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Lect
ure
2: E
lect
roni
c C
ompu
ting
1940
-19
70
Ste
phen
M. M
aure
rG
oldm
an S
choo
l of P
ublic
Pol
icy
smau
rer@
berk
eley
.edu
His
tory
of C
ompu
ting
His
tory
of C
ompu
ting
CS
E P
590A
(UW
)C
SE
P59
0A (U
W)
PP
190/
290
PP
190/
290 --
3 (U
CB
)3
(UC
B)
CS
E 2
90 2
91 (D
00)
CS
E 2
90 2
91 (D
00)
Pol
icy
A T
ippi
ng In
dust
ryM
anag
ing
Mon
opol
y.S
tand
ards
, inn
ovat
ion,
lock
-in.
A D
ivid
ed W
orld
Mili
tary
/sci
entif
ic v
s.C
omm
erci
al/g
over
nanc
e.
Pat
ents Fi
ndin
g N
ew U
ses.
Ex
post
mon
opol
y pr
ice.
Rew
ard
som
etim
es in
adeq
uate
.R
aisi
ng c
apita
l.
Pol
icy
Priz
esN
o m
onop
oly
Spe
cify
ing
the
priz
e co
nditi
on
Rai
sing
Cap
ital
Gra
nts
& C
ontra
cts
Whe
n th
e sp
onso
r kno
ws
�v�
Age
ncy
prob
lem
s
War
time
Ove
rvie
w
Goi
ng E
lect
roni
cV
anne
varB
ush
and
OS
RD
Wor
ld W
ar I
Exp
erie
nce
Org
aniz
ing
Wor
k th
e B
ig S
cien
ce W
ay
Ultr
a, B
letc
hley
Par
k &
All
That
Col
ossu
s (1
500
vacu
um tu
bes)
Stib
bitz
and
EN
IAC
S
A
B
Ele
ctro
nics
�Vac
uum
Tub
es,�
aka
�Val
ves�
Ele
ctro
nic
Logi
c
01
11
10
01
10
10
00
00
SC
BA
Flip
-Flo
p
Bin
ary
Arit
hmet
ic
Hal
f-Add
er
S =
Axo
rBC
= A
andB
Vacu
um T
ube
(Or R
elay
s or
Tran
sist
ors)
Geo
rge
R. S
tibitz
Bel
l Lab
s (1
937)
Tele
phon
e R
elay
s B
inar
y A
rithm
etic
K-M
odel
(193
8)
Mod
el 1
(193
9) -
$20,
000
Mod
els
2-5
(194
0 -4
5)P
aper
tape
, err
or c
heck
ing,
mul
tiplic
atio
n ta
bles
, &st
orag
e re
gist
ers.
NA
CA
and
Abe
rdee
n
Ata
naso
ff-B
erry
John
Vin
cent
Ata
nass
ofC
liffo
rd
Ber
ry
�AB
C C
ompu
ter�
Iow
a S
tate
(193
7 �
39)
Arit
hmet
ic �
Base
2 L
ogic
Mem
ory
�D
rum
, Con
dens
ers
+ �J
oggi
ng�
Out
put
�C
ards
No
�if� s
tate
men
t.
Pro
pose
d 30
0 va
cuum
tube
m
achi
ne w
as n
ever
com
plet
ed.
Kon
rad
Zuse
Z1
Bin
ary
Add
ition
(193
6).
Mec
hani
cal,
punc
hed
tape
. Z2
R
elay
s (1
940)
.Z3
P
rogr
amm
able
(194
1).
2600
rela
ys.
Z4
Ref
ined
Z3
(194
5)20
00 v
acuu
m tu
bes.
EN
IAC
1939
: Fus
es in
stea
d of
vac
uum
tu
bes.
1941
: An
elec
troni
c D
iffer
entia
l A
naly
zer
-$48
6,80
4.22
-200
,000
man
hou
rs
174k
w, 1
7468
vac
uum
tube
s,
500,
000
sold
ered
join
ts, 7
0,00
0 re
sist
ors,
10,
000
capa
cito
rs.
