Learning Theories and Instruction

Learning Theory Matrix

Definitive Questions for

Learning Theories

Behaviorist Theory Cognitive Theory Constructivist Theory

Social Learning Theory

Connectivism Adult Learning

How does learning occur?

In this theory the thinking is that there are two possible forms of conditioning and the basis of learning:

1) Classical conditioning: This is where the behavior becomes a reflex response to stimulus as in the case of Pavlov's Dogs.

2) Operant conditioning where there is reinforcement of the behavior by a reward or a punishment. The theory of operant conditioning was developed by B.F. Skinner. Therefore, a behavior may result in either reinforcement, which is intended to increases the chance of the behavior recurring. In punishment the intention is to decrease the likelihood of the behavior recurring.

Cognitive theory has rooted in it the Gestalt approach to psychology, where scientists proposed looking at the patterns of behavior rather than isolated events.

Two key assumptions exist in the cognitive approach:

1) Memory is an active organized processor of information and;

2) Prior knowledge plays an important role in learning.

Cognitive theory looks at how memory works to promote learning which includes the process of encoding and decoding information.

Constructivism approaches learning as a process in which the learner actively constructs or builds new ideas or approaches based available or past knowledge or experience.

Therefore, learning involves taking such knowledge from experience and appending new information into one’s own knowledge.

Social Learning assumes that people can learn by observing the behavior of others and witness the impact of such behavior.

It’s also believed that learning can occur without a change in behavior. Scientists stated that that learning has to be represented by a permanent change in behavior.

It’s also held that cognition plays a role in learning. This comes in the form of people being aware of potential reinforcements that are either positive or negative support learning under this

Connectivism is a learning theory used in computer science which is based on the belief that that knowledge exists in the world and not just within people. Within the connections between people and other sources of information allows individuals to connect than simply in the head of an individual.

It’s within the person that the viability of information and the connections between sources of

Adult learning takes into account the belief that adults will commit to learning when the goals and objectives are in their minds achievable and important to them. The relevance to apply the subject information to the real world is a large aspect of the adult learning methodology.

The method of utilizing this theory is allowing the learner some control over the what, who, how, why, when, and where of their learning. Adult learners need to see how the learning will affect their day to day activities and how they will apply it in their lives.

Often adult learners require direct and specific experiences in which they apply the learning.

Because the learners have a set base of knowledge, ego does sometimes get in the way and caution has to be taken to ensure that their current knowledge base is not threatened and instead perceived as complimenting such knowledge.

Feedback that is constructive and realistic is also important the adult learner. Such feedback needs to be

Learning Theories and Instruction

In Constructivist learning, learning is more personal in that the process resides within the individual and is unique to different people due to the diverse availability of knowledge and experience.

theory. knowledge and connecting them together as part of integrating the information into knowledge acts as the basis of connectivism.

Called "a learning theory for the digital age", Connectivism has been used to explain the effect technology has had on how people live, how they communicate, and how they learn (Siemens, 1995).

structured and specific in order to be meaningful.

Adults also need to participate in group activities during the learning to move them beyond understanding. Such group activities provide an opportunity to share and reflect upon their learning experiences.

What factors influence learning?

This theory believes that behaviors can be described scientifically without any impact on emotions or physiological influences. This very

A major factor is related to how an individual processes information. Similar to whether the learner visualizes an activity,

Constructivist theories propose that knowledge is being actively constructed by

Factors that influence such learning include the setting and circumstances in which learning is

Several factors will affect learning in connectivism learning theory. The type and

The influences to adult learning include the social relationships and the ability for adults to make new associations and develop new relationships as part of their learning experience.

Learning Theories and Instruction

scientific approach contends that the results of learning will remain consistent among different subjects without variation based upon individual preferences or responses.

analyzes the variables to the task or knowledge influence such learning (http://web.cortland.edu/andersmd/learning/cognitive.htm).

the individual and knowing is an adaptive process, which organizes the individual’s own view. One of the main beliefs of the constructivist theory is that people develop and build understanding from their own personal and subjective experiences. Learners bring their own past perspectives in order to connect what is to be learned and what is already known.

taking place. The people involved also have influence to include their existing relationships and connections with each other.There is also the expectations of each person as to what the information offers can influence the effectiveness of social learning.

