LEARNINGstudent-learning.tcd.ie/assets/docs/old/Learning Skills Module.doc · Web viewStudent Counselling Service & Staff Development Office University of Dublin Trinity College

LEARNING

Trinity College Dublin

Generic Skills Integration Project

Learning Skills

LEARNING

SKILLS

MODULE

Generic Skills Integration Project (GENSIP)

Student Counselling Service & Staff Development Office

University of Dublin

Trinity College

Compiled by Tamara O’Connor

February 2003

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Objectives4

Introduction4

1. Managing Learning

1.1 Transition 5

Suggestions for Integration6

Suggested Presentation7

1.2 Reflection8


Suggested Presentation 9

1.3 Self regulation

1.3.1 General 10



1.3.2 Planning 14

Goal setting

Time Management

Overcoming Procrastination



1.4 Cognitive Learning Strategies20



1.5 Awareness of the Learning Context 26



1.6 Summary 28

2. Reading Skills

2.1 Identifying Purpose29

2.2 Selecting & Prioritising 30

2.3 Strategies 30



3. Notetaking Skills

3.1 Identifying Purpose 35

3.2 Methods 35

3.3 Strategies 36



4. Writing Skills40

4.1 The Writing Process

4.1.1 Getting Started41

4.1.2 Gathering Information42

4.1.3 Writing Drafts43

4.2 Feedback44



5. Managing “Will”

5.1 Motivation 48



5.2 Concentration 52



References55

Objectives

This module is designed for use by academic staff who want to help their students become more self-directed learners. It provides information for use by students, but also includes suggestions for altering or adjusting the teaching environment to aid student learning. It aims to introduce students to the study skills they require for university work.

The goal of this module is to help academic staff become more aware of how their students learn and to provide them with possible ways to help their students become more self-directed by using strategy instruction, modelling, guidance and practice. Specifically, the module is designed to provide students with assistance in organising and planning, reading, listening and making notes, concentration, motivation and examination preparation – learning skills necessary for effective and independent learning.

Introduction

Many colleges, including Trinity, offer traditional study skills courses for students experiencing difficulties. However, many students could benefit from instruction in the ways of learning, not just those who seek help. Furthermore, these adjunct courses are not as effective when taught external to subject content (Hattie, Biggs & Purdie, 1996; Simpson, Hynd, Nist & Burrell, 1997; Weinstein, Husman & Dierking, 2000). Instruction in study strategies is more successful when related to what students are studying and when they employ a metacognitive framework (Hattie et al., 1996; Norton & Dickins, 1995). Also, students need “practice on authentic tasks” (Weinstein et al, p. 737). This improves transfer of the skills.

Many academic staff have asked “How can we encourage students to be more responsible for their learning?” Hopefully this material provides some answers.

This module can be used as a stand alone, given in addition to regular courses; alternatively, at various points in a course selected, relevant portions may be used, or ideally sections can be integrated as part of coursework.

Each section gives the presenter some Background Information on the learning skill or area. A Suggested Presentation - including Estimated Time Commitment, Materials Necessary and Suggested Activities and Procedures - is included if the information is to be presented as an adjunct to the course or as a workshop. There are also sections on Suggestions for Integration with ideas for ways to integrate the material with course content. If the exercises are tailored around the content of a course, then the learning skills will be more meaningful for students and easier to transfer. Please contact the GENSIP Co-ordinator for examples from various academic disciplines or for assistance in tailoring the material to suit your course and needs.

1. MANAGING LEARNING

1.1 Transition

“The first year is important for a number of reasons. Among them, the first year: is particularly vulnerable from the university perspective to external pressures; is a significant transition period for individual students – at all ages and stages; and is the meeting point for the curriculum of schools (and other providers) and universities” (McInnis, James & McNaught, 1995, p. 4)

Background Information

Students experience dramatic changes as a result of the transition from secondary school to higher level education. There are differences in social, personal and academic demands. In terms of their learning, the biggest change is in the need to take responsibility for their own learning. This encompasses altering from dependence upon the teacher to direct their learning to independent, self-directed learning. This has positive implications as well as negative ones. While students can now experience the freedom to make their own decisions, it also means no one is there to give guidance and feedback as readily as the secondary school teacher or even parents. Often the courses in third level are not as structured as the leaving certificate curriculum. They typically require much more independent study and less contact time. This means less contact with teaching staff and thus less knowledge of the student.

Students may not be sure of what is required for independent study. For example having to read more than one source, integrating and reflecting on information, or facing more abstract assessment criteria than what they have been used to. Learning now demands process and higher order thinking rather than factual content.

A useful framework is A Model of Strategic Learning which acknowledges various factors that influence successful learning (Weinstein, Husman, & Dierking, 2000; Weinstein & Meyer, 1986). The model suggests students need to be aware of all areas that may impact their learning including skill, will, self-regulation and the academic environment or context. Skill refers to the learners’ knowledge about themselves as a learner, about academic tasks and their requirements, and about the learning context. The learner also has skills in the use of appropriate learning strategies. The Will component of the model refers to the learner’s goals and motivation about learning and being in college. The learner is able to use strategies to maintain motivation and a positive affect towards learning. The learner also has a coping repertoire to deal with stressful demands and situations. The Self-regulation aspect of the model encompasses a systematic approach to learning whereby the learner actively manages their learning to accomplish academic tasks. At the core of the model is the learner, with his or her individual background, personality and prior knowledge. It is an interactive model.

In addition to learning, many students experience changes in the areas of finances, social, accommodation, roommates, travel, and part-time jobs. These changes can influence student learning.

A self-directed learner is useful not just for university but for future employment as well. Positively navigating this transition period will help empower students for dealing with future transitions.

SUGGESTED PRESENTATION

Transition

Time Commitment

20 - 40 minutes

Materials

Exercise – Transition and Expectations

Transition Bullet Points (Slide 2)

Exercise – Why?

Expectations (Slide 3)

Model of Strategic Learning (Slide 4)

Activities and Procedure

Step 1

Have students complete Exercise - Transition and return.

Step 2View a video on change or allow discussion. Collate responses to exercise.

Step 3

Discuss expectations with students, generalising comments.

Typical responses include: No. 1 - being responsible for own learning, making friends/not knowing anyone, not being able to cope, starting all over at the bottom, taking wrong course, big campus. No. 2 – freedom, social life, campus life, graduate, get good job.

Step 4

Point out differences using bullet points on OHP/screen/flipchart.

Indicate many of this same issue, one positive side the other negative side. For example, many students worried about making friends and yet they are looking forward to the social life college offers. Need to focus on positive aspects.

Step 5Have students complete Exercise– Why?

Step 6Explain what is expected for particular course of study and ask them to compare to what they have written.

Step 7Possibly have a second or third year student speak to first year students.

Step 8Introduce Model of Strategic Learning. Since focus is now on student centred learning, this model will help provide framework for understanding the learning process (OHP/screen/board).

1.2 Reflection

“Students must reflect on their own learning, on the relevance of what they are learning and on the nature of the subject” (Ertmer & Newby, 1996, p. 15).


Reflection is an important part of learning. Students need to focus on two aspects of reflection. Firstly, they need to reflect on the process of learning. They need to focus on the purpose of a learning task. The more learners reflect about how they learn, the more effective they are at making links between their knowledge about a task, their own resources, about the variety of strategies available and how to match these. Secondly they need to focus on the content of learning. Often students, especially first year, have had little if any experience in reflection. Thus reflection is ongoing and will require extensive practice and feedback.


