Learning ProcessesImplicit Theories, Goal

Orientations, and Perceived Competence

Vicki Jurist, Chris Lombardo, Aqiyl Henry

Research Question

How do implicit theories of intelligence, goal orientations, and perceived competence affect academic achievement?

Introduction

Prior studies have indicated that students’ beliefs about themselves and their academic competence affect classroom achievement.

Motivational Factors of Achievement Beliefs and Learning

Implicit theories of intelligence

Academic goal orientations

Perceived competence

Implicit Theories of Intelligence

Entity Theory

Intelligence is fixed, and cannot be changed.

Individual often avoids a difficult task in fear of looking incompetent.

Implicit Theories of Intelligence

Incremental Theory

Intelligence is malleable; can be increased and developed.

Individual increases effort as a task becomes more difficult.

Implicit Theories of Learning: Incremental or Entity

Goal Orientation/Achievement

Goals

Goal Orientation

Achievement Goals

Task goals

Performance-approach goals

Performance-avoidance goals

Task Goal

Directed towards acquiring new skills and improving knowledge

Leads to adaptive behaviors

Performance-approach Goal

Directed towards the demonstration of competence

Leads to maladaptive behaviors

Performance-avoidance Goal

Aimed at avoiding the demonstration of incompetence

Leads to maladaptive behaviors

Differential Effects

Performance

Approach

Goal

Performance

Avoidance

Goal

Perceived Competence

Motivational construct linked to implicit theories of intelligence and achievement goals

Confidence in ability adaptive behavior

(task & performance-approach)

Doubt in ability maladaptive behavior

(performance-avoidance)

Hypotheses

(A) task, performance-approach, and performance-avoidance scales will factor separately

(B) incremental theory will be positively correlated with task and performance-approach goal orientations and negatively with performance-avoidance goal orientation

Hypotheses

(C) incremental theory and approach goal orientations (task and performance-approach) would be positive predictors of academic achievement.

(D) perceived competence would moderate the relationship between implicit theories, goal orientations and academic achievement.

Methods

Methods

Participants:

451 students from Northern Greece

Middle class, white

10 – 13 years of age

Working class / middle class

89% from 1st marriage families

Methods

Instruments:Self-report measuring 4 items of implicit theory of intelligence

18 item inventory measuring three goal orientation

7 item subscale assessing students’ confidence in their own ability

Academic performance measures

Methods

Procedure:

Administered during class hours

Voluntary

Responses confidential to the study team

Independent and Dependent VariablesVariables

Dependent Independent

Academic Achievement Perceived Competence

Academic Achievement Gender

Academic Achievement School Level

Perceived Competence Task Orientation

Perceived Competence Performance-approach

Perceived Competence Performance-avoidance

Incremental Views Task Orientation

School Level Incremental Views

School Level Task Orientation

School Level Performance-avoidance

Task Orientation Performance-avoidance

Performance-avoidance Performance-approach

Task Orientation Performance-approach

Gender Performance-approach

School Level Performance-approach

Incremental Views Performance-approach

*p<.01

Independent and Dependent Variables

Inc

Task

PerformanceAvoidance

Performance Approach

Gender

School Level

PerceivedCompetence

AcademicAchievement

Results

Exploratory Factor Analysis

Exploratory Factor Analysis

Do determine if the 18 Item Inventory, which was tested in a specific cultural setting, could be externally valid, factor analysis was applied, using oblique rotation.

Factor Analysis

Factor analysis.

Used to validate a scale.

Used to select a subset of variables from a larger set.

Oblique Rotation

A category of rotation methods.

used to make the output of data more understandable.

Outliers

Extreme numbers in an array of numbers that don’t seem to fit with the body of numbers.

Factor Loadings

Factor loadings.

The minimum loadings used, .45.

Internal Consistency

Was determined by using Cronbach coefficient alpha.

Invented by professor Cronbach, to determine error.

