Learning To View Viewing To Learn A Macro and Micro Integrative Teaching System of Television Viewing

by Aryeh Wohl and Chava E. Tidhar

M ore than two decades ago, "Media Messenger" Marshall McLuhan defined television as a "cool ' me- dium. Little did he know how "cool it really was. Most inter-

preters of McLuhan's bon mot attempted to ana- lyze the "coolness" of television with respect to the sender, who presents the message "cool ly"; the message, which is undoubtedly affected by the medium; and the receiver, who is affected by both the medium and its message. Those McLuhanites, however, did not realize the broader implications of his message. It was not only the active formula- tion, production, broadcasting and receiving of the message that carried McLuhan's "cool" but also, the medium affected the receiver even before he began his exposure. Preconceived notions as to the kind and depth of processing necessary for getting the message from a given medium dictates whether the receiver actively or passively "turns on" or "turns off" the type and level of process- ing desired. Thus, the quantity and quality of viewing and the final message received is deter- mined, to a large extent, by the quantity and qual- ity of processing activated.

Vigilance and AIME

AIME, the Amount of Invested Mental Effort, in nonautomatic elaboration of material a receiver takes with any medium. One is reminded of the concept of "vigilance," first suggested by Head, as a state of the central nervous system which

Aryeh Wohl is the educational director o f the Cen- ter for Educational Technology in Israel and teaches at Tel Aviv University's School o f Educa- tion. Chava E. Tidhar is director o f Research, Evaluation and Inservice Training at Israeli Edu- cational Television, Tel-Aviv.

makes possible a speedy and purposive reaction. This behavior may cause active or passive in- volvement. Head's definition deals with a physio- logical state. Mackworth focuses on the psycho- logical aspect of vigilance--"a readiness to detect and respond to specific environmental changes." Barratt, in the same vein, defined vigilance as a state of alertness to stimuli and found that vigi- lance behavior depended not only on the learner but also on the quality and form of the stimulus, i.e., the medium. According to Davis and Tune, the level of vigilance determines the child's ability to attend a task. At times the learner will ap- proach a given task with low vigilance--passive, minimal or even lack of attention, and at other times with high vigilance and involvement. Call it what you may, AIME or Vigilance level, the re- ceivers' responsiveness has important implications for learning.

Barratt suggested that by mediating learning tasks the learner's vigilance level can be modified. He suggested six factors that may enhance the level of vigilance and thus improve learning. Salo- mon and Leigh conject that the television viewer, who has found television viewing an "everyday affair" and "easy" to receive, expends little time in active processing. They note that "Preconcep- tions of the medium and of one's self efficacy in handling it satisfactorily are related to effort in- vested in processing its material and to inferential learning." When dealing with television, the amount of AIME is low. "Unless children are spe- cifically instructed to treat a television stimulus differently than usual, they invest little effort in it and extract little inferential knowledge from it." In other words, the viewer's interaction with tele- vision are simplistic and appear to be relatively ef- fortless. Evidently the "cool" medium "freezes" elements of the thinking process and triggers a low level of mental effort on the viewer's part.

In comparing learning from print to learning

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from television, Salomon and Leigh report that children invested more AIME when dealing with print and suggest that since children treat print more seriously, they learn more from it. It might be argued that the seriousness with which printed material is considered stems from the historical role of the textbook in education, which, apart from its obvious technological reasons, is associat- ed with one of the most rooted attitudes in human culture, namely the sanctity of text. The respect with which printed material has been treated in education is reflected in and perpetuated by ef- forts of reading educators to develop various read- ing and studying strategies to assist in learning from books.

Of particular interest is the work of Gentile, Lamb and River where they adapted vigilance am- plifiers to raise low reading performance. Their work indicates that the application of Barratt's six factors of vigilance enhancement helps to improve reading.

Right and Left Brain Learning

Research in brain functioning gave noted neuro- surgeon Roger Sperry the Nobel Prize in 1981. He was able to prove that different sides of the brain are used for different purposes. Most of the time, the right and left hemispheres of the brain act sep- arately to perform various skills although some- times they overlap and work in concert. Of partic- ular interest to educators is Sperry's observation that people vary in the degree to which their men: tal processes are dominated by the left or the right hemisphere of the brain. It is this personal "brain bias" that influences a person's capacity, person- ality, learning style and ability to perform various tasks. As Mintzberg noted, "An individual can be smart and dull at the same time simply because one side of his or her brain is more developed than the other."

These relatively recent findings have yet to be generally applied in the classroom. Traditionally, the verbal mode of instruction dominates teaching and to this extent the potential capacity of the right brain is neglected. This is surprising when we consider that some of the world's greatest minds applied visual presentations and images as aids for high level thinking.