Reflection

Time Commitment

30 minutes

Materials

Explanation of reflection (Slide 5 & 6)

Example of reflection

Exercises - Reflection

Study Questionnaire

Activities/Procedure

Step 1Explain what is meant by reflection (use overhead). Give examples of how you use reflection in your own thinking and practice.

Step 2

Read example of student practicing reflection.

Step 3Choose one or two exercises for students to complete from Exercises - Reflection:

· Good and Bad Learning Experiences

· Study Questionnaire

· Strengths and Weaknesses

· Analysis of Past Learning

· Reflection

Step 4Students could keep a learning journal (contact Staff Development Office for examples and further information)

1.3 Self-Regulation of Learning

1.3.1 General

“In the context of student learning, self-regulation refers to individuals monitoring, controlling and directing aspects of their learning for themselves” (McCune, 1998, p. 356).


Self-regulation has been identified as critical for self-directed learning. Self-regulation refers to a set of skills developed by psychologists to help people gain control over various behaviours. They have been successfully used for motivation, health, depression, etc. There are four key skills to self-regulation: PLANNING, MONITORING, EVALUATING, and REINFORCEMENT. These skills enable students to manage their time, themselves and their resources.

PLANNING focuses on organised steps including setting a goal, selecting suitable strategies of achieving the goal, and identifying as well as dealing with possible obstacles that may preclude attainment of the goal. With regard to learning and studying, planning:

· Involves establishing realistic learning goals

· Helps students to analyse a task and to assess whether they have the time and strategy to achieve the task; and if they don’t then how they will get it

· Involves activating prior knowledge, about their learning and about what they know about the material.

Planning also means getting students to use their time more effectively and it helps students to be organised (which correlates highly with academic success).

MONITORING focuses on an individual’s ability to monitor their progress towards their goals. With regard to learning and studying, monitoring:

· Involves checking one’s progress towards one’s goals

· Makes conscious the steps in a plan

· Means asking oneself questions, about how the selected strategy is working and about the material

· Means assessing self in terms of what do / don’t know and making changes to enhance understanding or memory

· “As expert learners . . . they need to pay attention to feedback regarding the effectiveness of their selected cognitive, motivational, and environmental strategies and make on-going revisions.” (Ertmer & Newby, 1996, p. 12).

EVALUATING involves being able to assess the outcome and the process and how well the goal was achieved. With regard to learning and studying, evaluating:

· Means asking did things work out

· Involves deciding how effective and efficient the chosen strategies were

· Means if answers aren’t satisfactory then modifying strategy or keeping in mind for future tasks

REINFORCING means being able to “reflect on success” or even reward if goals are achieved. This is an important self-regulation skill because often for students the rewards for studying are long-term - passing an exam or receiving a degree. This skill will be referred to more under Section 5.1 Motivation.


Self-Regulation

Time Commitment

10 – 20 minutes depending on depth of coverage

Materials

Explanation of self-regulation skills (Slide 7)

Example of self-regulation (Slide 8)


Step 1Explain what self-regulation skills are and why it is important for effective learning using overhead.

Step 2Read example of student practicing self-regulation. Give examples as they may apply to your discipline.

Step 3Generate list of learning tasks involved in your discipline. Have students identify purposes and how important they think it is (maybe do in small groups). Explain that you will come back to this list later in the module, when discussing types of strategies and appropriate selection.

Step 4Demonstrate and if possible practice self-regulation skills. This could be done as part of a lecture or using sample material.

· Selection of appropriate strategies to meet the purpose of a task may first involve skimming or generating questions, both good planning strategies. Demonstrate if possible.

· Asking self questions as you proceed is an example of monitoring strategy as is checking with peers. At the beginning of a class ask the students to summarise the main ideas from a previous class or from the reading.

· Ask students if strategies used recently were effective or not.

1.3. Self-Regulation of Learning

1.3.2 Planning


Setting goals or objectives is an important planning strategy for learning. Goals help us to focus on what we need to do, help keep us in control and they are also motivating. Long-term goals are usually our dreams, the things we want out of life, like a good job, meet new people, etc. In terms of learning, study goals are usually shorter term, i.e. “I want to get my assignment in on time” or “I want to understand this concept”, etc. Short -term goals are more action focused – what you have to do in order to get the wants.

A useful strategy for goal setting, especially study goals, is called SMART:

S = Specific. The more specific the goal, the more likely it will be achieved. It’s a human thing; we tend to do things that are more specific. It is fairly easy to put off something that is vague. It’s best to write it down but at the minimum to start thinking in more specific terms.

M = Measurable. This helps you to keep track of progress towards the goal (monitoring). So use numbers and times. For example, “I will do 3 statistics problems this evening”. If only 1 is done, the goal was not achieved.

A = Action. This refers to action steps that lead towards the goal. For example, the student’s goal might be to get a 2.1 on an essay. The action steps could be:

I will brainstorm ideas by . . .

I will consult 3 primary sources

I will . . .

Not all study goals will require action steps.

R = Realistic. Study goals need to be achievable given available resources; therefore it is important they are feasible, otherwise they may have the opposite effect.

T = Time-based. This refers to giving a specific time for accomplishing the goal. We tend to use deadlines as a means to create pressure and get the job done so a possibility is to make realistic commitments or deadlines ahead of schedule.

Good time management is how the goals are implemented. Being able to effectively manage time is a vital skill, not just for university but also for life. There are a variety of techniques but the key is for the students to reflect on themselves, to identify when they concentrate best, when and why there are distractions, then to monitor what works and doesn’t work and to reinforce when necessary. Many of the strategies are similar to goal setting, i.e. specificity and flexibility. The key for most students is to write down some plan, maybe to start small and then build on the plan.

Many students waste time because they don’t have a plan or focus for their study sessions. As mentioned in the section on transition, students must now learn to structure their time when they are not in lectures etc.

There are a variety of techniques and strategies for managing time; the key is to find a system that works for the individual:

· Prioritising – based on importance and urgency, use self-regulation to help determine.

· Specificity – The more specific the more likely one will follow through, especially if it is written down.

· Small manageable pieces – Break tasks or goals into smaller ones. “How do you eat an elephant?” Answer: One bite at a time.

· Use all available time – Even small amounts of time are useful for distributed practice of material that needs memorising, for self-quizzing, or for reflecting. A timetable can be completed, blocking out commitments (e.g. class, lab, work, sport) to get an idea of where there is time available. Or use a time audit, where time use is monitored for a week, filling in time slots with what was actually done. Use “dead time” which is often not utilised, e.g. when travelling on the bus students could summarise the main points read the previous evening.

· Structure the environment – There are many benefits of a regular place of study, preferably with few distractions.

· Establish a routine - If possible study at regular times and at a regular place so the body becomes conditioned. This helps one to focus more quickly.

· Scheduling to help keep track of time use and to be organised. Balance is important. Students could use timetables (which many do not find useful) or to do lists (which are more flexible). To do lists can take a weekly or a daily format, and are best if completed at the same time (e.g. Sunday evening if weekly or first thing in the morning if daily) to provide routine.

It’s a good idea to use a prioritising system (e.g. * or 1,2,3 or a,b,c) and to consider the purpose of the task when scheduling. A benefit of lists is that things can be crossed off as they are accomplished! It is also useful to build in rewards, especially for goals or tasks that tend to be put off regularly. For example, doing a task or spending 10 minutes on something you don’t like, then watching a favourite TV programme.

Procrastination is when we delay or put off something we know is to our benefit. The key is to stop making excuses and do something. Most people practice procrastination! What is important is to know when it is time to stop making excuses and to do something. Below is a list of useful strategies for overcoming procrastination. Students can discover which ones are most effective for them by trying them out, then monitoring and evaluating their usefulness.

