Lecture 5Lecture 5MorphologyMorphology

The Analysis of Word The Analysis of Word StructureStructure

MorphologyMorphology

Words like Words like read,read, language, tall, on, etc.language, tall, on, etc. must must be learned and stored as separate items in be learned and stored as separate items in the the lexiconlexicon..

However, countless other words can be However, countless other words can be constructed and comprehended by the constructed and comprehended by the application of some general rules.application of some general rules.

Therefore, part of the linguistic competence Therefore, part of the linguistic competence is the ability to construct and interpret is the ability to construct and interpret words.words.

This system of categories and rules involved This system of categories and rules involved in word formation and interpretation is in word formation and interpretation is called called morphologymorphology..

WordWorddefinitiondefinition

Words are meaningful linguistic units that Words are meaningful linguistic units that can combine to form larger structures can combine to form larger structures (phrases, clauses, or sentences).(phrases, clauses, or sentences).

A ward is associated with a particular A ward is associated with a particular meaning..meaning..

It is a unit of expression that is intuitively It is a unit of expression that is intuitively recognizable by native speakers.recognizable by native speakers.

WordWordidentificationidentification

Words are the physically definable Words are the physically definable units one encounters in a stretch of units one encounters in a stretch of writing or speech.writing or speech.

Words are most stable of all linguistic Words are most stable of all linguistic units, in respect of their internal units, in respect of their internal structure.structure.

Words are uninterruptible.Words are uninterruptible.

Word = free formWord = free form

A word is the smallest A word is the smallest free formfree form found in language. found in language. A free form is an element that:A free form is an element that:

ii can occur in isolationcan occur in isolationbirdbird vs.vs. -s-s

and/orand/or

iiii whose position with respect to neighbouring whose position with respect to neighbouring elements isn’t elements isn’t entirely fixed.entirely fixed.

BirdsBirds avoid cats. avoid cats. (before a verb)(before a verb)Cats chase Cats chase birdsbirds.. (after a verb)(after a verb)TheThe birds birds (before a noun)(before a noun)TheThe young birds young birds (before something else)(before something else)

MorphemeMorpheme

Concepts that are expressed by a Concepts that are expressed by a word (free form) in one language may word (free form) in one language may not necessarily have the same status not necessarily have the same status in other languages:in other languages:

ArabicArabic EnglishEnglish

//--// my mothermy mother

So, we need a simpler alternative.So, we need a simpler alternative.

MorphemeMorpheme

Words have an internal structure consisting of Words have an internal structure consisting of smaller units organized with respect to each smaller units organized with respect to each other.other.

The most important component of word structure The most important component of word structure is the is the morphememorpheme..

It is the smallest unit of language that carries It is the smallest unit of language that carries information about meaning or function:information about meaning or function:builderbuilder == buildbuild ++ -er-er

‘‘construct’construct’ ‘one who does’‘one who does’houseshouses == househouse ++ -s-s

‘‘dwelling’dwelling’ ‘more than one’‘more than one’

MorphemesMorphemesFree and BoundFree and Bound

A free morpheme can be a word by itself; A free morpheme can be a word by itself; it can stand alone.it can stand alone.

A bound morpheme must be attached to A bound morpheme must be attached to another element; it cannot stand alone.another element; it cannot stand alone.

freefree boundboundcarcar -s-ssmilesmile -ed-edtalltall -er-ercarecare -ful-ful

AllomorphsAllomorphs

Morphemes do not always have an Morphemes do not always have an invariant form.invariant form.

The variant forms of a morpheme are The variant forms of a morpheme are called its called its allomorphsallomorphs..

indefiniteness:indefiniteness: a/ana/an

past tense:past tense: d, t, d, t, әәdd

plural:plural: z, s, z, s, әәzz

Word StructureWord Structure

Complex words consist of a Complex words consist of a rootroot and one and one or more or more affixesaffixes..

The root morpheme:The root morpheme:ii contributes the most to the word’s contributes the most to the word’s meaning,meaning,iiii belongs to a lexical category.belongs to a lexical category.

An affix:An affix:ii does not belong to a lexical category,does not belong to a lexical category,iiii is always a bound morpheme.is always a bound morpheme.

Word StructureWord Structure

NN V V

VV AffAff AdjAdj Aff Aff

teachteach erer modernmodern ize ize

Word StructureWord Structure

A A basebase is the form to which an affix is the form to which an affix is added.is added.