Com
plet
ed in
the
Fall
of 1
945,
use
d on
�The
Sup
er.�
John
Mau
chly
Pre
sper
Eck
ert
EN
IAC
Mat
h U
nits
20 a
ccum
ulat
ors
Flip
flop
�whe
els�
+ T
able
s
Mem
ory
Pro
gram
P
lug
boar
d,ca
bles
,sw
itche
s.
EN
IAC
The
Sof
twar
e C
once
ptTh
e m
agne
tic d
rum
/dis
k id
ea (1
944)
John
von
Neu
man
n (1
903
�19
57)
Firs
t Dra
ft of
a R
epor
t on
the
ED
VA
C (1
945)
Look
ing
Ahe
ad
Pol
icy
The
War
time
Res
earc
h M
iracl
eO
SR
D, N
atio
nal L
abs
Mon
eyTh
e R
esea
rch
Bac
klog
+ F
ocus
ed P
roje
cts
Indu
stry
/Aca
dem
ic C
oope
ratio
nB
ig S
cien
ce R
esea
rch
Mod
el�
and
War
time
Eth
ics?
A R
ole
For P
aten
ts?
Eck
ert a
nd M
auch
lyle
ave
The
Moo
re
Sch
ool.
An
esse
ntia
l inc
entiv
e?C
omm
erci
al v
s. a
cade
mic
mac
hine
s.
S. R
eid
War
ren
(Moo
re S
choo
l):�[T
he
Sch
ool�s
pat
ent p
olic
y] w
as v
ery,
ver
y na
ïve.
We
didn
�t go
out
of o
ur w
ay to
he
lp p
eopl
e, a
nd o
ur g
ener
al a
ttitu
de
was
, �Le
t�s m
ake
it so
it�s
hel
pful
to th
e hu
man
race
and
so
on.��
Pol
icy
The
Firs
t Com
pute
rC
ompa
nies
Pos
twar
New
Gov
ernm
ent N
eeds
Wea
pons
Phy
sics
& �T
he S
uper
�C
rypt
ogra
phy
& In
telli
genc
eA
ir D
efen
se
Bus
ines
s M
achi
nes?
Pun
ch c
ards
dom
inan
t unt
il 19
62.
Com
mer
cial
izin
g C
ompu
ters
Frag
ile, E
xpen
sive
, Unr
elia
ble
Pos
twar
Tech
nolo
gy T
raje
ctor
yIn
tern
al M
emor
y
1945
: Del
ay li
nes,
Cat
hode
ra
y tu
be, d
rum
mem
ory.
1949
: Mag
netic
cor
e.
Ext
erna
l Mem
ory
1945
: Pap
er ta
pe, c
ards
, dru
m.
1950
s: P
last
ic ta
pe, d
isks
.
CP
U V
acuu
m tu
bes,
tran
sist
ors
(194
7),
inte
grat
ed c
ircui
ts (1
959)
.
Moo
re S
choo
l Sum
mer
Sch
ool &
von
Neu
man
n �F
irst D
raft.
�
EN
IAC
, ED
VA
C, E
DS
AC
(Cam
brid
ge 1
949)
, ILL
IAC
(C
ham
pagn
e-U
rban
a 19
51),
JOH
NN
IAC
(Ran
d 19
53),
MA
DM
(Man
ches
ter 1
953)
, SW
AC
(Bur
eau
of S
tand
ards
195
0), M
AN
IAC
(Los
Ala
mos
195
2),
IAS
Mac
hine
(Ins
titut
e fo
r Adv
ance
d S
tudy
195
1),
Ord
vac
(Uni
vers
ity o
f Illi
nois
for A
berd
een
1951
), A
CE
(Tur
ing-
built
194
6),e
tc.,
etc.