Lastly, the types of models are also an influence. Whether the source of the information is a person, a machine or media can also be considered to be types of social learning and influence the outcome of the learning situation (http://theelearningcoach.com/elearning2-0/social-media-and-learning/).

availability of the information in which to network will impact the direction and context of the learning outcome (Smith, 2009).

It’s from the variety of ways of learning through practice, personal network, and completion of tasks affect and act as significant factors that influence learning.

The concept includes the belief that learning is a continual process that lasts a lifetime and has become a part of daily life.

Technology is also an influence to

The perspective of the learner during adult learning as to the value of the information and how it will complement their current knowledge or improve their own circumstances influence how and whether the information will be incorporated in to the learners knowledge.

Personal advancement, the ability to see how the learning will help the learner achieve a higher status in a job, secure professional advancement, and stay ahead of competitors are also influence the motivation and perspective of the learning resulting in the direct impact of the learning experience.

Lastly, cognitive interest (Harper & Meyer, 1998) or to learn for the sake of learning or seek knowledge is an additional dimension to how adult learning takes place.

Learning Theories and Instruction

connectives learning theory. The type, development, and changes in the use of technology are changing how we make these connections and offer a wider variety of learning opportunities through connections.

It’s from this form of learning that the importance of knowing and how to find the needed knowledge is becoming equally important (Siemens, 2005).

What is the role of memory?

This theory subscribes to the premise that learning builds up over time from a series of consistent and similar experiences. This repeated method solidifies the information into

Cognitive theory involves understanding how many pieces of information can be retained in short-term memory before

Memory as it applies to this theory states that memory retention will take place as long as there

Memory is believed to be cognitive function under this theory and is believed that the ability to use symbols in learning

Prior knowledge remixed to current context. The connection between what information is offered and what

Within the adult memory different facets affect the significant of whether information is retained or not. The adult often has attained a means in which to learn how to learn and therefore be aware of the necessity of remembering and how

Learning Theories and Instruction

knowledge and becomes part of the person’s natural tendencies and behaviors (Spence, 1937).

information loss occurs, then how to transfer that memory into long-term memory. The application of cognitive theory in this application is to develop learning so that this transfer of memory takes place (Chandler, & Sweller, 1991).

exists a connection between pieces of information. This concept is derived by connecting what is already known to what new information does to compliment or expand upon that original information.

and remembering is a key element to attaining and retain the information. For future use. It is the belief that humans don’t just respond to stimuli, but interpret it which contributes towards learning (Bandura, 1977).

is absorbed is determined by the cognitive process of sorting and connecting the new information to the existing (Kim & Gil, 2007).

to remember. Also, the social element of remembering whether it is names, working information, or data facilitates the adult’s process of memory (http://www.infed.org/biblio/b-learn.htm)

How does transfer occur?

Involves generalization from one stimulus to another (Skinner, 1953).

Transfer takes place when a learner connects the new information to known information.

By applying the information into new problems and scenarios.

Occurs during the process of observation and resulting application of the information.

Connecting to and adding nodes and growing the network.

Transfer of learning for adults is not automatic and must be facilitated. Coaching and other kinds of follow-up support are needed to help adult learners transfer learning into daily practice so that it is sustained.

The pivotal role that makingconnections between past experiences and current problems plays in supportingtransfer of learning is a centerpiece of common elements theory oftransfer (Butterfield & Nelson, 1989).

What types of learning are best explained by this theory?