· Take Action – Sometimes just doing something creates the mood and momentum to continue, so decide to just do something, anything to get going.

· Salami Technique – Slice a task or goal down by function and time, getting down to smallest unit. This is useful if the excuse for putting it off is that it’s so big or you have so much to do you can’t start. For example, a long reading assignment in a difficult subject can seem intimidating and easy to put off, so divide it into several 2 page sections.

· Five minutes - Spending just 5 minutes, anyone can do that short a time and then see where it leads.

· Related tasks – Do something related; the back door approach. For example, if you have to start a project maybe decide to just go talk to someone about it; this in turn may lead you to the library because they suggest a reference. Often it can be easier to talk to someone then having to sit down and write.

· Worst first – that particularly boring or difficult task is easy to put off, in fact you’ll do anything not to get it done but better to get it out of the way. Mark Twain said something to the effect, “It’s best to eat a live frog first thing in the morning…”

· Make commitments – An oft-used excuse is “I work better under pressure”, so create pressure. Tell people you plan to get something done, and then they’ll ask if you got it done.

Not all procrastination is bad – but it is important to be realistic and honest. Ask yourself the questions: Is this really working in my best interest? Maybe I work better under pressure but do I do the best job? Is it worth the stress?


Planning

Time Commitment

50 – 60 minutes

Materials

Planning Strategies (Slide 9)

Explanation of SMART system of Goal setting (Slide 10)

Goal Setting Example (relevant to course)

Exercise – Goal Setting

Exercise – What works, what doesn’t work?

Time Management Strategies (Slide 11 & 12)

Time Schedule worksheet

To Do List worksheet

Overcoming Procrastination (Slide 13)


Step 1

Review planning strategies.

Step 2Explain why goals are important and the principles of goal setting. Outline the SMART system for goal setting (Moran, 1997, 21). See Presentation Notes for further details.

Step 3

Do an Exercise – Goal Setting.

Step 4Review at a later session or another time (example of monitoring and evaluation).

Step 5Explain the importance of time management and being organised.

Step 6

Do Exercise – What works, what doesn’t work.

In pairs or small groups have students discuss what they have tried in the past, identifying “what works and what doesn’t work” and why. This also gives them a chance to compare responses with others and to practice monitoring.

In larger group have small groups report back. Usually what works are the important strategies for time-management. For those strategies that don’t work, try to establish why and how they might be altered to work. Students are all different so it is important to try new things to see if they might work.

Step 7Go over the Principles of Time Management (Slide 11 & 12).

See Presentation Notes for further details.

Relate to previous discussion and make suggestions for how to implement strategies effectively. There is no ideal or best way to become better organised. Rather individuals must find a way that suits them best; the key is not to give up just because one strategy didn’t work, such as timetables.

Step 8Have students make a to do list for the week, prioritising items or ask students to monitor their time use for a week (see To Do List and Time Schedule worksheets).

Step 9Explain what procrastination is and techniques for overcoming (Slide 13). Many of the anti-procrastination strategies are similar and linked to what has already been presented or discussed. So just reinforce.

Step 10Have students write down a task they have been putting off. Have them write down a plan to overcome procrastination using important strategies. They can then compare with other students.

1.4 Cognitive Learning Strategies

“Teaching students about learning strategies helps them to become aware of how they process new information, improve the strategies they use, learn new strategies, and develop systematic approaches to studying and learning…Strategic learners know how to make choices about how to learn and have a repertoire of strategies they can select from to implement these choices” (Weinstein & Hume, 1998, pp. 12-13).


This is a general introduction to cognitive learning strategies. More specific use of the various cognitive strategies is in the Reading and Notemaking sections of the module.

Cognitive learning strategies are based on research from cognitive psychology, learning theory, and student learning. If a student has a range of these strategies, they can learn to apply them to situations as needed. They also need to know when and under what conditions etc. the strategies work best. This is where you can help because you are familiar with subject content and conventions. This is how students learn to transfer these skills.

MEMORY

“Memory is an active mental system which stores general knowledge (e.g. that Dublin is the capital of Ireland), personal experiences (e.g. our first day in university) and skills (e.g. how to play tennis) over time so that they are available to us later when required” (Moran, 1997, p. 103). In order for memory to be effective, the information must be taken in or encoded, it must be properly stored and it has to be brought forth when necessary (retrieved). Memory can be affected at any of these stages resulting in forgetting. Paying closer attention when encoding, using mind mapping to store and cueing for retrieval are examples of appropriate strategies for enhancing remembering.

DEEP V.S. SURFACE LEARNING

Researchers have broadly identified two approaches to learning and studying: Deep and Surface. An approach is a combination of intention and level of processing. Students tend to match their approach to their perceptions of the requirements of a course. Therefore, assessment influences a student’s approach to learning.

· Deep Approach where the intention is to understand material and make learning meaningful with active and personal engagement.

· Surface Approach where the intention is to memorise the information with a more passive dependence on rote learning of facts.

The literature suggests that a Deep Approach is related to better quality learning outcomes, including a better understanding of subject matter. So strategic learners use self-regulation skills to know when and how to use both approaches as necessary.

KNOWLEDGE ABOUT STRATEGIES

There are three types of knowledge that help strategic learners effectively use strategies to meet their learning goals:

· Declarative knowledge = knowing about different types of strategies and what they are. For example, knowing what mind mapping or skimming means.

· Procedural knowledge = knowing how to use the different types of strategies, and actually practicing them.

· Conditional knowledge = knowing under what conditions the different strategies are most useful, for example when it is or is not appropriate to use a skimming strategy.

ACTIVE V.S. PASSIVE STRATEGIES

The more actively students engage with the material, even if the purpose is rote learning, then the more likely they are to remember the information:

· Even rehearsal strategies can be made more active thus requiring deeper processing and therefore more memorable.

· Active means the student engages with the material trying to link it, impose organisation or critically evaluate it rather than be a passive recipient of facts and knowledge.

CATEGORIES OF LEARNING STRATEGIES

· Rehearsal strategies use repetition to help increase familiarity with the material and better hold it in your memory. For use if the purpose is memorisation of material.

· Elaboration strategies help to build up meaning and to integrate new information that helps to improve understanding and memory.

· Organisational strategies help to cluster information and generate meaning, thereby making it easier to manage and remember; the purpose is to arrange material to aid one’s own understanding (Weinstein & Hume, 1998).


Cognitive Learning Strategies

Time Commitment

Approximately 30 minutes for completing the inventory

20 minutes

Materials

Approaches to Learning (Slide 14)

Example of Deep vs. Surface Learning

Examples of Active Strategies (Slide 15)

Categories of Cognitive Learning Strategies (Slide 16)

Rehearsal, Elaboration and Organisational Strategies (Slides 17 - 19)

Activities and Procedures

Step 1

Have students complete a study questionnaire (optional).

Step 2Explain different approaches using examples from your discipline, emphasising connection between deep approach and success at college.

Step 3Have students identify purpose of reading or other study task, and generate possible strategies to achieve the task (an example of planning).

Step 4Have students discuss whether they have used any of these strategies for the purpose, and whether they were useful or not (monitor and evaluate). Some examples:

· Select material for oneself

· Skimming

· Generating questions

Step 5Briefly explain how memory works and the role of active strategies in remembering and understanding information for deeper processing.

Step 6Go over three categories of cognitive learning strategies: Rehearsal, Elaboration and Organisational. Explain what they are (declarative knowledge). Give examples of how to use them, especially applied to your subject (procedural knowledge) and when they are most useful (conditional knowledge).