Uni
vers
ity &
Gov
ernm
ent
Mac
hine
s
Har
vard
Mar
k IV
A
n W
ang
(192
0 �
1990
)C
ore
mem
ory
(194
9)D
evel
oped
by
Whi
rlwin
dP
aten
ted
1955
, lat
er li
cens
ed
to IB
M
Uni
vers
ity &
Gov
ernm
ent
Mac
hine
s
Ele
ctro
nic
Con
trol C
ompa
ny (1
946)
Targ
et c
usto
mer
s:
Par
i-mut
uel c
ompa
nies
, airc
raft
com
pani
es, i
nsur
ance
, ato
mic
en
ergy
, map
ping
, aca
dem
ia, a
ircra
ft.
Con
vinc
ing
cust
omer
s:N
AS
and
Bur
eau
of S
tand
ards
repo
rts.
Cen
sus
Bur
eau
Con
tract
(194
8)
Cap
ital,
Eng
inee
ring
& M
arke
ting
prob
lem
s
Rem
ingt
on R
and
(195
0)
Eck
ert &
Mau
chly
Nav
y an
d N
SA
Mac
hine
sTe
chno
logy
Dru
m M
emor
y C
ompu
ters
ER
A 1
101
(195
1) (e
x-N
avy)
ER
A 1
103
(195
2) (e
x-N
SA
).
Com
mer
cial
Wea
knes
sM
anua
ls, m
arke
ting,
inpu
t-out
put e
quip
men
t.
Rem
ingt
on-R
and
(195
2)
Eng
inee
ring
Res
earc
h A
ssoc
iate
s
Goi
ng E
lect
roni
cTh
omas
J. W
atso
n S
r. (1
943)
Thom
as J
. Wat
son
Jr. (
1949
)
�The
se d
evel
opm
ent c
ontra
cts
are
of s
uch
a na
ture
th
at th
ey w
ill b
e ve
ry a
ttrac
tive
to a
nyon
e w
ithou
t pr
evio
us p
rivat
e ex
perie
nce
or p
aten
ts in
the
com
putin
g fie
ld; b
ut th
e pa
tent
pro
visi
ons
mak
e it
doub
tful i
f IB
M, w
hich
has
the
lead
in th
e fie
ld, c
an
affo
rd to
par
ticip
ate
in th
e pr
ogra
m�
Whe
reas
bef
ore
the
war
IBM
was
the
only
org
aniz
atio
n ab
le a
nd w
illin
g to
car
ry o
n la
rge
scal
e de
velo
pmen
t of c
alcu
lato
rs,
such
dev
elop
men
t is
now
taki
ng p
lace
on
a la
rge
scal
e.� (
1946
)
R&
D In
itiat
ives
Sel
ectiv
e S
eque
nce
Ele
ctro
nic
Cal
cula
tor (
1948
)La
st e
lect
rom
echa
nica
l com
pute
rFi
rst s
tore
d pr
ogra
m c
ompu
ter
12,5
00 v
acuu
m tu
bes
Use
d fo
r opt
ics,
qua
ntum
phy
sics
, orb
its,
and
hydr
odyn
amic
s.
Tape
Mem
ory
(194
8 -5
3)M
ylar
-bas
ed ta
pe.
Mag
netic
dru
m s
tora
ge (1
948
�19
54)
Har
vard
Sem
inar
.
Pro
duct
sIB
M 6
03/6
04 (1
946)
All-
Ele
ctro
nic
Cal
cula
tor
300/
1400
tube
s.B
inar
y lo
gic
20-6
0 st
ep in
tern
al m
emor
y56
00 m
achi
nes.
1.5
mill
ion
vacu
um tu
bes/
year
.
Car
d-P
rogr
amm
ed E
lect
roni
c C
alcu
lato
rN
orth
rup
& �U
ser I
nnov
atio
n�70
0 bu
ilt.
Ear
ly C
ompu
ters
Uni
vac
UN
IVer
salA
utom
atic
Com
pute
r P
aper
tape
+ D
elay
line
mem
ory.
