Learning; From Association to Cognition

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Learning: From Associationto Cognition

David R. Shanks

Division of Psychology and Language Sciences, University College London,London WC1H 0AP United Kingdom; email: [email protected]

Annu. Rev. Psychol. 2010. 61:273–301

First published online as a Review in Advance onSeptember 15, 2009

The Annual Review of Psychology is online at

psych.annualreviews.org

This article’s doi:10.1146/annurev.psych.093008.100519

Copyright c 2010 by Annual Reviews. All rights reserved

0066-4308/10/0110-0273$20.00

Key Words

association, awareness, blocking, cognition, conditioning, inference,

reasoning

Abstract Since the very earliest experimental investigations of learning, tension

has existed between association-based and cognitive theories. Associationism accounts for the phenomena of both conditioning and “higher

forms of learning via concepts such as excitation, inhibition, and reinforcement, whereas cognitive theories assume that learning depend

on hypothesis testing, cognitive models, and propositional reasoning

Cognitive theories have received considerable impetus in regard to bothuman andanimal learning from recent research suggesting that the ke

illustration of cue selection in learning, blocking, often arises from inferential reasoning. At the same time, a dichotomous view that separate

noncognitive, unconscious(implicit) learning from cognitive, consciou(explicit) learning has gained favor. This review selectively describes ke

findings from this research, evaluates evidence for and against associative and cognitive explanatory constructs, and critically examines both

the dichotomous view of learning as well as the claim that learning canoccur unconsciously.

273



S-R: stimulus-response

Associationism: theassumption that learning can beunderstood in terms of the formation andexpression of excitatory or inhibitory associations, formed via reinforcement

Implicit learning:synonymous withunconscious learning. Also termed“procedural” incontrast to“declarative”(conscious) learning

Contents

INTRODUCTION .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274

ROLE OF COGNITIONIN LEARNING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275

Blocking: Associative Accounts . . . . . 276Blocking: Cognitive Accounts . . . . . . 277

Retrospective Revaluation . . . . . . . . . . 281Blocking: Memory for the

Blocked Cue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283

AWARENESS AND LEARNING . . . . 285Eyeblink Conditioning............. 285

Fear Conditioning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286Evaluative Conditioning. . . . . . . . . . . . 287

The Perruchet Effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289Sequence Learning. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290

Visual Search and ContextualCuing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292

CONCLUSIONS AND FUTUREDIRECTIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293

INTRODUCTION

It seems unlikely that any investigator would

carry out an Instructed Conditioning study

with a motor response since, in plain English,

this would consist of telling S to move his fin-

ger. However, common sense is not a good

guide when predicting the behavior of investi-

gators operating in an S-R framework. Exper-

iment 6 in Hunter (1938) consists of produc-

ing finger withdrawal conditioning by saying,

“Lift your finger,” or “Don’t lift your finger.”

If Ss didn’t make a finger withdrawal response

to “Liftyour finger,” theywere shocked. To in-

sure objectivity the commands were presented

by telephone. The Ss conditioned. (Brewer

1974, p. 14)

Brewer’s lampooning of studies conducted within the framework of stimulus-response

(S-R) behaviorism, on the grounds that they ignored the ubiquitous involvement of con-

scious thinking in learning and memory, willdoubtless make many modern researchers

reflect with amusement and relief on how farexperimental psychology has come since those

dark days. The present review takes Breweseminal re-evaluation of the relations

between learning and cognition as its start

point. One conclusion of Brewer’s assault wthe notion that processes of association form

tion and reinforcement are largely irrelevfor the understanding of human learni

Another conclusion was that learning invaably arises from the operation of consci

cognitive processes. This review reassesthese fundamental hypotheses about learn

in the light of contemporary research. Associationism has dominated the hist

of learning theory. This prominence originafrom the work in the early part of the past c

tury by Edward Thorndike, for whom an u

derstandingof the reinforcement processes tcause strengthening of S-R connections (e

the Laws of Effect and Exercise) was a cetral concern. Related to his associationist p

losophy, Thorndike also believed that learncould occur unconsciously or implicitly: he w

the pioneer of what we now know as the fiof implicit learning (Thorndike 1931). Beca

he viewed reinforcing events as being effethat automatically stamped in S-Rbonds, rat

than as providing information, Thorndike weager to show that rewards and punishme

can affect learning even when the individ

is unaware that such learning is taking plaand he conducted numerous studies (review

by Postman 1962) attempting to establish th Thus Thorndike combined two positions,

signing a key role to reinforcement procesin learning together with the claim that th

learning processes can proceed independenof awareness.

