CHAPTER I

PRELIMINARY

Background

The adherents of empiricism (Locke, Berkeley, and Horne) argues that the real

knowledge comes from outside the individual and knowledge is internalized by

the senses. According to them, at birth, a person is a clean slate and for growth,

"written" on it.

The rationalism such as Descartes, Spinoza, and Kant did not reject the

importance of the experiences of the senses, but they maintain that the reasoning

is more important than the experience of reasoning makes sense because we know

with confidence will be a lot of truth that can not be achieved by the experiences

of the senses.The rationalist finally declared that by knowing and express

knowledge or concept is innate, it will evolve as a function of maturity.

Piaget's theory arises because of objections to both empiricism and rationalism,

and according to him, his theory is a synthesis of both. One way to explain this is

by comparing synthesis "section tapering" with the press of the two circles

contained therein depicting empiricism and rationalism. The press of the fact that

the empirical recognizes the importance of reasoning and rationalist recognizes

the importance of sensory input. Piaget's theory differs from this in terms of the

press Piaget argued that the observations and reasoning are not only important

because of problems berimpitannya, but the two are interdependent, because one

does not happen without the other.

Thus, Piaget felt that empirical views about the nature of knowledge is not

appropriate sensor. He also can not agree with the rationalist idea that reasoning

was innate.

CHAPTER II

DISCUSSION

Jean Piaget, the theory is called "Cognitive Developmental" In theory, Piaget

considers that the process of thinking as activity gradually and intellectual

functions of the concrete to the abstract. In theory, Piaget considers that a gradual

process of thinking as the activity of the intellectual function of the concrete to the

abstract. Piaget is a psychologist developmentat because research on the stage of

personal development stages and changes that affect the life of the individual

learning ability.According to Piaget, mental capacity growth gives the Traffic

mental capabilities not previously exist. Intellectual growth is not quantitative, but

qualitative. In other words, the power of thinking or mental strength of children of

different ages will be different qualitatively

A. Intellectual development

In intellectual development, there are three aspects studied by Piaget,

namely:

1. The structure is a pattern of behavior that can be recycled. Piaget saw no

functional relationship between measures of physical, mental action and logical

development of children. Actions towards the operations and the operations

leading to the development of structures. S structures are at dealing with:

Reflections nature: such as breathing, eating, drinking.

Mental scheme: for example, the scheme of classification, scheme of

operation (pattern of behavior that is still difficult to be observed as an

attitude), and the scheme of operation (pattern of behavior that can be

observed).

2. Contents, ie specific patterns of behavior when indi vidu facing something of a

problem, a typical child behavior patterns are reflected in the responses given

to the various problems or situations. It is a coarse material, as Piaget less

interested in what children know, but is more interested in what the underlying

thought processes. Piaget see "content" is less important than the structure and

function, When the content is the "what" of intelligence, while the "how" and

"why" is determined by cognitive or intellectual.

3. Function, is the way in which organisms to make intellectual progress. S ne

process in which cognitive structures are built. Which deals with how one

attains intellectual progress. All living organisms that interact with the

environment has the function through a process of organization and

adaptation.

Organization: or organisms in the form of a person of skill in compiling

processes of physical and psychic in the form of coherent systems. Tend to

integrate themselves and the world into a form of the parts into a single unit

that meaningful, as a way to reduce complexity.

Adaptation: the adjustment of the individual to the environment. This

adaptation consists of two kinds of complementary

namely assimilation andaccommodation.

Assimilation is the cognitive process in which a person integrates

perception, concept or a new experience into the scheme or pattern that

already exists in his mind. Assimilation is seen as a cognitive process that

locates and classifies events or new stimulus in the existing scheme. This

assimilation process continues.Assimilation will not cause a change /

change of schemata, but the development of schemata. Assimilation is one

of the individuals in the process of adapting and organizing themselves with

a new understanding of the environment is growing.

organisms manipulate the outside world in a way making it similar

to him. This process is called assimilation. Assimilation take something

from the outside world and fitting it into the already existing

structure. example: humans assimilate food to make it into its component

nutrients, foods that they eat becomes a part of them.