$1m
eac
h.Ty
pew
riter
out
put,h
igh
spee
d pr
inte
r (19
54)
Uni
vac
Uni
vac
1951
: Firs
t sal
e to
Cen
sus.
1952
: Eis
enho
wer
Ele
ctio
n.
Uni
vac
Uni
vac
1954
: G
ener
al E
lect
ric, D
uPon
t, U
S S
teel
, US
AF�
$1
m e
ach
�Pr
oduc
tion
prob
lem
s.20
sol
d by
195
4.vs
.19
IBM
701
s10
0s o
f IB
M
Car
d-P
rogr
amm
ed C
alcu
lato
rs.
1000
s of
IBM
pun
ch c
ard
mac
hine
s.
�[P]e
rhap
sth
e m
ost r
adic
al id
ea w
hich
bus
ines
s is
be
ing
aske
d to
acc
ept i
s th
e id
ea th
at a
reel
of t
ape
can
safe
ly b
e us
ed to
car
ry in
form
atio
n no
w b
eing
en
trust
ed to
vis
ual c
ard
files
.�
Chi
ef A
ctua
ry,
Met
ropo
litan
Life
Insu
ranc
e C
ompa
ny (1
953)Uni
vac
Uni
vac
Bet
ting
on T
echn
olog
y/P
rice
Sm
all S
ales
For
ce
Cus
tom
ers
coul
d no
t see
val
ue.
Sm
all F
ield
Eng
inee
ring
Sta
ffR
elia
bilit
y is
sues
.P
erpe
tual
ly c
hang
ing
desi
gn.
Mis
sed
dead
lines
, con
fuse
d te
ch s
uppo
rt.
ER
A 1
103
Twen
ty b
uilt.
P
robl
ems
rega
rdin
g �p
ricin
g, re
ntal
, fie
ld s
ervi
ce,
inst
alla
tion,
cus
tom
er tr
aini
ng, a
nd s
uppo
rt.�
IBM
701
(195
2)�D
efen
se C
alcu
lato
r�
Mag
netic
dru
m +
Myl
ar ta
pe+
Pun
ch
Car
ds19
pro
duce
d fo
r airc
raft
com
pani
es,
gove
rnm
ent l
abs
& u
nive
rsiti
es.
IBM
701
Impr
oved
Ver
sion
s: IB
M 7
04 (1
954)
, 70
9 an
d al
l-tra
nsis
tor 7
090.
C
ompa
tible
sof
twar
e70
90 is
all-
trans
isto
r, or
igin
ally
bui
lt fo
r U
SA
F.
IBM
702
(195
3)/IB
M 7
05 (1
954)
Del
ayed
194
8 �T
ape
Pro
cess
ing
Mac
hine
� C
atho
de ra
y m
emor
ym
akes
702
co
mpe
titiv
e w
ith U
niva
c70
5 ha
s M
agne
tic C
ore
Mem
ory.
R&
D Tran
sist
ors
(195
1 -5
9)D
isk
stor
age
(195
2 �
56)
Sof
twar
eS
oftw
are
~ R
enta
l cos
ts.
Cus
tom
er L
ock-
InU
ser I
nnov
atio
nS
HA
RE
and
GU
IDE
(195
5)U
NIV
AC
, Bur
roug
hs, B
endi
x.Fo
rtran
(195
7)
Pol
icy
Aca
dem
ic R
esea
rch
Ass
ertin
g pa
tent
righ
ts a
gain
st IB
M?
Cus
tom
er In
nova
tion
Mon
opol
ists
and
com
plem
ents
Wha
t�s n
ew a
bout
GP
L?Ta
ppin
g in
form
atio
n ab
out u
ser n
eeds
.
Rel
iabi
lity
and
serv
ice.