Some educators uphold the position that many current techniques in language instruction short- change the learners by only stimulating the left hemisphere. Sinatra and Stahl-Gemake suggest that learning could be enhanced by using both right and left brain processing for language acqui- sition and fluency. In fact, research in the last decade indicates that reading comprehension is fa- cilitated by imagery since recall of images is supe- rior to word recall. Contemporary reading educa- tors have begun to recognize the potential of right brain processing to improve understanding and re- call of print.

Research studies by Kulhavy and Swenson, Rosco, Tennyson and Boutwell show that in per- forming reading tasks, fifth and sixth graders may

benefit from imagery instruction. Valett reports the increased use of mental imagery (right brain) in treating children with dyslexic problems. If the process of acquiring language skills--essentially a left brain activity---can be enhanced by using right brain strategies, could brain strategies be used to improve visual information processing--essentially a right brain activity?

Recent television research revealed that verbal intervention and mediation by teachers contribute significantly to the instructional effects of a televi- sion program. This indicates that such an ap- proach may be fruitful. It is the aim of this paper to outline a system by which learning from TV in the classroom could be improved utilizing left brain strategies.

We wish to expand the quality and quantity of thinking while viewing for learning, and to raise the learner's level of vigilance or AIME. Our points of departure include Barratt's factors for enhancing vigilance, and recent work done in reading pedagogy. Great strides have been made in understanding the dynamics of reading and as a result, changes have been introduced with regards to both teaching/learning process and product.

The application of reading instruction tech- niques to make television viewing a more mean- ingful learning activity was suggested by Minor and Cafone in their call to " . . . foster the devel- opment of an active meaning-gathering viewing at- titude". Based on the DRTA Direct Reading Ac- tivity, they proposed the DTVAmDirected Think- ing, Viewing Activity--adapting left brain instructional strategies to increase right brain learning. Of course, Minor and Cafone's terminol- ogy is different as the "left-right brain" concept was formulated later. Their proposal is interesting and inspiring but couched in general terms. They suggest predictions and anticipation of out-comes as the strategy to ensure viewer's alertness con- tent rehearsal plus feedback to ensure message comprehension and the extraction of meaningful information. We aim at suggesting a more detailed and comprehensive model, which takes into ac- count the fact that VTR and even videodisc units are fast becoming standard school equipment in industrialized societies. According to a 1985 report by Quality Education Data, at least 64% of ele- mentary schools in the USA now use video equip- ment. In Israel too, schools are increasing their purchase of VTR equipment.

To Recall and To Remember

Before introducing the model, one further gap in current approaches to learning through television should be pointed out, namely the problem of re- call.

A host of curricula exist for the development of critical viewing skills and other aspects of intelli- gent viewing. Instructional objectives deal with the grammar and syntax of television, technical knowledge, analysis of content, values and effects, critical evaluation, advertising techniques and con- sequences, comparative media presentations and more. However, very little work has been done

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with regard to recall and associated skills which are crucial for learning and specific curriculum material. Understanding is certainly an important goal of all instruction, but when we specifically use the medium to teach content material, we should expect the learner not only to understand but also to remember and recall it for later appli- cation.

When considering the dynamic, continuous na- ture of television presentations, with its rich si- multaneous stimuli, it is felt that teaching of tele- vision viewing should be expanded beyond the ability to comprehend and evaluate messages, to include strategies which will help the learner to deal with new information--to extract it, to mem- orize it and to be able to recall it. What does not as yet exist is such a teaching methodology with wide range applications. The ITS/TV--Interactive Teaching System of Television Viewing--may be one answer.

ITS/TV

The scheme involves two major phases: macro and micro viewing/learning activities. The macro phase deals with general orientation, global view- ing and holistic analysis, and the advancement of viewing/learning skills whereas the micro viewing phase is geared towards the finer selected atten- tion processes and more specific learning objec- tives.

Both macro and micro phases are divided into stages which follow a natural sequence of before, during and after viewing. Methodologies drawn from a variety of pedagogical fields of study con- cerning viewing, reading and other learning situa- tions have been integrated into each stage. The macro phase, for example, contains many of the elements suggested by Minor and Cafone's DTVA, while the micro phase, among other things, calls on Barratt's vigilance amplifiers. We believe that integration of both phases, macro and micro viewing, enables the viewer/learner to fully comprehend the program being studied. Further- more, it calls upon the viewer/learner to utilize both his left and right brain faculties. As a result, the scheme teaches the learner how to view so that he may view to learn.