Accommodation, in the face of new stimuli or experiences a person can

not assimilate new experiences with schemata that is already held. The new

experience could be totally incompatible with the existing scheme. In such

circumstances, people will hold the accommodation. Accommodation

occurs to form a new scheme that matches the stimulus of new or modify

existing scheme so that it matches with the stimulus. For Piaget adaptation

is an equilibrium between assimilation and accommodation. If in the process

of assimilation person can not hold adaptation to the environment then there

is imbalance (disequilibrium). Due to the imbalance that it happens

accommodation and cognitive structures there will be changes or the

emergence of a new structure. Intellectual growth is a continuous process on

the state of imbalance and equilibrium (disequilibrium-equilibrium). But if

there is equilibrium then the individual will be at a higher level than ever

before.

organisms modify itself so that it becomes more like environment. This

process is called accommodation. When someone accommodate

something, they transform themselves to meet external

requirements. example: the body does not just assimilate food but also

accommodate it by secreting gastric fluid to destroy and involuntary

contractions of the stomach to digest it.

Both through the adjustment process, a person cognition systems change

and develop so that it can increase from one stage to the above. The adjustment

process is carried out an individual because he wants to reach a state

of equilibrium, namely in the form of a state of balance between the structure of

cognition with environmental experience. Someone will always be working on

making a balanced state is always achieved by using both the above

adjustments. Application in learning: cognitive development depends on the

accommodation. Students should be given an unknown area so that he can learn,

because he could not learn from what he knew only. He could not rely on

assimilation. With the new area students will hold a business to be able to

accommodate. Situation or area that will facilitate cognitive growth.

B. Intellectual development level

Theory of learning that can be used as a basis in the model of cooperative

learning. According Piage, each individual experiencing levels of intellectual

development as follows:

1. Motor sensory level: 0-2

According to Piaget, babies are born with some innate reflexes as well as the

urge to explore his world. Scheme was originally set up through the

differentiation of the innate reflexes. Scheme is modified and combined to form a

more kompleks.pada behavior childhood these children do not have the proper

conception. He only knew the things that were captured by the

senses. Sensorimotor period is the first period of the four periods.

During development in the motor sesori period which lasted from children

birth to age 2 years, integilensi which have shaped the child still primitive in the

sense that they are based on overt behavior. Although primitive and basic

intelligence seem very meaningful because it became the foundation for the type -

certain types of inteligansi will have the child later.

Intelegasi sensory - motor intelligence is seen as a practical (practical

intelligence) that berfaidah for children aged 0-2 years to learn to do on the

environment before he was able to think with the things he was doing. Children in

this period to learn how to follow the material world in a practical and study

specific effects without understanding the things he was doing but just looking for

a way acts are like above.

When a baby is interacting with its environment, it will mengasimilisasikan

scheme sensory - motor in such a way to exert accommodation that he had to

reach a satisfactory ekuilbrium needs. The process of assimilation and

accommodation in achieving ekuilbrium are like above always done baby, both

when he was about to meet a boost hunger and thirst as well as bet with objects -

objects in the surrounding toys.

Can a baby recognize object permanence? After Piaget conducted a series of

experiments and observations on the subject - the subject of babies, including his

own daughter aged 7 months, Jakquilene, he concluded that infants under 18

months of age generally do not yet have the introduction of object

permanence. That is, anything that does not look, do not touch it, or he heard

always considered nothing though in fact it is elsewhere.

In the age range between 18 to 24 months, then the child's ability to recognize

the object permanence appear gradually and systematically. Thus, objects -

objects toys and people - people who used to be in the vicinity (such as mothers

and guardians) will he find in earnest when he needs it.

2. Pre-operational levels: 2.0 to 7.0

This stage is the second stage of four stages. By observing the order of play,

Piaget could indicate that the age of two years after the end of the qualitatively

new kind of psychological function arise. Thought (Pre) Operations in Piaget's

theory is the procedure for performing mental acts against objects. The hallmark

of this stage is a rare mental operations and logically inadequate. In this stage,

children learn to use and represent objects with images and words. Thinking is

still egocentric: children difficult to see from the point of view of others. Children

can classify objects using a single trait, such as collecting all red objects despite

different shape or round object even collect all different colors.

According to Piaget, pre-operational stage following the sensorimotor stage

and appear between the ages of two to six years. In this stage, children develop

their language skills. They began to represent objects with words and

pictures. However, they still use the intuitive reasoning is not logical. At the

beginning of this stage, they tend to be egocentric, ie, they are not able to

understand his place in the world and how they relate to one another. They have

difficulty understanding how the feelings of those around them. But as

maturation, the ability to understand another person's perspective, the

better. Children have a very imaginative mind at this time and consider every non-

living material also has feelings.