The approaches include tutorials, drill and practice, behavioral simulations, and programmed instruction. An approach that combines all these teaching strategies into

Methods include:

-Debates -Role Playing -Panels -Brainstorming -Peer Partner

Learning approaches include:

-Interviewing -Conferencing -Problem

Methods include:

-On the job training-Tutorial Groups -Interviewing -Conferencing -Case Studies

Approaches include:

-Hands-on training-Compare & Contrast

Methods may include:

-Problem-Solving-Case Reviews-Debates -Role Playing -Panels

Learning Theories and Instruction

one "system" is called an "integrated learning system" (http://viking.coe.uh.edu/~ichen/ebook/et-it/behavior.htm)

-Structured Overview -Lecture -Explicit Teaching -Compare & Contrast -Didactic Questions -Demonstrations --Guided & Shared - reading, listening

(http://olc.spsd.sk.ca/de/pd/instr/categ.html)

-Learning -Discussion -Laboratory Groups -Think, Pair, Share -Cooperative Learning Groups -Problem Solving -Demonstration

(http://olc.spsd.sk.ca/de/pd/instr/categ.html)

Solving -Case Studies

(http://olc.spsd.sk.ca/de/pd/instr/categ.html)

-Reflective Discussion -Field Trips -Conducting Experiments -Simulations -Games -Storytelling -Role-playing

(http://olc.spsd.sk.ca/de/pd/instr/categ.html)

-Panels -Brainstorming -Peer Partner Learning -Discussion -Laboratory Groups -Cooperative Learning Groups -Problem Solving -Structured Controversy -Interviewing -Conferencing -Problem Solving -Case Studies -Simulations -Games -Storytelling -Role-playing

(http://olc.spsd.sk.ca/de/pd/instr/categ.html)

-Brainstorming -Discussion -Structured Controversy -Interviewing -Conferencing -Inquiry -Reflective Discussion -Computer Assisted Instruction -Journals -Learning Logs -Reports -Learning Activity Packages -Research Projects -Assigned Questions -Learning Centers -Narratives -Conducting Experiments -Simulations -Games -Storytelling -Focused Imaging -Field Observations -Role-playing -Model Building Surveys

(http://olc.spsd.sk.ca/de/pd/instr/categ.html)

How is technology used for learning in your industry?

Computer-based instruction and provides rigid introduction of information for compliance purposes. Examples such as safety rules, policies, etc.

The use of demonstration relates by way of video or on the job training.

Computer-based simulation programs and systems.

Training matrix with learning management system tracking of tasks mastered.

Training machinery established to teach machinists.

Teleconferenced sessions provided by a facilitator for a specific subject.

REFERENCES:

Learning Theories and Instruction

Bandura, A. (1977) Social Learning Theory, Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, N.J. 1977, p. 59.Butterfield, E. C., & Nelson, G. D. (1989). Theory and practice of teaching for transfer. Educational Technology, Research and Development, 37 (3), 5–38.Chandler, P., Sweller, J. (1991). Cognitive Load Theory and Format of Instruction. Cognition and Instruction, 1991, 8(4), 293-332.Harp, S.F, Mayer, R.E. (1998). How Seductive Details Do Their Damage: A Theory of Cognitive Interest in Science Learning. Journal of Educational Psychology.1998, Vol. 90, No. 3, 414-434. Retrieved from: http://visuallearningresearch.wiki.educ.msu.edu/file/view/Harp+%26+Mayer+(1998).pdf/50533273/Harp+%26+Mayer+(1998).pdf Kim, J., Gil, Y. (2007). Incorporating Tutoring Principles into Interactive Knowledge Acquisition. International Journal of Human-Computer Studies (IJHCS, 2007).Lieb, S. (1991). Principles of Adult Learning, VISION http://honolulu.hawaii.edu/intranet/committees/FacDevCom/guidebk/teachtip/adults-2.htmOrmrod, J.E. (1999). Human learning (3rd Ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall.Skinner, B.F. (1953). Science and human behavior. New York: Free Press.Siemens, G. (1995). Connectivism:A Learning Theory for the Digital Age. International Journal of Instructional Technology and Distance Learning. Vol. II, No. 1, Smith, E.R. (2009). Distributed Connectionist Models in Social Psychology. Social and Personality Psychology Compass 3/1 (2009): 64–76, 10.1111/j.1751-9004.2008.00160.xSpence, K.W. (1937). The differential response in animals to stimuli varying within a single dimension. Psychological Review, 44, 430-444.