Step 7Go back to selected study task and reanalyse appropriate strategies.

Step 8Whenever possible give a chance to practice strategies and offer feedback.

1.5 Awareness of the Learning Context

“We can best try to understand the effects of the context of learning by examining the relationship between students’ approaches and their perceptions of learning tasks. . . Students’ approaches depend on their interest in the task and their previous experience of the area to which it relates; these influences are themselves associated with their perceptions of how the work will be assessed and with the degree of choice over content and method of learning available to the student. The perceived demands and support of teachers, and the content of the subject, also influence the students’ approaches” (Ramsden, 1997, pp. 200-201).


The learning context refers to factors other than the student’s own approach to studying and learning that may influence the way students learn. For example, a student may prefer a deep approach but if the course uses an assessment method that encourages a surface approach (perhaps a multiple choice exam) then the student must adapt or not be as successful (and vice versa).

Students often do not have control over these factors, which may lead to frustration and contribute to a lack of motivation. It is important to help students become aware of these influences so that they may adjust their strategies accordingly. If they feel they can do something constructive it will help their learning.

Some of these influences that may affect the way a student learns include environmental conditions, departmental expectations and requirements, method of course delivery, and assessment method.

Other influences include preferred learning style and previous school background.


Learning Context

Time Commitment

15 minutes

Material

Learning Context (Slide 20)

Exercise – Assessment of Environmental Conditions


Step 1Explain what is meant by the learning context and why it is important to be aware of factors that influence how they learn.

Step 2Ask for examples that students have experienced, either orally or written.

Step 3Have students complete Assessment of Environmental Conditions.

1.6 Summary

Several surveys and anecdotal evidence suggest that students experience the following common study difficulties (Main, 1980):

· Planning

· Private worries

· Concentration

· Motivation

· Understanding

· Revision

· Summarisation

Some students may experience them occasionally, some maybe never. Others may experience only one, others several. It is important to point out that these difficulties are common and they can be addressed, preferably before they begin to interfere with the student’s academic and personal lives.

So far this module has discussed ways to deal with planning by helping students to become more self-regulated. It has also discussed ways to improve understanding; revising and summarising will be covered in more detail in further sections, as will concentration and motivation.

In summary difficulties students encounter can be addressed by the topics covered in this section of the module. Furthermore, characteristics of successful students are the ones we are trying to encourage students to adopt.

· Strategic learners practice reflection and self-regulation

· Strategic learners use effective learning strategies

· Strategic learners are aware of their learning context

2. READING SKILLS

“If your purpose is understanding, speed reading is not appropriate, as Woody Allen once reminded us: ‘Yes,’ he said, ‘I’ve just done a speed reading course. Read War and Peace last night – all 900 pages. About Russia, isn’t it?’ (Rowntree, 1998, p. 80)”


2.1 Identifying Purposes

Students need to identify the reasons for undertaking a reading task and decide the best way to strategically accomplish it. There are several reasons for reading text. They include:

· To get an overview or the gist of a subject or topic

· To determine if more concentrated reading is necessary

· To gather supporting evidence or information for a project or essay

These purposes do not require complex strategy but a surface one such as skimming or scanning

· To summarise main points

· To understand material (e.g. textbook)

These purposes are more complex and need a more in depth strategy such as SQ3R (see Section 2.3.4)

· To critique or evaluate

This purpose is most complex requiring in depth strategies and even several readings with time for reflection

· To enjoy or for leisure

2.2 Selecting & Prioritising

“Efficient reading means being selective about what you read, and then reading it at whatever speed is appropriate to the nature of the material and to your purpose in reading it” (Rowntree, 1998, p. 80).

There are several ways students can learn to be more selective in order to be able for all the suggested reading on a course. Often students are very concerned that they may not be able for the reading. Rowntree (1998, p.81) makes the following suggestions:

· Ask tutors to indicate which parts of the recommended materials are most relevant and why

· Keep alert for hints and clues about relevant reading dropped by tutors, assignment feedback etc.

· Ask fellow students

· Ask students in the year(s) ahead of you

· Share out reading and regularly report on what is worthwhile

· Note which books/materials are most regularly mentioned in other books as being important

· Skim very fast through recommended books (e.g. five to ten minutes per book) with a view to deciding which (or which parts) might repay closer study and which can be ignored.

It is also useful for the student to use monitoring and evaluation strategies. For instance, they could ask themselves “Why am I reading this? What am I getting out of it?” They should be prepared to stop reading if they are unable to give themselves satisfactory answers.

2.3 Strategies for Reading

2.3.1 Reflection

This strategy involves spending a few moments thinking about what you know about the subject before reading. This helps prepare the brain for the information that will follow. This also refers to reflecting on the purpose and what might be the best strategy for achieving it.

2.3.2 Scanning / Skimming

If the purpose is to get an overview or the gist of material then this is a useful strategy. It only tells you what the text is about. It can be useful for planning - that is when deciding how to go about a task.

The steps involved are:

· If a chapter, glance at headings, read introduction and summary, first paragraphs of sections, photos, graphs etc.

· If a book, glance at table of contents, chapter headings, any introduction or summaries, bibliography

· Spend only 5-10 minutes

· Can always decide to come back to read in more depth

· As skimming, asking self how information relates to a particular topic or course material

2.3.3 Speed reading

Increasing reading rates may help reduce study time but it is generally not an appropriate strategy for the complex reading required at third level. “Reading effectively involves varying your reading rate according to your purpose and to the difficulty of the material for you” (Marshall & Rowland, 1993, p. 117).

Reading rates can be improved by practice. Time the number of words read per minute in an article, then try to reduce it. However, check that you have fully understood the material. Keep a list of unfamiliar words or concepts and return to them later. Previewing for familiarity actually saves time in the long run.

2.3.4 SQ3R or Survey, Question, Read, Recall, Review

This is a highly recommended strategy because it is flexible and easily adapted to suit varying purposes and circumstances. However, it also encourages good comprehension. It is best used when the purpose is to understand or summarise, in which case the student will want to use all steps of the strategy. The steps include

Survey

· To get “the lay of the land” or a preview, similar to skimming

· Remember being familiar with the material and getting it organised in our brains is an important step for memory retention and understanding

Question

· This step can be combined with the survey step, as students skim they can turn headings into questions or they can create their own questions

· Often in texts there are questions at the end of the chapter which should be read first

· Questioning can help the reader to concentrate (as the mind tries to answer questions) and to read more critically

· Give examples relevant to your discipline

Read

· Reading actively, carefully, critically

· The reader can keep an internal conversation going, whereby reader tries to answer questions or react to what the author says

· Take notes, underline, or highlight if the purpose is rote (rehearsal strategy)

· Write key ideas in margin or make concept maps, diagrams if the purpose is to understand (or other elaboration and organisational strategies)

· Make links between what is being read and what is already known

· Look for relationships or patterns

· If the purpose is analysis or critique, once the reader thinks they understand it, they need to evaluate it: is the information provided accurate, limited, biased, and logical?

· Re-read difficult parts aloud - this involves more senses

· Check new vocabulary as you go

Recite

· Try to summarise the main ideas and arguments of what has been read, either at the end of a section or at the end of a reading session

· This step is sort of like self-examination, checking to see how well the material was understood

Review

· Have the questions asked been answered, can the information be recalled?

· Recite and review can be combined

· Next morning or at later date, check if the main points can be recalled. This can be done while dressing, travelling or waiting for a lecture. Review needn’t be part of a formal study session, it is more important that it is regular thus aiding retention.