A very different view of learning can traced back to the Gestaltists (especially K ¨ oh

and Koffka) and field theorists (particula Tolman) who took an opposing position

the effect versus information issue. For theevents did not provide the opportunity

gradual trial-and-error learning, but rather

the context for the development of insight aproblem solving. Tolman in particular argu

that reinforcement is not a necessary conditfor learning; instead, cognitive relationsh

274 Shanks



(hypotheses or cognitive maps) are formed be-tween stimuli or events as a result of contiguity

and organizational principles (see the review

of learning by Melton 1950, in the very first Annual Review of Psychology). Debate between

S-R and field theories, and the importance of phenomena such as latent learning, dominated

much of experimental psychology up until thecognitive revolution (see Holland 2008).

By the time Brewer (1974) came to review the literature, it was abundantly plain that the

traditional S-R theory of conditioning, includ-ing core notions such as the automatic and

unconscious stamping in (i.e.,reinforcement) of associative links, was not appropriate for either

classical or operant (instrumental) condition-

ing, nor did it provide an adequate framework for such important applied problems as

understanding the development of phobias(Rachman 1977). Evidence that conditioning

of autonomic, motor, as well as more complexresponses only occurs in parallel with expectan-

cies and awareness convinced Brewer that allconditioning is the result of cognitive process-

ing, in particular of the formation and testingof conscious hypotheses. Although tension has

existed between associative and cognitive viewsof learning for a century, the topic has received

renewed attention in the past few years. The

considerable evidence that awareness necessar-ily accompanies learning has been challenged

recently as the study of implicit learning hasgained momentum. The present article reviews

some of the current evidence from this areaand asks whether Brewer’s position remains

the most viable interpretation: Is learningintrinsically a conscious process? On the other

hand, much recent research has retained thestrongly antiassociationist perspective, which

Brewer championed, regarding concepts likereinforcement as superfluous. Recent evidence

bearing on this issue is also reviewed.

In exploring the relationship betweenassociative and cognitive processing, this

article examines a fundamental theme that hasremained unresolved since the early days of

experimental psychology. Recent research is reviewed, mostly published since 2000, covering

Conditioning: inclassical or Pavlovianconditioning, aconditioned stimulu(CS; e.g., a tone)predicts an

unconditionedstimulus (US; e.g.,food or shock). As aresult of learning, thresponse normally evoked by the US(e.g., salivation orfreezing) or a similarresponse comes to bevoked by the CS

CS: conditionedstimulus

US: unconditionedstimulus

contributions from the areas of associative andcontingency learning, and implicit learning

and memory. A guiding question is whether our

explanatory scope for explaining the richnessof learning would be seriously curtailed if con-

cepts such as excitation and reinforcement wereabandoned. Plainly, it is not sufficient to reject

traditional S-R theory. Instead, cognitive the-ories that dispense with associative constructs

must be contrasted with those modern theoriesthat incorporate cognitive constructs such as

attention and awareness while also assigninga fundamental role to association formation.

Extraordinarily rich explanations of learningphenomena have been achieved by models built

out of automatic link machinery (i.e., connec-

tionist, neural network, or parallel distributedprocessing accounts) in which representations

are coded subsymbolically (McClelland &Rumelhart 1986, Rumelhart & McClelland

1986, Thomas & McClelland 2008). Suchmodels demonstrate massive “emergentism,”

in that processes that seem cognitive and highlevel emerge from the operations and inter-

actions of very elementary processing units. These processes yield knowledge structures

and states of activation which, when sufficiently strong and stable, constitute the contents of

consciousness (see Maia & Cleeremans 2005).