Whi
rlwin
d &
SA
GE
Whi
rlwin
dW
hirlw
ind
II/S
AG
EA
$50
0m s
ubco
ntra
ct
AN
/FS
Q-7
27
5 to
ns/9
19 m
iles
of c
able
/50,
000
vacu
um
tube
s/co
nsum
ed 3
MW
of p
ower
80
0 pr
ogra
mm
ers
--20
% o
f the
wor
ld�s
sup
ply
500,
000
lines
of c
ode.
Mag
netic
cor
e m
emor
y, la
rge
real
tim
e O
S,
over
lapp
ing
of c
ompu
tatio
n an
d IO
func
tions
, us
e of
pho
ne li
nes,
cat
hode
ray
tube
dis
play
s w
ith li
ght p
ens,
hig
h re
liabi
lity.
Whi
rlwin
d &
SA
GE
Whi
rlwin
d II
IBM
get
s th
e B
id
�Kin
gpin
�
�[T]h
etro
uble
with
IBM
wou
ld b
e its
trad
ition
al
secr
etiv
enes
s.�
Jay
Fore
ster
:In
the
IBM
org
aniz
atio
n w
e ob
serv
ed a
muc
h hi
gher
deg
ree
of p
urpo
sefu
lnes
s,
inte
grat
ion,
and
esp
rit d
e co
rps
than
we
foun
d in
th
e R
emin
gton
Ran
d or
gani
zatio
n. A
lso,
of
cons
ider
able
inte
rest
to u
s, w
as th
e ev
iden
ce o
f m
uch
clos
er ti
es b
etw
een
rese
arch
, fac
tory
, and
fie
ld m
aint
enan
ce in
IBM
.
IBM
Get
s th
e B
id
Ben
efits
to IB
M
Mas
s pr
oduc
tion
of fe
rrite
cor
e m
emor
y
7000
em
ploy
ees
man
ufac
turin
g, in
stal
ling,
se
rvic
ing,
and
impr
ovin
g sy
stem
SA
BR
E ($
300m
) and
ATC
spi
noffs
.
Oth
er B
enef
itsLi
ncol
n La
b, D
EC
, Mitr
eC
orpo
ratio
n, a
nd
Rou
te 1
28.
Ant
itrus
t (19
52 -
1956
)
Gro
unds
: P
reda
tory
Pric
ing,
Inco
mpa
tible
C
ards
, Buy
ing
Up
Pat
ents
, Usi
ng
Leas
es to
Blo
ck in
nova
tion,
Bin
ding
In
vent
ors
to E
xclu
sive
Con
tract
s.
Rel
ief:
Man
dato
ry c
ross
-lice
nsin
g of
pa
tent
s.
Ope
ning
the
card
mar
ket.
Fost
er c
ompe
titio
n in
repa
ir,
seco
ndha
nd s
ales
, and
ser
vice
bu
reau
s.
Pol
icy
DoJ
vs. D
oD3
mill
ion
inst
alle
d va
cuum
tube
sW
hat i
f Rem
ingt
on-R
and
had
won
?
The
Indu
stry
Tak
es O
ff:19
54 -
1960
The
Cris
is Y
ear -
1954
IBM
650
Mag
netic
Dru
m C
alcu
lato
r (19
54)
Del
ayed
194
9 pr
ojec
t.A
sci
entif
ic c
ompu
ter.
But
: Joh
n H
anco
ck g
ets
first
one
.18
00 b
uilt.
Mos
t pop
ular
com
pute
r of 1
950s
.
IBM
650
IBM
Typ
e 60
8 (1
954)
All-
Tran
sist
or/m
agne
tic m
emor
y ve
rsio
n of
Typ
e 60
4.
Impr
oved
Def
ense
Cal
cula
tor (
IBM
704
)
IBM
305
RA
MA
C (1
956)
Ran
dom
Acc
ess
Mem
ory
Acc
ount
ing
Mac
hine
Atta
chm
ent f
or IB
M 6
50 D
rum
Cal
cula
tor
50 d
isks
, 5 m
illio
n ch
arac
ters
Pot
entia
lly In
tera
ctiv
e -�
Ask
Pro
f. R
AM
AC
�
IBM
Goe
s A
ll-S
olid
Sta
te (1
957)
IBM
140
1/14
10An
noun
ced
1959
10,0
00 c
opie
sFe
rrite
cor
e m
emor
ies,
mag
netic
dis
k,
high
spe
ed c
hain
prin
ter.
