices People

Relationships Institutional policies or norms Events

Social or organizational trends Agencies

The Process

1.Start with a well-defined goal or change to be implemented.

2.Draw a force field diagram.

a. At the top of a large sheet of paper write the goal or change to be implemented.

b .Divide the paper into two columns by drawing a line down the middle. A tthe top

of the left column, write "Driving Forces." Label the right column" Restraining

Forces."


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3.Brainstorm a list of driving and restraining forces and record them on the chart in

the appropriate column.

4.Once the driving and restraining forces have been identified, ask the following

questions:

Are they valid?

How do we know?

How significant are each of them?

What is their strength?

Which ones can be altered?

Which cannot?

Which forces can be altered quickly?

Which ones only slowly?

Which forces, if altered, would produce rapid change?

Which only slow change in the situation?What skills and/or information is needed and

available to alter the forces?

Can we get them?

5.Assign a score to each force, from 1 (weak) to 5 (strong).The score is based on (a)

the strength of the force and (b) the degree to which it is possible to influence this

force.6.Calculate a total score for each of the two columns.

7.Decide if the goal or change is feasible. If so, devise a manageable course of action

which s

:o Strengthens positive force

o Weakens negative force

o Creates new positive forces

Example Force Field Analysis DiagramGoal or proposed change:

To have no abandoned cars along city streets by May 1.


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Driving Forces (the pro's) Restraining Forces (the con's)

Interest in the problem has recently been

expressed by advocacy groups

The definition of "abandoned cars" is

unclear to the public.

The public service director supports the

plan

Owners of older cars feel threatened

The City Council supports the plan Difficult to locate abandoned cars

Public climate favors cleaning up the

city.

Where to put the abandoned cars once

identified?

Local auto salvage yards have agreed to

take the cars at no cost

Expense involved in locating and

disposing of abandoned cars

Health department cites old abandoned

vehicles as potential healh hazard

Need a procedure to verify vehicles

declared "abandoned" and notify owners

.


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Lecture 16

Third Party Peacemaking Interventions

INTERGROUP INTERVENTIONS

Intergroup interventions are integrated into OD programs to facilitate

cooperation and efficiency between different groups within an organization.

For instance, departmental interaction often deteriorates in larger organizations as

different units battle for limited resources or become detached from the needs of other

units. Conflict resolution meetings are one common intergroup intervention. First,

different group leaders are brought together to secure their commitment to the

intervention. Next, the teams meet separately to make a list of their feelings about the

other group(s). Then the groups meet and share their lists. Finally, the teams meet to

discuss the problems and to try to develop solutions that will help both parties. This

type of intervention, say supporters, helps to gradually diffuse tension between groups

that has arisen because of faulty communication Rotating membership

interventions are used by OD change agents to minimize the negative effects of

intergroup rivalry that arise from employee allegiances to groups or divisions. The

intervention basically entails temporarily putting group members into their rival

groups. As more people interact in the different groups, greater understanding results.

OD joint activity interventions serve the same basic function as the rotating

membership approach, but these involve melding members of different groups to

work together toward a common goal. Similarly, common enemy interventions

achieve the same results by finding an adversary common to two or more groups

and then getting members of the groups to work together to overcome the threat.

Examples of common enemies targeted in such programs include competitors,

government regulation, and economic conditions


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Lecture 17

Third-Party Consultation

One method of increasing communication and initiating intergroup problem solving is

the intervention of a third party, usually an outside consultant, although the person

also may be a superior, a peer, or a representative from another unit. Third party

interventions have the potential to solve such conflicts. Pone basic feature of

this technique isconfrontation.31 Confrontation refers to the process in which the

parties directly engage each other and focus on the conflict between them. The goals

of interventions include achieving increased understanding of the issues,

accomplishing a common diagnosis ,discovering alternatives for resolving the conflict

and focusing on the common or Met a goals. The third party attempts to make

interventions aimed at opening communications, equalizing owner,

and confronting the problems. Achieving a balance in situational power. If the

situational power of the groups is not approximately equal, it is difficult to establish

trust and maintain open lines of communication. In such a case, it may be possible to

arrange for a third group, such as another work unit, to provide support to the groups

witless power. For groups who have leaders who are less articulator forceful in their

presentations, the third party may need to regulate the discussion. Coordinating

confrontation efforts. One groups positive overtures must be coordinated with the

other groups readiness to reciprocate. If one group is more highly motivated than the

other, the third party may protract the discussion or the higher-motivated group may

be encouraged to moderate their enthusiasm. A failure to coordinate positive

initiatives and readiness to respond can undermine future efforts to work out

Organization Mirror

The organization mirror is a technique designed to give work units feedback on how

other elements or customers of the organization viewthem.2 this intervention is

designed to improve relationships between teams and increase effectiveness. A work

team (which could be in personnel, engineering, production, accounting, and so on)

that is experiencing interface problems with related work terms may initiate a

feedback session. A consultant or other third party obtains specific information,

usually by questionnaire or interview, from other organization groups that the workteam contacts daily. The work team (also called the host group) meets to process the


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feedback. At this meeting, it is important that one of two spokespersons from each

contacted group be present. The outside key people and the consultant discuss the data

collected in an inner circle, while the host group fishbowls and observes on the

outside (therefore the term organization mirror). Following this, the host group may

ask questions of clarification (i.e., Why did you say this?) but may not argue or rebut.