Variable Correlations

Pearson Product-Moment Analysis and Maximum Likelihood method, were used to identify the correlation and causality among the variables.

Pearson Product-Moment Correlations

Incremental views were positively related to task orientation (.16), and performance-approach goals (.12). Perceived competence was positively correlated to task orientation (.30) and performance-approach (.25), and negatively correlated to performance-avoidance goals (-.18). Academic achievement was positively correlated with perceived competence (.52), task (.23), and performance-approach (.17) goals, (p.284).

Pearson Product-Moment Correlations

Pearson Product-Moment Correlations

1 2 3 4 5

1. Incremental views

2. Task Orientation .16*

3. Performance-approach .12* .27*

4. Performance-avoidance .04 .09 .24*

5. Perceived Competence .03 .30* .25* -.18

6. Academic achievement .09 .23* .17* -.09 .52*

P<.01

Maximum Likelihood Method

From correlations to causality.

Multiple indexes of fit were used in evaluating the fit of the model.

Variable CorrelationsMaximum Likelihood Method

Inc

Task

PerformanceAvoidance

Performance Approach

Gender

School Level

PerceivedCompetence

AcademicAchievement

-.15.11

.16

.27 .08

.25

-.33

-.18-.11-.27 .16

-.35

.24

.47-.26

.26

Variable CorrelationsVariables

Dependent Independent

Academic Achievement Perceived Competence .47*

Academic Achievement Gender .15*

Academic Achievement School Level -.36*

Perceived Competence Task Orientation .26*

Perceived Competence Performance-approach .24*

Perceived Competence Performance-avoidance -.26*

Incremental Views Task Orientation .16*

School Level Incremental Views -.15*

School Level Task Orientation -.33*

School Level Performance-avoidance -.18*

Task Orientation Performance-avoidance .08

Performance-avoidance Performance-approach .25*

Task Orientation Performance-approach .27*

Gender Performance-approach -.11*

School Level Performance-approach -.27*

Incremental Views Performance-approach .11*

*p<.01

Correlations- Goal Orientations

Task orientation was positively correlated with performance-approach goals, at .27.

Performance-approach and performance-avoidance were positively related at .24.

Goal Orientations and Academic Achievement

Perceived Competence mediated achievement goals effect on academic achievement.Task and performance-approach had a positive indirect effect on academic achievementPerformance-avoidance goal orientation had negative indirect effect on achievement.

Incremental Views,Gender, School Level and Academic Achievement

Incremental beliefs were positively correlated with task and performance goal orientation.

Gender had a direct positive effect on academic achievement.

School level had a direct negative effect on academic achievement.

Discussion

Purpose

Differing effects of performance-approach and performance-avoidance goals on academic achievement.

Identify relationships among variables.

Hypothesis 1

Task goal orientation, performance-approach and performance-avoidance scales will factor differently.

Hypothesis 1 - Results

Achievement goals did factor separately.

Existence of two independent dimensions of performance goals.

Possible for an individual to have a mixture of goals.

Achievement Goals and School Level

Elementary School students.

Middle school students.

Academic motivation and performance declines during early adolescence.

Incremental Views and School Level

Elementary students tended to adopt incremental views (intelligence is modifiable).

High School students tended to adopt an entity view ( intelligence is fixed).

Hypothesis 2

Incremental views will be positively correlated with task and performance-approach goals orientations and negatively with performance-avoidance goal orientation.

Hypothesis 2 - ResultsIncremental views/beliefs positively correlated with task goal orientation. P. 287. Middle of the 4th paragraph. (YES)No correlation between incremental views and performance-avoidance goals. (P. 287. Middle of the 4th paragraph.) This did not support hypothesized negative correlation. (YES)? -No correlation between incremental views and performance-approach goals. (P. 287. Middle of the 4th paragraph.) (This did not support hypothesized positive correlation).

Possible Contradiction

No association (correlation) between incremental views and the two performance goal orientations (p.287 discussion, 4th parargraph).