It is against this contemporary associationist framework that the present review compares

the alternative propositional-cognitive theory.

ROLE OF COGNITION IN LEARNING

Should we think of learning as the automatic

formation of a mental link or bond between acue (or CS) and an outcome (or US), or instead

as the acquisition of a propositional belief

representing the relationship between them?One counterintuitive but well-documented

empirical observation forcefully captures theparadox of learning and cognition. This is

the finding that verbal instructions seem tobe largely interchangeable with experienced

events. The mere instruction that a tone willbe followed by shock is sufficient to cause an

www.annualreviews.org • Learning 275



Blocking: thefundamentaldemonstration of cueselection in learning. When a pair of cues A and B predicts an

outcome, the degree of learning about the A-outcomerelationship is reduced(blocked) if B haspreviously on its ownpredicted that outcome

increase in skin conductance that is indistin-guishable from that obtained when the tone

is actually paired with shock (e.g., Cook &

Harris 1937, McNally 1981). In more recent research, Lovibond (2003) has shown that

this interchangeability extends to more subtledesigns including blocking (described below).

The paradox is that if true conditioning, withevents that are actually experienced, engages

(Brewer notwithstanding) an automatic andunconscious learning mechanism, then how

can verbal, cognitive, conscious instructionsmake contact with that mechanism? Contrary

to commonly held belief, we seem to be faced with the conclusion that conditioning in fact

gives rise to conscious, cognitive, propositional

representations rather than to automatic, un-conscious ones. This is precisely the position

adopted by many contemporary researchers(De Houwer 2009, Mitchell et al. 2009), in

which associative processes are jettisoned.In the past few years, the cognitive approach

(now commonly referred to as propositionalor inferential) has kindled renewed attention

and emphasis. To what extent, then, do cogni-tive processes penetrate learning? Should con-

structs such as reinforcement and excitationplay any role in our explanatory frameworks?

Blocking: Associative Accounts

The signature phenomenon of blocking

(Kamin 1969) has played a key role in the

history of learning theory and has been centin the debate between proponents of associat

and cognitive theories. Blocking is the fun

mental demonstration that learning about relationshipbetweentwoeventsdependson

just their frequency of pairing, but also on extent to which one provides information ab

the other. Consider the pairing of a cue andoutcome,orofaconditionedstimulus(CS)w

an unconditioned stimulus (US). When cueand B are paired together and predict an o

come, the extent to which learning accrues A is diminished if B has previously, in the

sence of A, been paired with the outcome ( Table 1). Thus blocking refers to a two-sta

designinwhichBisestablishedasareliablep

dictor of the outcome in stage 1 (denoted B with A and B occurring together and jointly p

dicting the outcome in stage 2 (denoted AB As a concrete example, laboratory studies w

human participants might describe a hypothical individual suffering from allergic reactio

to somefoods but not others. Onday 1 the in vidual eats tomatoes and suffers an allergic

action, and on day 2 she eats tomatoes togeth with pasta and again suffers a reaction. The p

ticipant’s task is to judge the extent to whpasta is associated with the reaction, and blo

ing refers to the fact that the initial tomato

allergy pairing will weaken the perceived pasallergy connection.

Standard associationist accounts of bloing rely on concepts such as excitati

Table 1 Experimental designs relating to blocking

Condition Pretraining Stage 1 Stage 2 Test Comment

Blocking B+ AB+ A B+ trials reduce responding to A at test

Blocking control AB+ A Responding to A at test is strong

Backward blocking AB+ B+ A B+ trials reduce responding to A at test

Subadditivity C+ /D+ /CD+ B+ AB+ A Pretraining reduces blocking (i.e., enhances

responding to A) Additivity C+ /D+ /CD++ B+ AB+ A Pretraining enhances blocking (i.e., reduces

responding to A)

Maximality + B+ AB+ A Pretraining reduces blocking (i.e., enhances

responding to A)