2.3.5 Ask Questions

Asking and answering questions is a good elaboration strategy which can be done even if not using SQ3R. This is especially important if the purpose is to critique. Questions can be asked about the author’s purpose, the content, the structure and the style.

Try to be creative, as the more active and interesting the questions, the more likely one will pay attention; a useful way to fend off boredom.

2.3.6 Making Notes/Underlining

Take notes if what is being read is critically important or if it helps understanding. Do not take verbatim but use own words, summarising main points relevant to the purpose or question. More details on this strategy can be found in Section 3. NOTETAKING SKILLS.

2.3.7 Monitor and Evaluate (Self-regulation)

· Use self-instructions while reading

· Use self-review, e.g. by periodically checking that the material has been understood

· Ask Questions

What did I learn?

Can I summarise the main points at a later point?

Did I use the best strategy to achieve my purpose?


Reading Strategies

Time Commitment

30 - 40 minutes, depending on time allowed for exercises

Material

Purposes for Reading (Slide 22)

Exercise - Purpose in Reading

Being Selective (Slide 23)

Reading Strategies (Slides 24, 25, 26)

Exercise 12 – “It’s Hard to Know What’s Going On…”

Handout on Active Reading Strategies


Step 1Ask students what are the different purposes for reading. Go over Purposes for Reading.

Step 2Explain how different purposes may require different strategies. Give examples relevant to your discipline.

Step 3

Do Exercise – Purpose for Reading.

Step 4Go over suggestions for ways to be more selective, highlighting what is appropriate or acceptable in your department.

Step 5Explain the different types of reading strategies, using examples of actual reading material if possible.

Step 6Have students select a strategy and then practice it on a reading assignment (only 10 minutes) and ask them for feedback, either discussing in pairs or in larger group. These strategies benefit from regular practice and feedback.

Step 7Point out that as students become more familiar with new concepts and terminology their comprehension will improve. Encourage active strategies.

Step 8

Do Exercise – No. 12 It’s Hard to Know What’s Going On...

3. NOTETAKING SKILLS

“One way to understand note taking is to realize that taking notes is the least important part of the process” (Ellis, 1994, p. 137).


3.1 Identifying Purposes

Students need to decide the purpose for their notes and review the available strategies then decide how to proceed. Students take notes from lectures and tutorials, as well as from reading or written material. There are various reasons for making notes:

· To note down facts

· To contrast similarities and differences

· To summarise main points

· To help pay attention

· To review or revise

· To record thoughts or brainstorm

When taking notes you either respond to someone else’s ideas or else you try to produce or sort out your own ideas.

3.2 Methods or Types of Notes

There are several types of notes, with various advantages and disadvantages that should be considered when using that method.

3.2.1 Prose or linear

Many students use this format (basically written paragraphs) and they are familiar with it. While this type can provide a summary the disadvantages are that it encourages verbatim copying and doesn’t allow for organisational strategy use.

3.2.2 Outline

The advantage of this method is that it is more visual and allows for the imposition of structure. It forces the note taker to create main points. A disadvantage is that sometimes the material is not conducive or provided in such a format that lends itself to outlining.

3.2.3 Mind Maps or Patterned (Buzan)

Sometimes referred to as spider diagrams. The notes start in the middle of a page and ‘explode’ out towards the edge of the page. The advantage is that it is very visual, allows for structure and displays relationships. They are very useful for review and recall, brainstorming and revision purposes. Also, they work on both a verbal and a non-verbal level. Another advantage is that a lot of information can be condensed into a small area. Disadvantages include they are hard to produce, especially from lectures and they require practice.

3.2.4 Cornell or Split page

This method involves drawing a line down the page, about 1/3 from left side of page. The right side is used to record notes. The left side is reserved for key words and main points. These can be done after the lecture, when trying to condense the information. The advantage of this method is that it forces the note taker to select main points; it also provides a basis for self-examination (by covering over the right hand side and quizzing using points on left-hand side). However, it needs practice.

Whatever method is employed, it is vital that all notes are kept organised. Ring binders are useful because they can be added to and expanded. Students should try to have a system for classification.

3.3 Strategies for Notemaking

3.3.1 Notes from lectures

Taking good notes from lectures involves being an active listener. Some hints for improving notes:

· Use focusing techniques

· Sit in an appropriate spot to avoid distractions

· Focus on content not speaker, try to separate

· Review previous notes for better continuity and comprehension

· Note examples and information on board/overhead

· Listen for key words: because, two reasons, however, etc.

· Pay attention to non-verbal cues: information that is repeated, amount of time spent on topic, change in lecturer’s tone

Encourage students to attend lectures, as this is the best chance to learn about material that may not be covered in the textbook, to be aware of links and possibly to discover what may be on the exams. Another useful idea is to discuss the ideas in the lecture as soon as possible to consolidate the information, for example leaving lecture hall take a moment or two with fellow students to cover main points or questions; or possibly just at the end of the lecture this can be encouraged by the instructor.

3.3.2 Notes from books

When taking notes from books it is a good idea to use summarising strategies to differentiate between arguments, main points and evidence or details. This may be a good time to review the department’s preferred referencing system and policy on plagiarism.

3.3.3 Note Making Strategies

Good note taking promotes deeper understanding of material and can help aid concentration. The emphasis is on making notes rather than taking notes. Strategies that encourage this include:

Summarising information

· Helps to reduce the amount of material to learn

· Makes you think critically as you must select what information is important or it helps to answer your questions

· Helps you to link material to what you already know

· Try to use your own words

Seeking relationships, principles, concepts

Asking and answering questions

Identifying key words (in margins, in outlines, on diagrams, etc.)

Underlining or highlighting (rehearsal strategies). Are useful to help focus attention:

· Makes you think (why is this important that I want to underline it)

· Better yet would be to put trigger words or summary words in the margin

· Use different colours

· Use numbers

· When revising try not to re-read, notes should be good enough

Self-regulation skills. Students need to review their notes regularly to consolidate the information. They also need to monitor and evaluate their notes, asking themselves:

· Are my notes working for me?

· If not what other strategy could I use?

· Could I be using my time more efficiently?


Notetaking Strategies

Time Commitment

30 minutes

Material

Purposes for Notetaking (Slide 27)

Exercise – Look at your notes

Methods of Notetaking (Slide 28)

Notemaking Strategies (Slides 29 & 30)

Exercise – Taking Notes a Different way

Examples of different types of notes


Step 1Ask students the reasons why they take notes. Go over Purposes for Notetaking.

Step 2

Go over how different purposes may require different strategies.

Step 3Ask students to look at their notes. Are they happy with their notes? Do they think the notes can be improved? This can be done individually or in pairs.

Step 4Go over Methods of Notetaking, highlighting advantages and disadvantages of the various types.

Step 5Go over tips for making notes from lectures. Explain cognitive difficulty when making notes from lectures.

Step 6Go over tips for making notes from books.

Step 7Go over note making (active) strategies.

Step 8

Do Exercise – Taking Notes a Different Way.

4. Writing Skills

“A more comprehensive approach to writing is needed, especially in the first year, so that the student is led, through activity, intervention and feedback, to a position of understanding, confidence and engagement with the writing process” (Cottrell, 2001, p. 135).

4.1. Introduction

Academic writing is an area that poses difficulty and frustration for many students. Partly this results from knowing that the writing will be judged and assessed. However, these feelings also arise because many students have little idea of what is expected or how to improve their writing. Often students are unclear about what is being asked, are confused about how it differs from writing in secondary school, and are not aware of what constitutes analytical, academic writing.