Incremental views were positively correlated with task and performance-approach goal orientations only (p.286, 2nd paragraph, last sentence).

Figure 1(p.285), identified .16* correlation coefficient between task Inc. & Task, and identified .11* correlation coefficient between Inc. & Perf. Approach.

Possible Contradiction

Seemed like incremental views of intelligence was only being given correlation to task goal orientation in the Discussion section, which contradicted the data of the Results section, to support “incremental beliefs were positively related to task orientation (Dweck, 1986) and the statement that “the implicit belief that ability is increasable seemed to orient individuals toward pursuing the learning goal of developing that ability further”( Gialamas & Leondari, p. 287).

Possible ContradictionThen it was later stated:

? - Implicit theories of intelligence are related to students’ achievement goals (only incremental views were tested) – contradicts earlier statement.

? - Achievement goals: task, performance-approach, and performance-avoidance goals, (p.279-280).

Hypothesis 3

Incremental theory and approach goal orientations (task and performance-approach) would be positive predictors of academic achievement.

Hypothesis 3 – Results

No relation (correlation) between Inc. and academic achievement ( did not support hypothesized positive correlation).

Did not support previous research.

Reason: Incremental views indirectly influence academic achievement through the adoption of a specific goal orientation

Task and performance-approach were indirect positive predictors of academic achievement.

Hypothesis 4

Perceived competence would moderate the relationship between implicit theories, goal orientations and academic achievement.

Hypothesis 4 - Results

Did support perceived competence as a moderating variable between the task orientation, performance-approach and performance-avoidance, and academic achievement.

Did not support perceived competence as a moderating variable between incremental views and academic achievement, as hypothesized. (There was no correlation between incremental views and academic achievement).

Theories of Intelligence

Using data indicating incremental views are positively correlated with task and performance-approach goals:

Theories of intelligence seem to predict a student’s goal orientation.

Incremental views orient individuals to either task or performance-approach goals.

Task Orientation

Presumed to result in behaviors conducive to long-term accomplishment and investment.Personal mastery.

Feeling of competence while engaged in achievement activities.

Performance-approach goals and Task Orientation

Results lead to the conclusion that performance-approach and task goal orientations facilitate academic achievement (supported by previous research).

Performance-approach goals and Task Orientation

Students need to pursue both task and performance goals if they are to succeed (Wentzel).

Students do not have one or the other goal orientation, but both at the same time.

ImplicationsClassroom environments influence the adoption and reinforcement of goal orientations.Environments marked by interpersonal competition and normative-based testing influence the adoption of either performance-approach or performance-avoidance goals.Environments that emphasize acquiring personal mastery and learning from one’s mistakes influence the adoption of task orientation, ex. Dr. Moran’s teaching environment.

Implications

Teachers’ can modify roles and instructional strategies to develop environments that encourage students to learn from mistakes, put more effort into learning, feel confident in academically challenging situations, and develop personal mastery.

Limitations

Longitudinal study needed, no casual links could be firmly established.

Domain specificity was a concern. Different domains (i.e. self-esteem, phys. appearance, social & athletic competence, cognitive ability) may effect theories of intelligence and goal orientations differently (adding confounding variable).

Reactions

Reactions

What kind of ideas did this article make you think about?

How social relationship goals influence achievement goals.

Development of classroom styles to foster task and performance-approach goals.

Understand and cultivate student’s goal orientations.

Reactions

Did you think this article was interesting? Was it well written?

The complexity of the article initially impeded clarity.

Professionally oriented.

Reactions

What do you think are the next steps?Address entity theory more adequately

Provide a more comprehensive discussion relating to task goals and incremental theory

Allow for domain specificity of implicit theories and goal orientation

Identify whether they recognized limits within their environment

Reactions

What do you think are the next steps?Address entity theory more adequately

Provide a more comprehensive discussion relating to task goals and incremental theory

Allow for domain specificity of implicit theories and goal orientation

Identify whether they recognized limits within their environment