The period of cognitive development of pre - operational occur in children as

young as 2 to 7 years. This development begins when the child has to have a

perfect mastery of the object permanence. That is, the child has a sense of 'fixed

eksisnya' an object that there should be regular or no, even after they had left it, or

have not seen and not heard again. Thus, the existence of the object is different

from the period of sensory - motor, no longer rely on mere pengatannya.

Acquisition of ability in the form of awareness of the existence of object

permanence (provision for objects) is the result of the emergence of new cognitive

capacity called mental representation or representation (mental picture). In short,

representation is something that represents or a symbol or a manifestation of

something else.Mental Representation is an important part of cognitive scheme

which allows the child to think and infer the existence of a particular object or

event even though certain objects or events although the incident was out of sight,

hearing, or the reach of his hand.

Mental Representation also allows children to develop defered -

imitation (impersonator pending) which is the capacity mimics the behavior of

other people before he had seen to respond to the environment. Behavior -

especially behavior that emulate the behavior - the behavior of others (in

particular parents and teachers) that he had seen when it responded to goods,

people, circumstances, and events encountered in the past.

Along with the emergence of deferred capacity - imitation, there are also

symptoms of insight - learning, ie learning by insight sense symptoms. In this

case, the child can begin to see the situation probematik, namely to understand

that a state of containing the problem, then thought for a moment. In accordance

think he obtain reaction "aha", ie understanding or spontaneous inspiration to

solve the problem version of the children - children. With reaction "aha" and then

he had a problem to solve.

In the period of the development of the pre - operational, in addition to

obtaining the capacity - capacity as mentioned above, which is also very

important, is acquired language skills. In this period the child can begin to use the

word - the word that correctly and be able to also express - phrases short but

effective.

Another thing needs to prepare uttered in connection with the use of a child's

cognitive scheme which still tebatasitu is that observations of children against

environmental stress, he responded strongly influenced by the nature

of egocentrism (egocentrism). Magsudnya the child can not understand the sights

of others who differ with the view sendiri.gejala egocentrism is caused by the

limited koncervation (konserfasi / perpetuation), the cognitive operations that

relate to children's understanding of stale and quantitative dimensions of

environmental response material.

Regarding the above can be demonstrated sbb.apabila two glasses of the same

capacity but different forms (the short one large, while others are a little high)

pour water in the same amount, then the child will be very likely to guess the

contents of the tall glass more than pendek.gejala contents of the glass which

shows that the child is able to concentrate only on the cognitive schemes height of

water in the form of a high glass without counting the quantity or volume of the

same in a glass short but great itu.inilah is a limitation konserfasi as mentioned

above.

3. Operation concrete stage: 7.0 to 11.0

Important processes during the concrete operational stage is:

Sorting, ability to sort objects according to size, shape, or any other

characteristic. For example, if given objects of different sizes, they may make the

biggest thing to the smallest.

Classification, the ability to name and identify a set of objects according to

appearance, size, or other characteristics, including the idea that a series of objects

may include other objects into the circuit. Children no longer has the limitations

of logic in the form of animism (the notion that all living things and callous)

Decentering, children begin to consider some aspects of a problem to be

solve. For example, children will no longer consider wide but short cup to contain

less than taller cup.

Reversibility, the child begins to understand that the amount or objects can be

changed, then go back to its initial state. To that end, the child can quickly

determine that the 4 + 4 equals 8, 8-4 will be equal to 4, the previous amount.

Conservation, understanding that the quantity, length, or the number of objects is

not related to the settings or appearance of the object or the objects.  For example,

if the child was given a cup that is about the size and contents just as much, they

would know when the water is poured into another glass of different size, the

water in the glass will remain the same lot with the other contents of the cup.

Elimination of Egocentrism, the ability to see things from the viewpoint of

others (even if they think the wrong way). For example, a comic show in which

Jane save the doll in the box, then left the room, then Melissa moves stuffed into a

drawer, and Jane comes back into the room. Children in the stage of concrete

operations would say that Jane will still think it's in the box even though the child

knows that the doll has been moved into the drawer.

4. Formal operations stage: 11,0-

Formal operational stage is the last period in Piaget's theory of cognitive

development. This phase began experienced by children in the age of eleven years

(puberty) and continues into adulthood. Characteristic of this phase is to obtain

the ability to think abstractly, reason logically, and draw conclusions from the

available information. In this stage, one can understand things like love, logical

proof, and value. He did not see things only in black and white, but there are "gray

shades" in between. Judging from biological factors, this stage appears at puberty

(when there is a large variety of other changes), marks the entry into the world of

adult physiological, cognitive, moral reasoning, psychosexual development, and

social development. Some people do not fully achieve the development to this

stage, so he does not have the skills to think as an adult and still use the reasoning

of the concrete operational stage.