Developing writing skills in students is a great way to support students and it lends itself to integration with subject material. Many universities and colleges in the United Kingdom and the United States have programmes that promote writing skills in the curriculum (for ideas and developments please visit www.thinkingwriting.qmul.ac.uk). Furthermore, the presentation of written work is a vital skill for the workplace as well as college.

This section is necessarily brief and concise as what you can offer students depends on the level the student is at and the type of writing required by your course or discipline. There is no doubt, however, students will benefit from your assistance with their writing skills.

Similar to the other skills covered in this module, writing needs to start with self-awareness and reflection. Help your students determine how effective they currently are by asking them to reflect on their experiences of writing assignments, their effectiveness and ways they might improve.

The following information for students concentrates on essay writing. This section covers the writing process and examines some areas students often have difficulties with: getting started, gathering information, and drafting (critical analysis, structure, revising and referencing). There are also suggestions for ways lecturers and teachers may help students by integrating this assistance into coursework.


4.1 The Writing Process

The purpose of writing assignments is usually to help students to consolidate their learning and to demonstrate their ability. It is important that students understand why the assignment has been given. In general, essays are used to explore and bring together knowledge on a subject and apply that knowledge to a particular question or problem. This often involves argument and assertions supported by evidence and examples. The following is a typical systematic approach to the process; however, there is no one correct approach.

4.1.1 Getting Started

Understanding the task. What’s expected? Students are often confused about what the task involves. So the initial phase is to clarify and make explicit the requirements of the writing task. This includes specifying word length, language and conventions. Here are some other questions students need to consider:

· Who will read the assignment?

· Will I be general or specific?

· Will I (and may I) include personal experience?

· Will I employ a passive or an active voice?

· Will it to be third person, objective or first person, subjective?

Understanding the essay questions. Many students are not clear on what is being asked in essay titles so it is useful for them to learn how to break the question or topic down. The first step is to identify the verb and what it means. Students often are not clear what taking an analytical or critical approach to an essay implies. A useful exercise is to go over key verbs in essay questions, with examples of what is meant. The next step is to break down the main points of the topic and then expand these points.

A helpful next step is to brainstorm - just put ideas related to the main points down on a large sheet of paper. Next, the student notes down what they already know about the topic. A mindmap is a constructive technique because it helps to visualise the final product and to provide an initial structure (which inevitably changes as the writing process develops). Thus writing process has begun!

Create a skeletal outline. Using key words in the thesis statement or from the brainstorming session, the student creates a rough outline to answer the question. Essay papers usually have an introduction, the main body of the argument, and a conclusions section. As more information is gathered, this outline can become more detailed by writing one sentence about each point and then expanding it to a paragraph – a relatively easy way to start an essay for students who experience difficulties with the writing stage.

Planning and scheduling. Students usually do not leave enough time for revising and proof reading. A useful planning strategy is to work backwards from the submission date. This is achieved by generating a list of writing tasks involved in the assignment - such as selecting a topic, writing a thesis statement or research question, creating an outline or other structure, gathering information, writing a first draft, revising, doing second draft, writing up references, proofreading. One tip is to estimate how much time is required for each task and create interim deadlines, for example on x date the first draft will be completed. Students will get better at estimating the time required for each task as they become more familiar with the library and their own writing style; however, initially the teacher can provide some direction.

4.1.2 Gathering information

On the one hand, a lack of preparation and information gathering may contribute to a poor essay; on the other hand too much information may engender confusion and feelings of being overwhelmed. Therefore, this stage may pose a stumbling block for some students.

The key is to continue to employ a systematic approach. A good first step is for the student to look over lecture notes, notes from readings and suggestions of further reading. Students are expected to read widely depending on the purpose of the essay and the time available. The next step is to make use of the reading list or use the library and Internet to get the information required. The librarians are a great resource for students – make sure they are utilised.

At this stage, scanning or skimming strategies are very effective for getting an overview of the literature and deciding what requires more in depth reading. With so much information available, it is easy for students to get sidetracked; therefore, a good idea is to keep the thesis statement or essay question on an index card on the desk. They should take into account the length of the assignment as a guide to the amount of information required answering the question and providing evidence to support any argument being put forth. Students should also use effective summarising strategies for their note making as described in a previous section. It is helpful to arrange notes according to points in the outline.

Also at this stage students should be considering what point of view will be adopted, how they plan to develop their position, and be selecting material to support the ideas. They will want to read the information critically, evaluating the relevance and validity of the information. Students will also want to carefully copy down information, noting when the ideas are their own or the author’s, especially quotations.

A useful technique is to keep track of sources on index cards, recording relevant information such as author, title, year of publication, city of publication, publisher and page numbers (as well as where source is located). This enables a reference list to be created easily.

4.1.3 Writing Drafts

Structure. Essays generally have an introduction, a main body and a conclusion. The introduction states how the question will be answered, and the scope and limitations of the essay. The introduction needs particular attention, as it is the first thing read. Some writers even suggest doing the introduction last. The main body of the essay is where the writer presents his/her argument, addresses the question with examples or evidence, and demonstrates critical thinking. The conclusion offers a summary with no new information.

A good way to start writing the first draft is to write a sentence or paragraph per heading of the outline. The key ideas or main points can each be a separate section of the essay. A good suggestion for students is to write like they talk, keeping it simple. The material can always be reorganised or revised at a later date. Thus the first draft helps to clarify one’s thinking on the subject, to create flow and to get something down on paper.

Developing the Argument. Part of the drafting process is to build the argument which constitutes the main part of the essay. It is important to sequence the main points or ideas being presented, covering what was proposed in the introduction. This is where the student explains his/her position with regard to the question and provides evidence to support these opinions.

Revising and Editing. Not all writing assignments will require several drafts although most academic essays will need more than one. Therefore, the next step is to put the first draft aside for a few days then read it, preferably out loud before redrafting (now it becomes obvious why careful planning is needed, so one has enough time to do this!). Now is the time to rearrange the material so that the argument flows logically and to cut out any unnecessary words or paragraphs that do not fit the purpose. Students might want to let a friend or peer critique the essay.

Referencing. This relates to an academic practice that ensures credit is given to an author’s work and ideas. It also provides the reader with a way to locate the source for further information. Usually, students must acknowledge their sources in the body of the essay and at the end, in a reference list or a bibliography (unless the department uses footnotes or endnotes).

Many students are confused about when and how to credit sources. The following are examples of when it might be necessary to cite sources:

· Direct quotes (generally kept to a minimum)

· Paraphrases

· Statistics

· Studies

· Theories and ideas

· Interpretations which are not your own

· Facts which are not common knowledge (Cottrell, 1999, p. 123).

It is an acceptable academic practice to paraphrase or take the ideas or work of another, put into your own words and credit the source. This ensures credit is given to the author. It is not acceptable to copy the ideas or work of another, presenting it as your own. This latter use is referred to as plagiarism (refer to the Calendar for consequences).

Teachers can help students by clearly explaining the academic conventions used in their discipline, and by providing examples and practice before an assessment. Students should be aware that most course and department handbooks refer to the appropriate way to reference.

Proofread. This step involves checking for proper grammar and spelling, and editing overly long or vague sentences. It would help if students learned to use all the features of their word processing software such as spell checking, grammar checking, thesaurus, downloadable specialist dictionaries and concept structuring software. This training is available from IS Services.

Students should also ensure correct presentation - such as typewritten with proper spacing and margins, sue of quality paper, etc. The course handbook provides guidelines on how written materials are to be presented. Finally, make copies and submit - on time!

4.2 Feedback

“Making effective use of feedback requires students to be reflective about their own work, to heed advice given to them by others, and to be systematic in using this information” (Chalmers & Fuller, 1996, p. 104).