It can be the root:It can be the root:

black – enblack – en

Or, it can be a larger unit:Or, it can be a larger unit:

blacken – edblacken – ed

Word StructureWord Structure

VV

Base for -ed Base for -ed VV

Root and base Root and base AdjAdj AffAff AffAfffor -enfor -en

blackblack enen eded

Structure ModificationStructure ModificationAffixationAffixation

Affixation is the most common morphological Affixation is the most common morphological process.process.

prefixing:prefixing: inter-inter-marrymarry

suffixing:suffixing: kindkind-ness-ness

infixing: infixing: Aff (present) Aff (present) / \/ \k a t a bk a t a b \ | /\ | / RootRoot

Structure ModificationStructure ModificationInternal changeInternal change

Internal change is a process that substitutes one Internal change is a process that substitutes one non-morphemic segment for another:non-morphemic segment for another:ssiingng ssaangngffoooott ffeeeett

These cannot be considered as examples on These cannot be considered as examples on infixing:infixing:ii English does not have a root *sng (meaning English does not have a root *sng (meaning

‘produce words in a musical tone’).‘produce words in a musical tone’).iiii English does not have a morpheme English does not have a morpheme ii meaning meaning ‘present’ or a morpheme ‘present’ or a morpheme aa meaning meaning ‘past’ in the ‘past’ in the sing/sang case.sing/sang case.

Structure ModificationStructure ModificationSuppletionSuppletion

Suppletion is a morphological process Suppletion is a morphological process whereby a root morpheme is replaced whereby a root morpheme is replaced by a phonologically unrelated form in by a phonologically unrelated form in order to indicate a grammatical order to indicate a grammatical contrast.contrast.

Basic formBasic form Suppletive formSuppletive formII memebebe wereweregoodgood wellwell

Structure ModificationStructure ModificationStress placementStress placement

A base can undergo a change in the A base can undergo a change in the placement of stress to reflect a placement of stress to reflect a change in its category.change in its category.

VerbVerb NounNoun

preséntpresént présentprésent

subjéctsubjéct súbjectsúbject

contéstcontést cóntestcóntest

Structure ModificationStructure ModificationCompoundingCompounding

It is a common morphological process It is a common morphological process which involves the combination of which involves the combination of lexical categories to create larger lexical categories to create larger words.words.

The elements making up the The elements making up the compound are free forms..compound are free forms..Noun + NounNoun + Noun Adjective + NounAdjective + Nouncampsitecampsite bluebirdbluebirdbookcasebookcase greenhousegreenhouse

CompoundingCompounding

In English, the rightmost morpheme determines the In English, the rightmost morpheme determines the category of the entire compound. This morpheme is category of the entire compound. This morpheme is called the called the headhead..

NN VV AdjAdj

AdjAdj NN NN VV NN AdjAdj

greengreen house house spoonspoon feedfeed nationnationwidewide

DerivationDerivation

Through the addition of an affix, Through the addition of an affix, derivationderivation forms a word with a meaning and/or category forms a word with a meaning and/or category distinct form that of its base.distinct form that of its base.

basebase derived wordderived word

sellsell sellerseller

teachteach teacherteacher

ii category change: verb category change: verb noun noun

iiii meaning change: X meaning change: X someone who someone who does Xdoes X

Complex DerivationsComplex Derivations

Since derivation can apply more than Since derivation can apply more than once, it is possible to create multiple levels once, it is possible to create multiple levels of word structure.of word structure.

VerbVerb ++ -ive-ive == Adj.Adj.actact ++ -ive-ive == activeactiveAdj.Adj. ++ -ate-ate == VerbVerbactiveactive++ -ate-ate == activateactivateVerbVerb ++ -ion-ion == NounNounactivateactivate ++ -ion-ion == activationactivation

[[N N [[V V [[Adj Adj [[V V act] ive] ate] ion]act] ive] ate] ion]

NN

VV

AdjAdj

VV AffAff AffAff AffAff

actact iveive ateate ionion

un-happy-ness ?un-happy-ness ?

(a)(a) NN (b)(b) NN

AdjAdj NN

AffAff AdjAdj AffAff AffAff AdjAdj AffAff

unun happyhappy nessness unun happyhappy nessness

un-happy-ness ?un-happy-ness ?

The prefix The prefix un-un- combines freely with combines freely with adjectives, but not with nouns:adjectives, but not with nouns:

unhealthyunhealthy // unhealthyunhealthy

health + yhealth + y *un + health*un + health

un +healthyun +healthy *unhealth + y*unhealth + yTherefore, analysis (a) is more plausible Therefore, analysis (a) is more plausible

than analysis (b).than analysis (b).

Constraints on DerivationConstraints on Derivation

Derivation does not apply freely to the members Derivation does not apply freely to the members of a given category:of a given category:

ii -ant-ant combines with Latinate bases: combines with Latinate bases:LatinateLatinate NativeNativedefenddefendantant *fight*fightantantservservantant *teach*teachantant

iiii -en combines with monosyllabic obstruent-final -en combines with monosyllabic obstruent-final base adjectives:base adjectives:

whitenwhiten *abstracten*abstracten (disyllabic)(disyllabic)quickenquicken *bluen*bluen (non-obstruent-(non-obstruent-

final)final)

Class 1 derivational affixesClass 1 derivational affixes

Class 1 affixes normally trigger changes in Class 1 affixes normally trigger changes in segments of the base.segments of the base.