Submaximality ++ B+ AB+ A Pretraining enhances blocking (i.e., reduces

responding to A)

Note: A–D: cues or conditioned stimuli. + indicates occurrence of the outcome or unconditioned stimulus. ++ indicates an outcome of larger magnitu

276 Shanks



reinforcement, associability, and surprise(Dickinson 1980, Mackintosh 1983, Rescorla

& Wagner 1972). In the classic Rescorla-

Wagner theory, for instance, an excitatory association is assumed to form in stage 1

between B and the outcome, with the latterplaying the role of reinforcer. In stage 2,

the reinforcing power of the outcome isdiminished because its occurrence is no longer

surprising—it is predicted by the presence of cue B. Thus the outcome does not serve as a

reinforcer of the A-outcome association, andlittle learning accumulates to A. This theory,

whose history and influence is reviewed by Miller et al. (1995), has played such a central

role in recent learning theory that it has in

effect acted as the departure point for almost all subsequent theories. Its influence arose in

considerable part from its ability to explain theblocking effect Kamin discovered.

Although subject to numerous theoreticalsubtleties (Mackintosh 1975, Pearce & Hall

1980), this explanatory framework is supportedby a wealth of evidence (Mackintosh 1983), in-

cluding such diverse findings as that learning isretarded for a blocked cue that is subsequently

paired with an entirely new outcome (LePelley et al. 2007), that blocking occurs in or-

ganisms not generally assumed to be endowed

with cognitive capacities (including the marinemollusc Hermissenda; Rogers & Matzel 1996),

and that the dopamine system in the brain ap-pears to provide a reinforcing mechanism with

just the required formal properties (Fletcheret al. 2001, Waelti et al. 2001). Although the

modern associationist perspective differs in nu-merous ways from the classic S-R theories of

Tolman, Guthrie, Hull, and others, in its fun-damental form it incorporates many of the con-

cepts Brewer was so determined to reject (for areview of the intellectual transition from early

to contemporary learning theories, see Mowrer

& Klein 2001).It is also important to note that associa-

tive models of learning have often inaccurately been described as assuming automatic trans-

fer of activation from the CS representation tothe US representation. In reality, modern asso-

ciative theories have placed great emphasis onattentional, controlled processing and related

concepts such as limited-capacity workingmemory (Mackintosh 1975, Pearce & Hall

1980,Wagner1981),andtheroleofattentionin

human as well as animal conditioning has beenrecognized for many years (Dawson & Schell

1982). The important question, of course, is whether cognitive concepts such as these, and

the evidence for their role, ultimately requireabandoning the associationist perspective.

Blocking: Cognitive Accounts

Waldmann & Holyoak (1990, 1992) were the

instigators of the cognitive challenge to the as-

sociationist account of blocking. Their key ob-servation was that associations have no seman-

tic properties, whereas human learning seemsto be highly sensitive to such properties. For

instance, on the associationist theory, it shouldnot matter whether cues and outcomes are de-

scribed as causes and effects, respectively, oras effects and causes. Imagine an experimen-

tal task in which the participant is shown in-formation about substances in the blood of a

hypothetical patient together with informationabout whether the patient is suffering from a

target disease. From an associative perspective,

the task involves learning connections betweenthe substance (cue or CS) and the disease (out-

come or US). However, the substance could bedescribed as a cause of or as an effect of the dis-

ease, and Waldmann & Holyoak (1990, 1992)showed that from a rational perspective these

interpretations can have radically different im-plications. Indeed, they argued that blocking

would only be expected in a cause-effect sce-nario and not in an effect-cause scenario, and

they presented experimental evidence consis-tent with this prediction.