Sometimes feedback is provided too late, other times students do not take advantage of the feedback. However, feedback is vital for improving writing for the next assignment. One possibility for feedback is for students to use a reflective checklist to self-assess how the writing process worked for them. Ideally, constructive feedback is provided early, in time for students to make changes for their next writing assignment.


Essay Writing Skills

Time Commitment

1.5 – 3 hours depending on use of exercise and discussion. It would make more sense, however, to break down the presentation into smaller segments.

Materials

Writing process – Slides 31 - 40

Exercise – Self-Evaluation for Writing Assignments

Exercise – Analysing key verbs

Exercise – Analysing essay questions

Exercise – Sourcing Information

Examples of typical essays, both good and poor

Examples of critical thinking process from subject area

Marking criteria.

Course handbook or guidelines for referencing

Handout – Planning Assignments

Handout – Key Verbs (or one specific to your discipline)

Handout – Essay Writing Strategies

Handout – Essay Writing Checklist

Activities/Procedure

Step 1Get students to reflect on their current writing effectiveness by completing the self-evaluation form or by discussion.

Step 2Describe the stages of the writing process (Slide 31), emphasising the importance of employing a systematic approach that suits the student.

Step 3Explain the first phase is to understand task requirements and to work with titles / essay questions (Slide 32). Do the analysing key verbs exercise. Display a question from a previous assignment or examination. Demonstrate how you would break it down and how you might plan your response. Provide sample questions and have students analyse what they are expected to do. They could possibly brainstorm to create mind maps or skeletal outlines. This could be done for an upcoming assignment.

Step 4This is an opportunity to explain your marking criteria (a general example is provided in Slide 33). Chalmers & Fuller (1996, p. 103) suggest an exercise that involves students helping to determine the criteria to be used thereby building their awareness of quality in writing.

Step 5Clarifying tasks and priorities (Slide 34). Get students to generate a list of tasks involved in writing an essay. They can then use the Planning Assignments handout to estimate time and deadlines.

Step 6Discuss ways to gather information and tips for organising information. Try using Exercise – Sourcing Information with material from your discipline or related to the topics.

Step 7Stress the importance of writing a first draft and give suggestions for getting this stage going (Slide 35). Ask students about their previous experiences of drafting essays.

Step 8Explain the general structure of essays (Slide 36). Depending on the level of your students, you may want to explain the structure of paragraphs (Slide 37).

Step 9If appropriate and sufficient time, briefly describe the critical thinking process (Slide 38; in itself this is a topic for a separate presentation or work in class). Give examples of how it is used in the discipline. Model how it is done, for example how to support opinions with evidence.

Step 10 Explain the thinking behind the academic practice of citing sources and creating reference lists or bibliographies (Slide 39 & 40). Provide examples of the conventions used in your discipline. You could do an exercise where students have to write out 2-3 references.

Use this opportunity to discuss what is meant by plagiarism – possibly using existing examples from your subject.

Step 11Discuss how students can make effective use of feedback from staff, from peers and from self. They can use the Essay Writing Checklist as a guide for an assignment. Alternatively in pairs they could discuss what they were satisfied with and not so satisfied with on an assignment, and how they would do it differently the next time.

5. MANAGING “WILL”

5.1 Motivation

“Marshaling emotions in the service of a goal is essential for paying attention, for self-motivation and mastery, and for creativity. Emotional self-control – delaying gratification and stifling impulsiveness – underlies accomplishment of every sort” (Goleman, 1994, p. 43).

Background

The Model of Strategic Learning presented in the first section had a “will” component, which focuses on the motivational aspect of learning.

Studying can be boring and isolating with the rewards very long term thus making it difficult to maintain high levels of persistence and motivation. Successful studying requires commitment, concentration, confidence as well as competence. Often students only consider the cognitive side when thinking about how to improve – how can I read better, take more effective notes, better prepare for exams, etc. However, the cognitive side is related to the emotional side, and there are interventions and strategies that can help students such as self-efficacy statements, affirmations, goal setting etc.

Our wants and desires prompt us to move and do things. Basically there are two types of motivation - intrinsic and extrinsic. The former refers to our desire to do something because it is inherently interesting or of importance to us. For example, some students may find it easy to study for certain topics because they like it. Extrinsic motivation refers to wanting to do or achieve something because of something external. In this example the student studies the topic because there will be an exam or questions asked in a tutorial.

There are several ways to increase motivation. A good idea is try to identify why the difficulty has arisen and then choose a strategy that is effective.

Lack of motivation or difficulty getting started often results from the internal dialogue students have with themselves. Negative or destructive thoughts, such as “I’ll never get it all done” or “I’m not as good a student as x”, are often the cause. Effective strategies that students may experiment with to cope include the following:

· Focus on Effort

Sometimes students are so caught up in the results, or amount of material covered which can result in feelings of being overwhelmed. It is easier to change effort, so by shifting the focus to the amount of effort put into studying it may make it easier to get started. Also, if students attribute successes to ability and failures to lack of ability it is more reinforcing.

· Alter Expectations

Think in terms of want instead of should. Thinking one “should be able to do this”, or “should do that” can create a burden, making it difficult to get motivated. Reframe in terms of “want” - “I want to study so I do better on my next exam.”

· Positive Self-Talk

This strategy focuses on the negative thoughts or statements we use. These may stem from past difficulties or failures, or they may have no basis. The key is to refute these negative messages and replace them with positive ones. These are sometimes called affirmations. This strategy is especially useful around exam time.

· Positive Reinforcement - Rewards

This uses the principle of behaviour modification. Positive reinforcers (sweets or compliments) strengthen behaviour while punishment tends to reduce the behaviour. The key is to reward successful studying. Rewards can be concrete, such as going for a cup of coffee, or less tangible, such as congratulating yourself.

· Goal Setting

The effectiveness of goal setting has been discussed. It is useful to introduce it again in terms of its motivating aspect.

· Positive Language

Whenever possible use positive language with ourselves as well as others.

· Visualisation

This is a technique that can make positive self-talk even more powerful. The key here is to use our imagination to create success and feelings of being competent. The person closes their eyes and pictures himself or herself as a competent student (or whatever). The more vivid the images the more effective they’ll be. They picture themselves actively understanding information in class or the text, able to answer questions while feeling relaxed and in control. This method is also useful as a practice technique. For example, before an interview the person imagines how they will walk into the room, how they will answer questions, the positive remarks of the interviewers, etc. The person could even imagine a difficulty and how they manage to overcome it. Then in the real situation, it will seem as if they’ve already done it.


Motivation

Time Commitment

15 minutes

Material

Will (Slide 41)

Improving Motivation (Slide 42)

Exercise – Creating Affirmations


Step 1Discuss the relationship between thoughts and behaviours, how emotions can influence how we act.

Step 2

Go over various motivational strategies.

Step 3Do Exercise – Creating Affirmations.

Ask students to write down 3 affirmations regarding themselves as learners. Emphasise they must be personal, positive and in the present tense.

5.2 Concentration

“Concentration, or the ability to focus on what is most important in any situation while ignoring distractions, is a vital skill in everyday life (whether in studying, business or in competitive sport)” (Moran, 1997, p. 82).

Background

Students report many distractions that interfere with their ability to focus

attention on the matter at hand. These distractions are caused either by

internal events, such as worrying about something; or external events, such

as the television.

The key is to get control over the distractions. There are several ways to deal

with external distractions.

· Structuring the study environment

Ensuring there is little to distract and not where one normally relaxes (i.e.

living room or student centre)!