Sev
en D
war
fs
NC
R:
Buy
s N
orth
rup
spin
offC
RC
(1
954)
. Nic
he s
ales
in
bank
ing
and
reta
il.
Hon
eyw
ell:
Buy
s c
ompu
ter c
ompa
ny
(195
4) a
nd m
arke
ts la
rge
vacu
um tu
be m
achi
ne
(195
7).
Bur
roug
hs (1
956)
:P
urch
ases
JP
L al
umni
co
mpu
ter c
ompa
ny, b
uild
s sp
ecia
lty c
ompu
ters
for
mili
tary
.
Con
trol
Dat
a (1
957)
Spe
rry-
Uni
vac
spin
off.
Sev
en D
war
fs
Sper
ry:
Mer
ges
with
Rem
ingt
on-R
and
(195
5)
Uni
vac
II (1
958)
Par
tial t
rans
isto
r, m
agne
tic m
emor
y,fil
m-b
ased
tape
.
RC
AIn
trodu
ces
new
com
pute
r in
1955
Fe
rrite
cor
e bu
t als
o va
cuum
tube
s,
tape
driv
e. T
rans
isto
rized
com
pute
rs
follo
w.
GE:
S
old
vacu
um tu
bes
to IB
MB
uild
s co
mpu
ters
for N
CR
Failu
re to
com
mer
cial
ize
1953
com
pute
r fo
rUS
AF.
�A
nd A
T&T
AT&
T:
1953
Con
sent
Dec
ree
Sta
ys o
ut o
f com
pute
rs a
fter 1
952.
Roy
alty
-free
lice
nse
on tr
ansi
stor
Jack
Kilb
y&
Rob
ert N
oyce
(195
9).
Arm
y M
icro
mod
ule
Pro
gram
�[I]f
the
inve
ntio
n ha
dn�t
aris
en a
t Fai
rchi
ld
it w
ould
hav
e ar
isen
els
ewhe
re in
the
very
ne
ar fu
ture
. It
was
an
idea
who
se ti
me
had
com
e.�
-Rob
ert N
oyce
Rep
ealin
g G
rosc
h�s
Law
Cos
t s
Pow
er
Inte
grat
ed C
ircui
ts
Jack
Kilb
y(1
923-
2005
)
Rob
ert N
oyce
(192
8 �
1990
)
= W
1/2
Inte
grat
ed C
ircui
ts
Pol
icy
Fire
hose
R&
DA
dvan
tage
s: M
arke
t sha
re, i
nter
nal f
inan
cing
.Fe
rrite
cor
e, d
isk,
tran
sist
or, i
nteg
rate
d ci
rcui
t,ra
ndom
acc
ess,
hig
h sp
eed
prin
tout
.
Pat
entin
g th
e in
tegr
ated
circ
uit.
Cos
ts a
nd b
enef
its�
For t
he A
rmy
For t
he c
ount
ry.
The
1960
s: �I
BM
�s 5
Bill
ion
Gam
ble�
an
d th
e S
yste
m/3
60
Sys
tem
/360
1960
Dec
isio
n -A
nnou
nced
196
4 -D
eliv
ered
196
6
Sev
en D
iffer
ent I
BM
Mac
hine
s.Lo
st e
cono
mie
s of
sca
le in
pro
duct
ion,
mar
ketin
g,
and
serv
ice.
Sof
twar
e co
sts.
Com
petit
ive
Pre
ssur
eG
E, R
CA
, and
H
oney
wel
l.
Sys
tem
/360
Cat
chin
g th
e W
ave:
Inst
alle
d ba
se v
s. N
ew
Use
rs
1960
: 600
0 U
S c
ompu
ters
1973
: 100
,000
com
pute
rs
wor
ldw
ide.