Later research has confirmed that the inter-

pretation of events, over and above their simplepairing, can substantially modulate blocking,

but this research has also shown that learningis sometimes quite immune to the way events

are described (e.g., Cobos et al. 2002, L ´ opezet al. 2005, Waldmann 2000). For example,




L ´ opez et al. (2005) presented participants witha simulated device in which switches and lights

on one side of a box were connected to lights

on the other side of the box. Participants ei-ther saw trials in which the cue played the role

of a cause and the outcome the role of an ef-fect, or vice versa. The main finding was that

this causal interpretation had no effect except in conditions where L ´ opez et al. (2005) went to

extreme lengths to emphasize the causal natureof the task to participants. Thus there do seem

to be conditions in which the associationist the-ory provides an appropriate account of partici-

pants’ behavior, although we aresome wayfroma full understanding of the boundary conditions

for such an account.

In related work, Matute and her colleagues(Matute et al. 2002, Vadillo et al. 2005) have ex-

tensively studiedaspects of theprecise formatof questions probing associative knowledge. Sup-

pose participants observe trials in which vari-ous medicines are related to allergic reactions.

Probe questions might ask to what extent amedicine causes the allergic reaction, the extent

to which it predicts or indicates the reaction,or the extent to which medicine and allergy

co-occur. Contrary to the simple idea that asingle associative connection underlies all such

judgments, these studies reveal qualitative dif-

ferences between different judgment questions.For example, Vadillo et al. (2005) found that

causal and prediction judgments could be dis-sociated. Yet as Vadillo et al. themselvesnoted, a

slightly more subtle associative account wouldhave no difficulty accounting for this finding.

Such an account would assume that causal judg-ments are assessed by simply probing the asso-

ciative strength of the target cue on its own, while prediction judgments are based on the

combined associative strength of the target cueplus the context.

Recall that the essence of associative ap-

proaches is that they assume that presentationof a cue calls to mind (given sufficient atten-

tional resources and so on) the outcome with which it was associated. Now consider a situ-

ation in which a cue competition effect suchas blocking occurs (B+ in stage 1 followed by

AB+ in stage 2). It has been known for ma years (Dickinson et al. 1984) that associative

causal judgments for A will be low in compison to a control condition in which the ini

B+ trials are omitted (see Table 1). But stud

have also shown that judgments of the probility of the outcome given cue A will manif

a blocking-like effect (De Houwer et al. 20Lagnado & Shanks 2002, L ´ opez et al. 19

Price & Yates 1993). This is a striking resbecause the probability of the outcome giv

cue A, P (O/A), is unaffected by whether or nB+ trials are presented in stage 1. Associat

theories explain this effect by proposing t A’s associative weight, which is reduced in

blocking condition, is part of the evidence usto make a probability judgment. Even thou

the probabilities are objectively the same in two conditions, the cue much more stron

makes us think of the outcome in the cont

than in the blocking condition, and this mtal activation unavoidably biases our probabi

judgment. Explaining the bias in terms of infentialprocesses appears difficult. Similar effe

emerge in terms of memory for the relatioship between a blocked cue and its associa

outcome (discussed below).De Houwer et al. (2002) took a differe

approach to explore cognitive influencesblocking. They proposed that blocking ari

from a chain of reasoning from the prem“the outcome is as probable and intense afte

as after AB” to the conclusion “therefore A

not a cause of the outcome.” They also nothowever, that such an inference is valid only

the effect is not occurring at its maximal psible level. The inference only follows if th

is room for the outcome to occur with greaprobability or intensity. To test this analy

they described the outcome in a blockdesign as occurring with an intensity of

on a scale from 0–10 (maximal condition). Houwer et al. (2002) speculated that if block

arises as a result of reasoning, rather than frassociative processes, then their participa

should be unsure about the status of the block

cue A under these conditions. In stage 1 thlearned that cue B predicted the outcome, a

278 Shanks



then in stage 2 they observed A and B occur-ring together with the same outcome. Such

information is insufficient to distinguish

between A having no relationship with theoutcome versus it having a strong relationship

that is masked by a ceiling effect. If B is already causing the outcome with maximal intensity,

then A cannot increase or alter that outcome,evenifitdoeshaveacausalrelationshipwiththe

outcome. De Houwer et al. (2002) contrastedthe maximal condition with a submaximal one

in which the same events were presented, but the outcome was always described as occurring

with intensity 10/20. Hence, in this case thefailure of A to change the magnitude of the

outcome in stage 2 is significant, as it could

have done so: The outcome still has roomto increase in magnitude, but did not do so.