C. Factors Supporting the Development of Intellectual

Physical,

The interaction between the individual and the wider world is a source of new

knowledge, but contact with the physical world it is not enough to develop

knowledge unless intelligence individuals can take advantage of the experience.

Maturity

The maturity of the nervous system is important because it allows the child to

obtain maximum benefit from physical experience. Maturity opens the possibility

for development whereas if less it will limit widespread cognitive

achievement. The development took place at different speeds depending on the

nature of the contact with the environment and their own learning activities.

Social influence of social environment, including the role of language and

education, experience fisikdapatmemacu or inhibit the development of cognitive

structures

The process of self-regulation called equilibration

The process of self-regulation and self-correcting, set the specific interaction of

the individual with the environment as well as physical experience, social

experience and physical development that led to the development of cognitive run

in an integrated and well-organized.

D. Piaget's theory of knowledge

Knowledge of Piaget's theory is a theory of cognitive adaptation. In the formation

of knowledge, Piaget distinguishes three kinds of knowledge, namely:

1. Physical knowledge is pengetahuanakan physical properties of an object or

event, such as shape, large, heavy, and how objects interact with each

other.

2. Logical mathematical knowledge is knowledge that is formed by thinking

about the experience of a particular object or event.

3. Social knowledge is knowledge gained from cultural and social groups

agree on anything together.

E. How the knowledge acquired

According to Piaget, knowledge constructed in the minds of social

anak.Pengetahuan such as day of the week or a sign of atomic elements in

chemistry can be studied directly, namely from that of the teacher to the student's

mind. However, physical science and mathematical logic knowledge can not be

fully transferred from the mind of the teacher to the student's mind. In other

words, physical science and mathematical logic knowledge can not be passed on

in the form of ready-made. Each child must build their own knowledge-

knowledge. That knowledge must be constructed solely by children through

operations and one way to build is to equilibrasi operation.

Construction of Knowledge

Equilibrasi is the tendency to return to equilibrium (equilibrium). Equilibrium

Piaget not mean Homeostasis, or return to the previous state of equilibrium but is

a constructive process. Piaget distinguishes three kinds equilibrasi:

First, it can be seen in the construction of physical knowledge. Children

understand the fact to assimilate that fact into schemes klasifikatori and

put it in a reality series and by accommodating these schemes.

Second, look at the construction of mathematical logic.

Third, has the characteristic differentiation of schemes and its integration

into the whole (totality) knowledge.

Knowledge according to Piaget developed as a totality from the beginning. This

totality has a cohesive force.

In the Constructivist Teaching Model

The principle of the most common and most essential which can be derived

from Constructivism is that children gained a lot of knowledge outside of school

and education should pay attention to it and support this natural process.

Learning Cycle

We must accept the teaching not as a process in which the ideas of teachers

forwarded to the students but rather as a process to transform ideas existing child

who may be "wrong". Learning cycle consists of three phases:

The first phase of exploration, during exploration students learn through

their own actions and reactions in a new situation. This phase provides the

opportunity for students to voice their ideas were contradictory and could

lead to debate and an analysis as to why they have such ideas. Exploration

also bring the students to the identification of a pattern of regularity in the

phenomenon investigated.

Secondly, the introduction of the concept, which typically begins by

introducing a concept or concepts that are related to the phenomenon

under investigation is then discussed in the context of what has been

observed during the exploration phase.

Third, applications, providing an opportunity for the students to use

concepts that have been introduced to investigate the properties of objects

further.

CHAPTER III

COVER

Conclusion

Theory Piaget decipher development Cognitive from baby to adult.

According to Piaget, intelligence can be viewed from three different

perspectives. Namely, Structure, Content, and Function

In line large, Piaget grouping stages development ko

gnitif child become four ie: sensory-motor stage, Per-operational phase, o

perational phase and formal operational stage.

According to Piaget every living organism tends to adapt and

organizations. In the process of adaptation and organization rerdapat four

basic concepts that scheme, assimilation, accommodation, and ekuilibrasi

Cognitive development has four aspects: maturity, experience, social

interaction, and equilibration

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