Macro B (Before)

As in all instructional situations, the "before" stage is primarily devoted to motivate the learner and to awaken both the cognitive and the affective elements necessary for successful learning. The Macro B stage is thus used to awaken the viewer- /learner's prior knowledge and memory schemes relevant to the content of the program. At this stage, the impetus for active participation is built up: Vigilance and AIME are boosted. Foundations for the learning bridge, from the known to the new, are laid down. When learning from print, readers can only understand the text in terms of what is already known. The same applies to learn- ing from television or any other medium.

The methodological steps that may be taken in

the Macro B stage include the presentation of gen- eral background key concepts, important vocabu- lary and visual clues. Selected attention tech- niques such as: advance organizers, preview and expectation stimulations, structural webbing and mapping, cueing for important information, clarifi- cation of purpose, and other focusing strategies for holistic analysis may also be used. The follow- ing two examples can demonstrate the adaptability of reading pedagogy to techniques of viewing- /learning. 1. Overview Program Guides: Overview program

guides, which may be presented to the students before viewing, usually take the form of a pre- cise summary of the content. By giving a gen- eral picture of the content, the guide can cue the student to the important issues in the pro- gram to which attention should be paid and which should be remembered. A diagramatic form of presentation could be particularly use- ful for providing a general scheme which high- lights relationships between elements in the film. Overview guides may focus on a general understanding of the content, key vocabulary as presented by scene, processes of presenta- tion and the various thinking processes re- quired to interpret them. Used in the Macro B stage for preview purposes, they could also be referred to for holistic analysis in later stages.

2. Webbing/Mapping: Webbing now used in read- ing pedagogy is based on the assumption that many readers miss the printed message because they do not grasp the structure of the passage. Similar problems may exist in understanding a television program. Because of its pacing, multi-stimuli and various story line techniques, student viewers sometimes have difficulties in understanding the message. Webbing and map- ping techniques which attempt to visually de- scribe the structure of given content and the in- terrelationships of its elements may be used to clarify the message and enhance recall. These techniques present an excellent opportunity for integrating left and right brain activities: we use words to describe visual elements or situations and present them in structured visual/verbal di- agrams.

Macro D (During)

The Macro D stage is for global viewing--get- ting a clear picture of the overall message. Teach- er intervention at this stage should be minimal since the students are presumably primed for viewing. However, as the program is shown, the teacher should encourage students to note rele- vant focal points, and key words and concepts highlighted in the Macro B stage. This will draw the student into the medium and its message, and keep him actively involved while viewing.

Macro A (After)

At this stage, global discussion and holistic analysis of the viewed program take place. It is

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here that the program's information is integrated. Again the teacher can draw upon several tech- niques used in reading comprehension: reviewing the structure of the program, paraphrazing (orally or in writing), summarizing, outlining and others. Verbal summarizing of visual/verbal material rein- forces right and left brain interactions. In summa- rizing, the learner is required to select key gener- alizations based on anchor images, delete irrele- vant information, condense content, and cluster the information into a tightly knit verbal core that reflects the essence of the program. In this proc- ess, he uses both verbal and visual clues. Finally, this last stage in the Macro sequence offers both teacher and learner an opportunity for feedback in many areas.

By now, the teacher should be aware of those aspects of the medium and content that need fur- ther explanation, clarification, reinforcement and/ or enrichment. It is these aspects of the learning process that can be dealt with in the second phase--the Micro BDA, Before-During-After.

Micro Phase

The Micro BDA stages are focused on segments of the television program which are viewed again for particular purposes. Because of a multi-varied set of stimuli coming at the student in TV learning situations during the Macro phase, it is important to focus on separate segments of the program for further learning. The Macro BDA stages are de- signed to meet this need. Use of the VTR system allows for such controlled and indepth work.

In developing the Micro phase of the ITS/TV, Barratt's vigilance amplifiers were helpful. Barratt suggested that short meaningful tasks, smaller groups, clear directions, quick and constant feed- back, careful pacing, and guided drill and practice experiences, all assist in raising the level of vigi- lance. These suggestions are all applicable to the ITS/TV system.

Micro B (Before)

The Micro B stage parallels many of the tech- niques suggested in the Macro phase but with the following differences. We now focus on specific segments of the program (two to five minutes each), and work towards limited goals. Specific activities are planned, and continuous monitoring of the learning process by both teacher and learn- er takes place. The teacher may apply any select- ed attention method, using a text and/or film em- phasis, and highlight specific vocabulary and tele- vision syntax. At this stage, reading pedagogy strategies such as marginal cueing notes, pinpoint study guides, the variety of questioning methods, imaging activities and small group discussions are all applicable. It is interesting to note that Ander- son and Armbruster used selected attention tech- niques in reading experiments and found in the students tested, bursts of energy and/or leaps in mental effort beyond the baseline required to suc- ceed in the various tasks. Evidently, selected at- tention acts are another AIME booster.