They usually also affect the assignment of stress.They usually also affect the assignment of stress.part-ialpart-ial final consonant of the base final consonant of the base

changes from /t/ to /∫/changes from /t/ to /∫/prodprodúúct-ivect-ive stress shifts to second stress shifts to second

syllable (cf. syllable (cf. prpróóductduct))public-itypublic-ity final consonant of the base final consonant of the base

changes from /k/ to /s/, and changes from /k/ to /s/, and stress stress shifts to second syllable shifts to second syllable ((ppúúblicblic vs. vs. publpublíícitycity))

Class 2 derivational affixesClass 2 derivational affixes

In contrast, class 2 affixes tend to be In contrast, class 2 affixes tend to be phonologically neutral, having no phonologically neutral, having no effect on the segmental makeup of effect on the segmental makeup of the base or the stress assignment.the base or the stress assignment.

prompt-nessprompt-ness no change triggeredno change triggeredhair-lesshair-less no change triggeredno change triggeredhope-fulhope-ful no change triggeredno change triggeredself-ishself-ish no change triggered no change triggered

InflectionInflection

InflectionInflection is the modification of a word’s is the modification of a word’s form.form.

Inflectional affixes signal grammatical Inflectional affixes signal grammatical relationships but do not change the relationships but do not change the grammatical class.grammatical class.

The base to which an inflectional affix is The base to which an inflectional affix is added is the added is the stemstem..

The stem includes the root and all The stem includes the root and all derivational affixes.derivational affixes.

English Inflectional AffixesEnglish Inflectional Affixes

{-s pl}{-s pl} noun pluralnoun plural

{-s 3{-s 3rdrd sg} sg} present third person present third person singularsingular

{-ing vb}{-ing vb} present participlepresent participle

{-ed pt}{-ed pt} past tensepast tense

{-ed pp}{-ed pp} past participlepast participle

{-er cp}{-er cp} comparativecomparative

{-est sp}{-est sp} superlativesuperlative

Inflection vs. DerivationInflection vs. Derivation

Inflection and derivation are both Inflection and derivation are both marked by affixation.marked by affixation.

So, the distinction between the two So, the distinction between the two processes can be subtle.processes can be subtle.

It is not always clear which function a It is not always clear which function a particular affix has.particular affix has.

Three criteria help distinguish Three criteria help distinguish between inflectional and derivational between inflectional and derivational affixes.affixes.

Category ChangeCategory Change

The output of inflection:The output of inflection:

[[N N [[N N book ] s ]book ] s ] [[V V [[V V work ] ed ]work ] ed ]There is no change in either the category of the base or the There is no change in either the category of the base or the type of meaning it denotes. type of meaning it denotes. (another form of the word)(another form of the word)

The output of derivation:The output of derivation:

[[N N [[V V govern ] ment ]govern ] ment ][[N N [[N N king ] dom ]king ] dom ]

There is a change in the category of the base and/or the There is a change in the category of the base and/or the type of meaning it denotes. type of meaning it denotes. (another word)(another word)

OrderOrder

The derivational affix must be closer to the root than The derivational affix must be closer to the root than the inflectional affix. This means that the former the inflectional affix. This means that the former combines with the base before the latter.combines with the base before the latter.

NN NN

NN NN

NN AffAff AffAff NN AffAff AffAff

neighbourneighbour hoodhood ss *neighbour *neighbour ss hoodhood

ProductivityProductivity

The distribution of inflectional affixes is The distribution of inflectional affixes is considerably freer than that of the considerably freer than that of the derivational affixes.derivational affixes.-ize-ize vs.vs. plural plural -s-s

modern-izemodern-ize (cf. *new-ize)(cf. *new-ize)legalizelegalize (cf. *lawful-ize)(cf. *lawful-ize)

However, the suffix -s can combine However, the suffix -s can combine with almost any noun that allows a with almost any noun that allows a plural form.plural form.

Summing upSumming up

Morphology is concerned with the structure and Morphology is concerned with the structure and formation of formation of wordswords in human language. in human language.

Words consist of smaller formative elements Words consist of smaller formative elements called called morphemesmorphemes..

These elements can be classified in a number of These elements can be classified in a number of ways (ways (freefree vs. vs. boundbound, , rootroot vs. vs. affixaffix).).

Operations that can combine and modify Operations that can combine and modify morphemes include morphemes include affixationaffixation, , internalinternal changechange, , suppletionsuppletion, and , and compoundingcompounding..

The two basic types of word formation in English The two basic types of word formation in English are are derivationderivation and and inflectioninflection..

SyntaxSyntax

Syntactic Data and Syntactic RulesSyntactic Data and Syntactic RulesConstituent Order, Case Marking, Constituent Order, Case Marking,

and Thematic Rolesand Thematic RolesPhrases and Constituent StructurePhrases and Constituent Structure