· Establish a routine

Condition the body by creating a pre-study routine. This would be similar

to an athlete’s pre-performance routine. One way of doing this is by

studying at the same time every day and at the same place. However,

everybody is different so it is necessary to use self-monitoring and

evaluation to discover what works best.

· Negotiate

Friends, family or roommates may be the source of distractions.

Learn to say no in an assertive manner when being asked to go out.

Alternatively, make yourself unavailable. If noise or the TV is a problem,

try negotiating study time when quiet is enforced and then have non-study

time when noise is allowed.

· Physical

Being hungry, tired or cold can also affect the ability to concentrate. Once

again being aware of these causes and doing something to eliminate

them are important.

More often the distractions are caused by mental or internal reasons, and

these can prove more difficult to control. Here are some useful strategies.

· List of Concerns

Sometimes we think of all the other things we need to do or must

remember to do, causing us to lose attention on the task at hand. Keep a

note pad handy and every time this happens make a note of what needs to

be done. This frees up the mind to return to the task at hand.

· Worry Time

If we are worried about something or someone it will preoccupy us, making

it difficult to focus on a task. Assign worry time to deal with the problem

and use self-talk to refocus. It is important to deal with the worry as it

will probably not go away.

· Mind wandering or daydreaming

Reduce the frequency of mind wandering by keeping track of it with a tic in

the margin of notes or page whenever the mind wanders; the goal is to

reduce the number of tics per page. By keeping track of the behaviour

(mind wandering) it tends to reduce.

· Building up Time

Sometimes the task is so boring or difficult it is hard to concentrate for long

periods. In this case try to really concentrate for short periods of time, say

5 minutes. Then steadily increase the time on a regular basis.

· Mental rehearsal

This uses the visualisation technique to prepare for the next step of

studying, thus not wasting time when it comes to settle down to study.

Many of the strategies mentioned in previous sections will also help

concentration. Things such as becoming more active in the studying process,

dividing things into smaller parcels and self-talk (using trigger words to help

focus attention, e.g. “Just listen”).


Concentration

Time Commitment

15 – 20 minutes

Material

Concentration – Distractions (Slide 43)

Exercise – How to help improve motivation and concentration

Controlling Distractions (Slides 44 & 45)

Visualisation example


Step 1Ask students if they have difficulties concentrating. Get them to identify reasons why.

Step 2Go over sources of distractions and concentration strategies.

Step 3Do Exercise – How to help improve motivation and concentration. Divide students into small groups and give each group one of the scenarios. Have them identify useful strategies. In a larger group, go over the responses. This is a good chance for students to review strategies previously covered as well.

Step 4Go over strategies for controlling External and Internal Distractions.

Step 5

Do a sample visualisation exercise.

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AIM

To help students reflect on their expectations of university versus the expectations of academic staff.

To help students become aware of the differences they might expect at college versus secondary school.

To help create a sense of belonging and to acknowledge that feelings of change and isolation are common in first year students.

Suggestions for Integration

Induction programmes

Mentoring programmes

Comments from previous years’ students or advice from Senior Freshmen for Junior Freshmen

Buddy system

Clear guidelines regarding what is expected of students in third level and their particular course (e.g. originality, deep understanding, relativism etc.)

Handbook with detailed information on learning outcomes and assessment criteria

Treasure hunt for exploring campus

Induction group project

Refer to Cottrell (2001), pp. 196-207 for further ideas

AIM

To help students learn to reflect on how they learn, including thinking about the purpose of learning and what resources they may have to achieve the purpose.

To help students learn to reflect on the content of what they are learning and how it relates to previous knowledge.


Reflection on the process of learning:

Teaching strategies that foster learner activity

Teaching strategies that make metacognition explicit

Explain purpose whenever assigning a task

Allocate time for students to practice reflection and help guide their efforts

Learning logs or diaries

Reflection on the content of learning:

Teaching strategies that foster a conceptual focus

Teaching strategies that encourage reflection on nature of the discipline

Try to promote reflection on the value and relevance of what is taught

- Assessment methods that encourage reflection

AIM

To learn about the self-regulation skills of planning, monitoring, evaluating and reinforcing oneself.

To practice planning strategies such as goal setting, time management, and anti-procrastination.


For Planning Strategies:

Make purpose of learning clear for students especially in first year.

At beginning of a lecture or tutorial state objectives and perhaps whether purpose is memorisation, understanding, synthesis, etc.

When giving assignments, do the same.

Provide example timeframes.

For Monitoring Strategies:

Ask students at end of lecture if they achieved their purpose; perhaps in pairs have them identify how they went about taking notes or whatever and if they thought it was effective.

Allow time for students to ask themselves or each other if they understand material studied in class or readings (one way to overcome students not asking you for help if they don’t understand)

Give feedback on student work on a more regular basis, if necessary creating opportunities (not formal assessment)

Ex. error language grid

Written assignment checklist

Five Minute Exam, Half Sheet Response (Angelo & Cross, 1993)

Mini essay

For Evaluating Strategies:

- Self-testing and Self-assessment

AIM

To learn more about the important planning strategies of goal setting, time management and controlling procrastination.

To examine how goals and priorities relate to use of time and to impact way of studying

To increase awareness of effective ways to organise study schedules


When giving an assignment, ask students in pairs to identify the steps

Give suggested guidelines regarding amount of time task may take

Ask on a regular basis how they’re planning/goal setting/time management is going

Set assignments in terms of goals

Emphasise priorities within subject

AIM

To help students identify the difference between a deep approach and a surface approach to learning.

To have students become familiar with a range of cognitive strategies for processing information: rehearsal, elaboration and organisational.

To have students practice and get feedback on the effectiveness and appropriate use of cognitive strategies.


Make purpose of learning clear for students, especially in first year. At beginning of lecture or tutorial state objectives and perhaps whether the primary purpose is memorisation, understanding, synthesis, etc.

When giving assignments, do the same.

Reduce content; focus on conceptualisation and process.

Assess in such a way that encourages active strategies.

Assign problem-solving type tasks.

For rehearsal strategies:

Point out when it is important to memorise vs. understand.

For elaboration strategies:

Have students relate ideas to existing knowledge structures, i.e. ask, “What do you already know about. . .? “.

Have students develop questions. Ask question at start of lecture or ask students.

Give examples of when knowledge or skills transfer to other situations.

Make links to everyday applications and experience

When using analogies or main ideas, make explicit, say this is example of … which helps make material memorable.

Provide plenty of concrete examples.

Model how to use strategies during lectures

Assess in such a way to encourage use of elaboration strategies.

Making links between different learning units explicit so not discrete units, e.g. in a language how individual grammatical sessions relate to use of language

For organisational strategies:

Point out the organisational pattern used by authors of the textbook. For example, they may divide sections by definition, classification, categories, cause/effect or sequences

Ask students to try to graphically represent material just presented.

Model how you have organised the subject information for the course or lecture

A useful website with information on how to encourage deep approaches to learning and embedding generic skills is � HYPERLINK "http://www.ucd.ie/~teaching/good/good.htm" ��http://www.ucd.ie/~teaching/good/good.htm�

AIM

To help students become aware of the influence of factors other than themselves that can affect their approach to learning.


Provide information on assessment method and departmental expectations.

If environmental conditions are not ideal, give examples of

suitable strategies.

AIM

To help students become more strategic in their reading by

learning to prioritise their reading.

To learn a range of cognitive strategies for reading that students can adapt to suit their purpose in reading.


Help students dis

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LEARNINGstudent-learning.tcd.ie/assets/docs/old/Learning Skills Module.doc · Web viewStudent Counselling Service & Staff Development Office University of Dublin Trinity College