Another important technique in the Micro B stage is cueing for selective picture impressions to enhance memory. Picture cueing serves as an im- agery link which helps the learner to remember important content. It also provides him with a memory aid to be used when viewing other televi- sion programs. As Peters and Levin note: " . . . mnemonic imagery has great potential for enhanc- ing a student's associative processing of factual in- formation contained in a prose passage."

Micro D (During)

The Micro D stage allows the teacher to "mas- sage" the message. He can guide his students in viewing and reviewing selected segments a num- ber of times. Notes taken during the Macro D stage now provide for indepth discussion and guide extended work projects. Detailed analysis, critique work, concept clarification, and reinforce- ment are in order. Furthermore, previously unno- ticed visual, auditory and content clues may be highlighted. Nuances become clearer, criticism sharper, and the student is now ready for applica- tion and extension work. Naturally, Micro B fac- tors are taken into account during the Micro D stage.

The Micro D stage provides the teacher with the opportunity for intensive work with specific con- tent and presentation. Freeze frame techniques, audio with and without video, color to black and white, and other mechanical applications make use of the VTR to its utmost. Small group guided discussions, trigger cards, cloze content and other pedagogical techniques are also in order. Careful pacing, constant feedback, short focused tasks, and significant drill and practice work, will all en- hance learning.

Micro A (After)

During the Micro A stage detailed analysis of specific content and television presentation tech- niques takes place. Small group discussions, imag- ing, writing experiences, inference chains, para- phrasing, checklist analysis and other pedagogical methods are in order.

The inference chain, for instance, is an efficient technique to direct students in learning how to reach sound inferences supported by both visual and verbal clues. Adapted from the work done by Gordon and Pearson, the chain includes the fol- lowing steps: an inference question is asked by the teacher, an answer is given, the content clue to the answer is given and the line of reasoning from clue to inference is described. The teacher first sets up the model by going through all of the stages in the chain. Gradually, the procedure is passed on to the learner. In television learning, special emphasis should be put on both verbal and visual clues.

During the Micro A stage the teacher is called upon to take into consideration students' abilities in terms of left and right brain activities. Accord- ingly, some students will be assigned reading,

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Objectives MACRO-MICRO PLAN

Methods/Techniques

Io

Before:

During:

After:

At all stages:

MACRO

* General orientation-- content and TV production

* Awaken cognitive and affective elements

* Global viewing

* Holistic analysis

meta-viewing skills broad selected attention

II. MICRO

Before:

During:

After:

At all stages:

* Specific orientation

* Skilled focusing: visual content

* Instant feedback * Transfer

meta-viewing skills

III. INTEGRATION

* Visual literacy learning * Generalizations * Conclusions * Applications and Evaluations

Bmvocabulary and concept development --structural webbing and mapping --advanced organizers --selected attention questioning ---background gathering tasks

D--verbal and visual 'marginal cueing' --selected note taking tasks

A---small and large group discussions --reviewing, paraphrasing, summarizing --outlining inferencing chains, generalizations

Bmselected attention techniques such as: question guides, trigger cards, plotting format and TV techniques, marginal cueing

D---ffreeze frame techniques, cloze, focused viewing with guided questions

A---reviewing, check lists, paraphrasing, imaging, writing experiences, key inferencing techniques

--application tasks

The methods above are organized around: shorter tasks, small group work, teacher and pupil monitor- ing, quick and constant feedback, careful pacing, guided drill and practice.

Intra-analysis, comparing and contrasting program segments Inter-analysis with other media Extended projects, quest tasks, papers discussions

writing and/or verbalizing tasks whereas others will be asked to draw, construct models, panto- mime and so forth.

Macro-Micro Integration 20

The ITS/TV system closes with tying together all of the elements discussed and studied in the unit. Basic generalizations, conclusions, key inferences, applications and evaluations are now made. Intra- and inter-analysis of content and form is intro- duced; enrichment quest tasks, extended projects (visual and/or verbal), large group discussions, media comparisons and other techniques are used to sum up and close the ITS/TV system unit. The elements of the learning puzzle are now put to- gether, the message has been received, and meta viewing skills have been triggered and possibly ex- panded. Vigilance and AIME have been boosted, and enhanced right and left brain learning strate- gies have been applied and interwoven. The learn- er has learned to view and now he can view to learn. �9

EXPECTED RESULTS

OF

MACRO-MICRO PLAN:

---An active, motivated, effective viewer/learner

---An active, skilled teacher/mediator

- - A new attitude towards TV learning

- - A new attitude towards teaching/learning

We not only get a student who has been keyed to AIME but also a teacher who has been given a scafolding for a more intense teaching effort.

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