Lecture 3, RESEARCH METHODOLOGY(MBA General 1st semseter) by Dr. Qamar Zaman

8/9/2019 Lecture 3, RESEARCH METHODOLOGY(MBA General 1st semseter) by Dr. Qamar Zaman

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Variable and Hypothesis

Dr. Qamruz Zaman

Associate Professor

Dept: of Statistics

University of Peshawar.


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24/02/2010 Qamruz Zaman 2

VARIABLESVARIABLES

Anything that can vary be considered as a variable.Anything that can vary be considered as a variable.

A variable is anything that can take on differing or varying values.A variable is anything that can take on differing or varying values.

For example; Age, Production units, Absenteeism, Sex, Motivation,For example; Age, Production units, Absenteeism, Sex, Motivation,Income, Height, Weight etc.Income, Height, Weight etc.


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Variable / AttributeVariable / Attribute

A variable is a characteristic that takes on two or more values whereas,A variable is a characteristic that takes on two or more values whereas,

an attribute is a specific value on a variable (qualitative).an attribute is a specific value on a variable (qualitative).

For example;For example;

The variable SEX/GENDER has 2 attributesThe variable SEX/GENDER has 2 attributes -- Male and Female.Male and Female.

The variable AGREEMENT has 5 attributesThe variable AGREEMENT has 5 attributes Strongly Agree,Strongly Agree,

Agree, Neutral, Disagree, Strongly Disagree.Agree, Neutral, Disagree, Strongly Disagree.


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Types of VariablesTypes of Variables

Discrete Vs Continuous VariableDiscrete Vs Continuous Variable

Binary Vs Multinomial VariableBinary Vs Multinomial Variable

Dependant vs Independent VariableDependant vs Independent VariableThe variable that changes in relationship to changes in anotherThe variable that changes in relationship to changes in another

variable(s) is called dependant variable.variable(s) is called dependant variable.

An independent variable is the one that influences the dependantAn independent variable is the one that influences the dependant

variable in either a positive or negative way.variable in either a positive or negative way.


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VARIABLES IN A HYPOTHESIS

In such a hypothesis the variables which must be considered are:

(i) Independent variable

(ii) Dependent variable

(iii) Moderator variable

(iv) Control variable


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Moderating Variable

A variable that moderates the strength of X Y relationship.

Strong relationship between the library facility (X) and

performance of students (Y).Depends on the interest and

inclination of students (MV). Modifies the original relationship.


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MEANING OF HYPOTHESIS

The word hypothesis consists of two words:

Hypo + thesis = Hypothesis

Hypo means tentative or subject to the verification and Thesis means

statement about solution of a problem.

Another meaning of the word hypothesis which is composed of two

words:

Hypo means composition of two or more variables which is to be

verified.

Thesis means position of these variables in the specific frame of

reference.


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DEFINITIONS OF HYPOTHESIS

A tentative supposition or provisional guess It is a tentativesupposition or provisional guess which seems to explain the situationunder observation. James E. Greighton

A hypothesis states what we are looking for. A hypothesis looksforward. It is a proposition which can be put to a test to determine itsvalidity. It may prove to be correct or incorrect.

A hypothesis is defined as a statement for the tentative relationship oftwo or more variables.

The relationship of the variables may either be normative or causalrelationship. It should be based on some rationale


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THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN AN

HYPOTHESIS AND A PROBLEM

Hypothesis is an assumption, that can be tested and can be provedHypothesis is an assumption, that can be tested and can be proved

to be right or wrong.to be right or wrong.

A problem is a broad question which cannot be directly tested. AA problem is a broad question which cannot be directly tested. A

problem can be scientifically investigated after converting it intoproblem can be scientifically investigated after converting it into

a form of hypothesis.a form of hypothesis.


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CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD

HYPOTHESIS

A good hypothesis must possess the following main characteristics:

A good hypothesis is in agreement with the observed facts.

A good hypothesis is stated in the simplest possible term.

A good hypothesis ensures that the methods of verification areunder control of the investigator.

A good hypothesis guarantees that available tools and techniques

will be effectively used for the purpose of verification.

