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Learning Theories. Skinner to Vygotsky. Behaviorism (Skinner, Thorndike). Based on the concept that all learning can be studied through observed behaviors. Stimulus-Response is key to learning. Stimulus: Events encountered in learning. Response: What happens in reaction to stimulus. - PowerPoint PPT Presentation
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Learning Theories
Skinner to Vygotsky
Behaviorism (Skinner, Thorndike)
Based on the concept that all learning can be studied through observed behaviors.
Stimulus-Response is key to learning.– Stimulus: Events encountered in learning.– Response: What happens in reaction to
stimulus.– Reinforcement: Appropriate S-R interaction is
rewarded, inappropriate S-R interaction is punished.
Behaviorism (Skinner, Thorndike)
Readiness: A series of S-R can be connected if geared towards a larger goal.
Practice: S-R events should take small, repeated steps to allow for reinforcement.
Gestalt Theory (Wertheimer)
The “Ah-ha” theory. Higher order thinking skills.– “Groupings” based on characteristics are key.– Learning takes place through the discovery of
the relationship between elements.– Gaps in groupings leads to exploring
possibilities.
Progressivism (Dewey)
Education is a lifetime event. It should not be viewed as a preparation for life.– Schooling should be related to the life of the
student.– Students should explore problem resolution
situations (projects). Subject matter should be presented to help resolve problem.
– The relationships in the classroom should be of working together to complete projects.
Genetic Epistemology (Piaget)
Cognitive structure (mind and intelligence) pass through biological developmental stages.– Sensorimotor (0-2 years): Motor actions– Preoperation (3-7): Intuitive, reactional– Concrete operational (8-11): logical with
concrete referents. – Formal operations (12-15): Movement to
abstractions
Genetic Epistemology (Piaget)
Cognitive structures change through adaptation:– Assimilation: interpretations of events through
present cognitive structures– Accommodation: change to cognitive structure
to explain environment.
Constructivism (Bruner)
Learning is an active process through which the learner connects new information to previously learned information.– Discovery based– Connect to students’ interests– Spiral based structure to teaching (provides
students the opportunity to add to schema)
Social Development (Vygotsky)
Learning take place through social interaction.Learning progresses through stages that expose
students to knowledge just beyond present state. (ZPD)– Requires assistance from someone more advanced in
this area.Students use socially constructed tools (language,
gestures, etc.) to negotiate meaning.
LANGUAGE www.ucalgary.ca/~mueller/P365/language.ppt
Language is fundamental to thinking and cognition, even isomorphic with cognitive processes in North American psychology
Explanations of language learning
Psycho-linguists, e.g., Chomsky– “Language Acquisition Device” innate– “preparedness”?
Psychologists, e.g., Skinner– Reinforcement
• Sudden? Full strength? Creative?– Pavlov’s “second signal system”
Cognitive science
Linguistic relativism?
Sapir - Whorf hypothesis:Language habits predispose
interpretation;“cold” means differently in Calgary compared to
Cancun?
Post-modernism …. Can anyone understand anyone else?
Linguistic universality?
For example, color words actually do not proliferate without number, just about a dozen common ones across cultures
“Eskimos” do not have hundreds of words for “snow”
Gender differences?
Men: language is for– Negotiation– Preserving independence– Avoiding failure
Women: language is for– Establishing connections– Establishing support & confirmation– reaching consensus
Linguistic “Determinism” -- not
Linguistic “relativism” does not imply “determinism” -- can differences in thinking overcome any absent words (thoughts and language not one and same)
Even relativism overstated, e.g., note the “cooperative principle” (Grice) -- presumed to be seeking mutual understanding (but also Verbal Self Defense! http://www.worldvsdleague.com/)
How is language acquired?
Innate processes? Experience, learning? Something else? Several things?
Theories of Second Language Acquisition (SLA)
Adapted from Ellis, R. (1986) “Understanding Second Language Acquisition
Acculturation Model (J. Schumann)
SLA is one aspect of acculturationThe degree of acculturation will control the
degree of SLA– Social distance
• Factors which interact between the native and target groups.
– Psychological distance• Affective factors which impact on the individual
learner.
Good Learning L1 & L2 groups are of equal
status Both groups hope for learner to
assimilate in target group Both groups believe that L2
group shares social sphere Small, non-cohesive L2 group L2’s culture is compatible with
target group Both groups have positive
attitudes for other group L2 group will be in target
language for extended time period
Bad Learning One group has higher status
than other Target group attempt to
limit assimilation L2 group maintains own
social sphere Larger, cohesive L2 group Cultures come into conflict One or both groups have
negative feelings for other group
L2 use of target language is temporary
Social Distance
Psychological DistanceLanguage shock
– fear, doubt, and confusion when using target language
Culture shock– fear, stress, disorientation due to negotiating new
cultureMotivationEgo boundaries
– How much risk they are willing to take
Pidginization Hypothesis– Interlanguage development (the individual languages
developed by those in the early stages of SLA) becomes fossilized when social & psychological distances are great.