The host unit, with the assistance of the consultant, then discusses the data to identify

problems. Subgroups are formed of host-

group members and key visitors to identify specific improvements that will increase

operating efficiency. Following this, the total group hears a summary report from each

sub group, and they outline action plans and make specific task assignments. This

completes the meeting, but follow-up meeting to assess progress is usually set up

for evaluation. The organization mirror provides a means for a work team to improve

its operating relations with other groups. It allows the Team to obtain feedback on

what it is doing, to identify key problems, and to search for specific improvements of

operating efficiency.

Interrupt Team Building

One intervention technique, originally developed by Robert Blake, Herb Shepard, andJane Mouton, is termed intergroup team building confrontation. Key members of conf

licting groups meet to work on issues or interface. An interface is nay Point at which

conflicting groups meet to work on issues or interface. An interface is nay point at

which contact between groups is essential to achieving a result34 The groups may be

two interdependent organization elements such as architects and engineers,

purchasing and production, or finance and other department heads

Lecture 18Role-playing

is a frequently used method for gaining cross group understanding. As inall

confrontation, the consultant must intervene to open communications, balance

power ,and shift from hostile to problem-solving confrontation. Intergroup team-

building

meetings usually take one or two days. Members are brought together to reduce

misunderstanding, to open communication, and to develop mechanisms for


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collaboration.Most OD practitioners advise intra group team development

before intergroup team building. The purpose of this is to clear out any team issues

or garbage before getting to work on interface problems. The inter group team

building meeting usually involves the following steps:

Step 1. Two work groups who have identified intergroup operating problems first

make three lists each before meeting together

1. How do we see ourselves?

2. How we think the other department sees us?

3. How do we see the other department?

The groups prepare their lists written in large legible print on sheets of news print.

Step 2. The groups then meet together and tape their lists to the wall. A spokesperson

for each group presents that groups lists. While one department is making its

presentation, the other department may not defend itself, argue, or rebate;

but it does have the opportunity to ask clarifying questions (What do you mean by

inflexible? Could you be more specific unautocratic?)

Step 3. The groups then meet separately to discuss the discrepancies In perception and

react to the feedback. The feedback allows for correcting perception sand behaviors toa more effective mode.

Step 4. In the next phase, the groups divide into subgroups of five or six by mixing

members of the two departments. These cross groups have the objectives of agreeing

upon a diagnosis of interface problems and the development of conflict-reducing

or problem-solving alternatives with action plans and follow appr activities.

Together the groups develop an action plan for solving problems and assigning

responsibilities for the action plan.

Step 5. Usually, they schedule a follow-up meeting to evaluate Progress and to make

sure that the actions have achieved their Purpose. Although little hard evidence is

available, there have been Subjective reports of positive

results from intergroup meetings. Blake. Shepard, and Mouton reported improved

relationships In there study, and French and Bell also reported working Successfully


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with three tribal groups. Bennis also reported Improved relationships between

two groups of officials within The U.S. Department of State.36

Lecture 19

COMPREHENSIVE INTERVENTIONS

OD comprehensive interventions are used to directly create change throughout an

entire organization, rather than focusing on organizational change through sub group

interventions. One of the most popular comprehensive interventions is survey

feedback. This technique basically entails surveying employee attitudes at all levels of

the company and then disseminating a report that details those findings. The

employees then use the data in feedback sessions to create solutions

to perceived problems. A number of questionnaires developed specifically for such

interventions have been developed.

This chapter will examine several system - wide approaches organization

development:

1) TQM2) Reengineering

3) Grid-OD

4) survey research feedback

5) Linkers system 4model. In the simulation, you will have an opportunity to

experience and practice the oncepts of system wide change approaches.

Total Quality Management

One system wide approach to change is termed Total Quality management (TQM).

TQM is dedicated to having organization members who are committed to continuous

improvement and meeting or exceeding customer expectations. During a time of dow

nsizing and restructuring, many American companies are finding that they must learn

to manage more effectively, and TQM involves all levels of the organization in

developing practices that are customer oriented, flexible and responsive to changing

needs. Total Quality management has been the most widely adopted system change

strategy to improve productivity and competitiveness during the past five years. This

concept began with Demings work with Japanese management, and its initial focus


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was on improving quality. But as it is now being applied, TQM represents a system

wide change approach, which is being used by leading companies around the world.

Total quality management (TQM) involves all organization members in ensuring that

every activity related to the production of goods or services relates to product quality.

In essence all organization members focus performance on maintaining the quality

of products offered by the company. In TQM, all improve the quality of products.