IBM
sal
es g
o fro
m $
1.8b
n(1
960)
To
$7.2
bn
(197
0).
Sys
tem
/360
Man
ufac
turin
g C
risis
.S
oftw
are
Cris
is.
1m li
nes
of c
ode
+ Ti
me
shar
ing.
$125
m b
udge
t.$5
00m
act
ual c
ost.
5,00
0 st
aff-y
ears
.1
year
late
, bug
gy.
R&
D P
riorit
ies
Tim
e sh
arin
g.In
tegr
ated
circ
uits
IBM
S/3
70Im
prov
ed 3
60 fa
mily
with
ICs.
New
DoJ
Suit
(196
9)
S/3
60 a
nd th
e 7
Dw
arfs
Clo
nes H
oney
wel
l and
IBM
140
1.
RC
A m
akes
com
patib
le m
ainf
ram
eS
ovie
ts to
o.
Nic
he M
arke
tsD
EC
min
icom
pute
rs.
CD
C (S
eym
our C
ray)
.
Plu
g C
ompa
tible
Com
pone
nts
Mem
orex
, Tel
ex, A
mpe
x, S
tora
ge
Tech
nolo
gy, C
alC
omp,
Am
dahl
.
S/3
60 a
nd th
e 7
Dw
arfs
Com
pute
r Lea
sing
Com
pani
es
Ant
itrus
t Sui
ts
1971
Rec
essi
on a
nd B
UN
CH
.
Bey
ond
Sch
umpe
ter?
A
(Tem
pora
ry?)
End
to R
evol
utio
nsA
bsen
ce o
f Lar
ge C
ompe
titor
sW
ould
ent
ry p
ay?
DoJ
�sLe
gacy
: An
Ope
n W
orld
IBM
�s C
ontin
uing
Adv
anta
geM
arke
t sha
reLa
gsTa
pes,
dis
k dr
ives
� C
PU
s?H
igh
pric
es, f
ast p
rogr
ess.
Pol
icy
AR
PA
A G
olde
n A
ge?
Mon
ey: $
10 m
illio
n 19
62)/$
15 m
illio
n (1
963)
.In
tera
ctiv
e co
mpu
ting.
AR
PA
net:
Car
rot a
nd S
tick.
Inst
itutio
ns: O
SR
D, a
gain
?
Por
tfolio
Man
agem
ent:
J.C
. Lic
klid
er.
AR
PA
John
C. L
ickl
ider
(191
5 �
1990
)
A G
olde
n A
ge?
Mili
tary
, Aca
dem
ics
as L
ead
Use
rs
MIT
Pro
ject
MA
C (1
964)
Pro
mis
ed o
n-lin
e ca
talo
gs, o
rder
ing
and
billi
ng,e
lect
roni
cca
sh, m
edic
al-in
form
atio
n sy
stem
s fo
r hos
pita
ls, c
entra
lized
traf
fic c
ontro
l fo
r citi
es,a
utom
atic
libra
ries,
des
ign
cons
oles
for
engi
neer
s, m
anag
emen
t con
sole
s fo
r co
mpa
nies
and
fact
orie
s, te
achi
ng c
onso
les
for
educ
atio
n, e
ditin
g co
nsol
es fo
r pub
lishi
ng,
rese
arch
con
sole
s fo
r lab
orat
orie
s, a
nd
com
pute
rized
com
mun
ities
.
AR
PA
The
Wor
ld a
t 197
0
Com
mer
ce d
ispl
acin
g m
ilitar
y.IB
M d
omin
ant,
but v
igor
ous
R&
D.
Fadi
ng in
form
atio
n as
ymm
etry
?
Big
Mac
hine
s, b
ut IC
s on
the
horiz
on.
Ope
n st
anda
rds,
lead
use
rs,
and
root
s of
ope
n so
urce
.