A good hypothesis ensures that the sample is readily approachable.

A good hypothesis indicates clearly the role of different variables

involved in the study.


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Discussions with colleagues and experts about the problem, its originDiscussions with colleagues and experts about the problem, its origin

and objectives in seeking a solution.and objectives in seeking a solution.

Examination of data and records for possible trends, peculiarities.Examination of data and records for possible trends, peculiarities.

Review of similar studies.Review of similar studies.

Exploratory personal investigation / Observation.Exploratory personal investigation / Observation.

Continuity of research.Continuity of research.

Intuition and personal experience.Intuition and personal experience.

SOURCES OF HYPOTHESISSOURCES OF HYPOTHESIS


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Descriptive Hypothesis

These are assumptions that describe the characteristics (such as

size, form or distribution) of a variable. The variable may be an

object, person, organisation, situation or event.

Examples:

Public enterprises are more amenable for centralized planning.

TYPES OF HYPOTHESIS


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Relational Hypothesis [Explanatory Hypothesis]

These are assumptions that describe the relationship between two

variables. The relationship suggested may be positive, negative orcausal relationship.

Examples:

Families with higher incomes spend more for recreation.

Causal Hypothesis state that the existence of or change in one

variable causes or leads to an effect on another variable. The first

variable is called the independent variable and the latter is the

dependant variable.


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Testing of hypothesis

The purpose of testing a hypothesis is to determine the

probability that it is supported by fact.

Validity of a hypothesis is established in two stages:

1. Test of logic

2. Empirical test

A hypothesis is never proved it is merely sustained or rejected.

If it fails to meet the test of its validity, it must be modified or

rejected.


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FORMAL CONDITIONS FOR

TESTING HYPOTHESES

There are two types of hypothesis statements:

(a) Null hypothesis, and

(b) Hypothesis prediction form.

There are certain formal conditions which must be met in order for the

hypothesis to be considered testable. These are listed below:

1. It should be worded clearly

2. It should be specific and testable

3. It should have simplicity. If it is too complex, consideration should begiven to dividing it into sub-hypothesis.

4. It should be directly related to the empirical phenomena.

5. It should be so designed that its test will provide an answer to the original

problem which forms the primary purpose of the investigation.6. It must be related to available techniques of design procedure, and

statistical analysis.


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CRITERIA FOR EVALUATING

HYPOTHESIS

1. The variables should be defined operationally and the predicted relations

among them can be tested empirically.

2. A hypothesis is of greater value if it establishes a generalization that can be

applied in many areas of education or in many fields.3. Hypotheses need not be the correct answers to problems to be useful.

4. A useful educational hypothesis, therefore, adds something to previously

established knowledge by supporting, qualifying, refuting or enlarging upon

existing theories.

5. If two hypotheses are capable to explain the same facts, the simpler one is the

better hypothesis.


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Different ways to state hypothesis

Hi motivation causes hi efficiency.

Hi motivation leads to hi efficiency.

Hi motivation and hi efficiency are +ly related

Hi motivation influences hi efficiency.

Hi motivation is associated with hi efficiency.

Hi motivation produces hi efficiency.

Hi motivation results in hi efficiency.

If hi motivation then hi efficiency.

Higher the motivation, higher the efficiency


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The Role of Hypothesis

It guides the direction of study

It identifies facts that are relevant and those that are not.

It suggests which form of research design is likely to be the most appropriate.

It provides framework for organizing the conclusions of findings the conclusions of

findings.


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Null Hypothesis

No relationship between the variables /

The relationship between the variables is zero

Null hypothesis is denoted as H0

H0 = No relationship between X and Y /

H0 = X and Y are independent of each other.

H0 is non directional.


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Use of Null Hypothesis

Used for testing the research hypothesis

Researchers give more importance to negative evidence. No relationship rather than

a relationship i.e. Null hypothesis.

Reject H0 and accept alternative


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Alternative Hypothesis

It is alternative to H0.

There is a perfect relationship between X and Y i.e. H1

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Lecture 3, RESEARCH METHODOLOGY(MBA General 1st semseter) by Dr. Qamar Zaman