These distances limit inputThe use of language remains at the
communicative stage– Communicative function: transmission of referential
(basic) information– Integrative function: language that marks a person as
member of group– Expressive function: language that displays “linguistic
virtuosity”
Accommodation Theory (H. Giles)
Similar to Acculturation Theory in that both attempt to explain how group relations impact SLA– Acculturation: Actual distance between groups– Accommodation: Perceived distance between
groupsSocial distances are in constant negotiation
Motivation is primary factor in SLA– It is a reflex of how learners define themselves in
ethnic termsFactors that impact identity
– Identification with specific “ingroup” (native)– Inter-ethnic comparisons: One group is better than
other– Perception of ethno-linguistic vitality– Perception of ingroup boundaries: hard boundaries
(separation from other group), soft boundaries (blending of language and culture)
– Identification and status with ingroup social categories: occupation, religion, etc.
Ethnic speech markers are used to show relationships in particular settings– Upward Convergence: User is positively
motivated towards outgroup. Attempts to limit speech markers
– Downward divergence: User is negatively motivated towards outgroup, accentuates speech markers.
Variable Competence Model (R. Ellis)
The way a language is learned is a reflection of how it is used.– Product: continuum of discourse types ranging
from entirely planned to entirely unplanned– Process: Distinction between linguistic
knowledge (rules) and the ability to use this knowledge (appropriate use of language as well as correct use)
Language develops as user applies the knowledge of language to contextual situations– Variable competence: user possesses a
heterogeneous rule system– Variable application of procedures: user applies a
variety or procedures to confirm language knowledge
Language acquisition is the result of making sense of language events
– There is a single knowledge store containing the variable rules for language use (automatic & analyzed)
– The learner has a capacity for language use with both primary (unplanned & unanalyzed) and secondary (planned & analyzed) discourse processes
– L2 performance is variable based on use of the processes mentioned above
– Language development occurs:• acquisition of new L2 rules through participation
discourse events• activation of L2 rules so they become part of
unplanned discourse
Unplanned discourse
Planned discourseL2 Knowledge
analytic
auto
mat
ic
primary
processessecondary
processes
Acquisition Acquisition
Use Use
Variable Competence Model of SLA (R. Ellis)
MotivationMotivation affects level of language
acquisition– Integrative Motivation: occurs when person
learning a second language does so in order to be identified with or become part of target group.
– Instrumental Motivation: occurs when person learning second language see it as a tool for personal or professional progress.
Those with Integrative Motivation tend to acquire second language better.
Theories of Steve Krashen
Learning vs. Acquisition (1)
Second language is developed through formal study of structure
Language learned through formal instruction
Language learning occurs at conscious level
Second language follows a pattern similar to first language
Language is naturally acquired.
Language acquisition occurs at subconscious level
Learning vs. Acquisition (2)
Language learning develops explicit knowledge of language
Formal instruction of language structure needed to provide key information
Language acquisition develops implicit understanding of language structure
Formal teaching of language structure does not improve acquisition
Second language develops in a natural order
Efforts to teach forms and structures for which students are not ready will not improve acquisition– Grammar-based approaches do not work– Allow time to development to take place
Input Hypothesis
Language acquisition occurs through interaction just beyond present ability
Comprehensible input (I+1) occurs when contextual clues provide for language clues
Affective Filter
Input is effected by a variety of affective events.
Lowering stress increase probability of acquisition
Monitor Hypothesis
Grammar learning will appear through the use of a monitor
Monitor examines output
It takes time to develop
Language provides information.
Common Underlying Proficiency (CUP)– Contrary to popular
belief, information learned in one language is available in the second.
What this means:
Information provided in one language becomes available in the other, once second language development reaches that point.
Different types of language.
Basic Interpersonal Communication Skills (BICS)– Common, everyday
language needed to function socially.
Cognitive Academic Language Proficiency (CALP)– Language needed in
academic environment.
Different types of language.
Problems arise when BICS is considered academically proficient.– Students are moved out of programs without
needed support.– Students are judged as being intellectually
inferior, which can be internalized by the student.
Threshold Hypothesis
There is a dynamic relationship between languages and cognitive development in bilingual students.– The better developed both languages are the
better the probability of positive cognitive development
– Students with limited native language development are more likely to suffer negative cognitive development
Threshold Hypothesis
First Threshold
Second Threshold
Top Floor: Balanced BilingualsChildren have age-appropriate ability in both languages
and positive cognitive advantage.
Middle Floor: Less Balanced BilingualsChildren have age-appropriate ability in one language,
not both. No cognitive advantage or disadvantage.
Lower Floor: Limited BilingualsChildren have low levels of ability in both languages
and probable cognitive disadvantage.
Provide Instruction in a Demanding, yet Contextualized Format.