Although the TQM movement actually began in the United States, the

establishment, growth, and development of the movement throughout the

world began with the Japanese. Reengineering: A Radical Redesign Although is too

early to predict the long term results of reengineering change programs,

many companies including Boeing, Ford, Hallmark, Kodak, and PepsiCo. Have

applied Reengineering tow work process.

Reengineering

-like TQM is a system wide change approach focusing on changing

the basic processes of an organization. Reengineering (as set forth by

Michael Hammer and James Company) may be defined as the fundamental

rethinking and radical redesign of business processes to achieve drasticimprovements in performance. Reengineering as the name implies focuses on the

design of work activities of processes: how the task is

accomplished. It dislike designing a circuit, examining the flows or sequences of activ

ities from input to output in an attempt to eliminate inefficiencies, and

improve productivity, Reengineering seeks to Make all processes more efficient by

combining, eliminating or restructuring tasks without regard to traditional methods:

the way things have always been done around here. The idea is toga in a large or

quantum leap in performance, improvements of100 percent or more. Like TQM, the

main focus is the customer. Companies such as AT&T and Pacific Bell have

reengineered the process used to implement telephone service to new

customers. The result has-been faster, better, and easier for both employees and

customers, cutting down customer service time by one half. Reengineering does not

refer to minor modifications of current practices. Instead it means starting with a clean

sheet of paper, includes radical changes in work processes and work relationships.

The main emphasis one reengineering is making the customer happy. The first step is


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to identify the key business processes of a department or work team. The next step is

to identify performance measures in terms of customer satisfaction and to examine

current processes to meet these measures. The customer doesnt care about internal

rewards, or turf wars , the customer just wants the product or service done right,

anon time. The third step is to reengineer the process, organizing work around the

process, not functions or departments. Work is simplified by combining related tasks

and eliminating any elements that do not directly add customer value. Finally, there

designed process is implemented and all activities undergo a continuing re evaluation.

As technology, computers, and customers change, work processes are continually re

examined. Reengineering examines each process and evaluates the processing terms o

f how it usually focuses on incremental changes, while reengineering is seeking a

radical re examinations amide at large scale increases in productivity. While some OD

practitioners have criticized reengineering as

atop down, or numbers approach, this approach lends employee involvement,

empowerment, and teams, reengineering is similar to the socio technical approach to

change.


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Lecture 20

High-Performance Systems (HPS)

One of the more recent developments in large-scale change is the

concept of high performing systems, (HPS) a term originated by Peter Vaill. The idea

is that todays organizations need continuing excellence and renewal as a way of

bringing innovation into our systems. In order to be effective, HPS leaders must see

that the excessive layers of structure within the organization are removed and create a

climate, which emphasizes participation and communication across ability to display

energy and zest for the task being Worked on, the product being built and ones

fellow team members. Leading by example is a popular way for managers to create

excitement and electricity within the workplace. Displaying enthusiasm tends to

greatly impact the morale and productivity Of the workface.10 a high performing

system has been defined as an excellent human system - one that performs at an

unusually high level of excellence. But, as Peter Vaill points out, how we define

excellence and performance depends upon our values.

HPS Criteria

Wail has identified a set of eight criteria, which may be used toExamine systems:1. They are performing excellently against a known external standard.

2. They are performing excellently against what is assumed to be their potential level

of performance.

3. They are performing excellently in relation to where they were at some earlier point

int ime.

4. They are judged by informed observers to be doing substantially better qualifiedly

than other comparable systems.

5. They are doing whatever they do with significantly less resources than it is

assumed are needed to do what they do.

6. They are perceived as exemplars of the way to do whatever they do, and thus

they become a source of ideas and

7. They are perceived to fulfill at a high level the ideals for the Within which

they exist.

8. They are the only organizations that have been able to do what they do at all


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The Grid OD Program

One of the most widely used approaches to system wide planned change is Gride

organization development. A change model designed by Robert R. Blake and Jane

S.Mouton and marketed by Scientific Methods. Inc. This program is a systematic

approach aimed at achieving corporate excellence. Blake and Mouton feel that in

order to increase the effectiveness of managers and the organization, change

must take place in the Basic culture of the system. Grid organization development

starts with a focus on individual behavior, specifically on the managerial

styles of executives using what Blake and Mouton call The Managerial Grid.

The program them moves through a series of sequential phases involving the work

team, the relationships between groups or subunits,

And finally to the culture of the organization itself. The Managerial Grid and Grid

OD represents one of the most extensively applied approaches

to organization improvement and, administered

by Scientific Methods, Inc., have been used by such major U.S. corporations as

Procter & Gamble, Conoco, Merck, and Whirlpool, as well as by a number of foreign

organizations. Westinghouse, for example. Have run more than7,000managers through the Grid starting in 1975 through 1990. Blake estimates that p

erhaps750, 000 managers have been involved with the Grid in one way or another

and that perhaps 5,000 companies have engaged in Grid development activities. These

are necessarily estimates, as there is non realistic basis for a head count. It is known

that then necessarily estimates, as there is no realistic basis for a head count. It is

known that the Managerial Grid book has sold approximately 500,000copies in

English and more than100,000 co

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Lecture -ment Organisation Develop