Consistent with this analysis, De Houwer et al.(2002) observed much stronger blocking in

the submaximal condition and argued that this finding is fundamentally inconsistent with

associative theories of blocking.In a related modification to the standard

blocking design (see Table 1), a number of au-thors (Beckers et al. 2005, Lovibond et al. 2003,

Mitchell & Lovibond 2002) have given theirparticipants pre-exposure designed to confirm

or contradict the idea that cues have additive

causal value. If participants believe cues are ad-ditive, then the failure of cue B to cause an

increase in the outcome’s magnitude indicatesthat it is ineffective, andblocking shouldbe sub-

stantial. However, if they believe that cues aresubadditive (i.e., that two cues, each of which

causes an outcome with magnitude M, do not produce an outcome of magnitude 2M when

paired together), then the failure of B to in-crease the outcome’s magnitude is not evidence

that B lacks any causal power. In that event,blocking should be much weaker in the subad-

ditive condition, and this is the pattern com-

monly observed (Beckers et al. 2005, Lovibondet al. 2003, Mitchell & Lovibond 2002).

These maximality and additivity effects havebeen the subject of extensive further research

since their original discovery. For instance,Beckers et al. (2006) have reported additivity

Maximality:information (e.g.,20/20) implying thatan outcome isoccurring at its ceilinlevel. Contrast with

submaximality (e.g.,10/20)

Additivity: trials (eC+, D+, CD++, where ++ denotes ahigh-magnitudeoutcome) that implythat the predictive value of cues adds when they arecombined. Contrast with subadditivity (e.g., C+, D+, CD+

Inferential theory:assumes that cueselection effects arethe result of inferencfrom beliefs. Inblocking, for exampllittle weight is assignto the blocked cuebecause participantsassume cue additivitand reason that the cdoes not increase thmagnitude of the

outcome

effects in conventionalconditioning procedures with rats and concluded that similar inferential

reasoning processes and “remarkable cognitive

abilities” (p. 100) are employed. In their stud-ies, both subadditivity (C+, D+, CD+)andad-

ditivity (C+, D+, CD++, where ++ denotesa US with higher magnitude) pretraining in-

fluenced blocking, the former reducing it andthe latter enhancing it. Moreover, maximality

pretraining also had an influence: specifically,a pretreatment in which the animals received

unsignaled large magnitude (++) as well assmaller (+) shocks led to an enhancement of

blocking, consistent with the inference that theblocked cue could have, but did not, increase

the magnitude of the US and therefore must

have been an ineffective cue. Are these findings inconsistent with associ-

ationist accounts, as has often been claimed?Perhaps thepresence of the effects in laboratory

rats should lead us to look particularly carefully for simpler explanations. And indeed there is a

strong counterargument that additivity effectsmight have a rather different basis, at least in

some circumstances. Wheeler et al. (2008) re-ported an additivity pretraining effect, namely

that subadditivity pretraining attenuated block-ing. Specifically, they presented rats in a fear-

conditioning preparation with trials in which

C, D, and the compound CD all signaled theUS (C+, D+, CD+), thus providing informa-

tion that the causal consequences of combin-ing cues were not additive. Then in the main

training stage the rats received B+ followed by AB+ trials in a typical blocking arrangement

prior to an assessment of conditioned respond-ing to the target CS A. Wheeler et al. (2008)

found that the subadditivity pretreatment sub-stantially weakened the blocking effect—that

is, enhanced learning about A—consistent withthe inferential theory. The subadditive trials in-

dicate that the outcome of the combination of

two reliable cues is not additive, and hence inthe main stage of the experiment the animals

might have reasoned that A was a perfectly validpredictor of the US, despite not increasing the

US’s magnitude. Yet Wheeler et al. (2008) went on to show that their subadditivity pretreatment




was sensitive to a number of manipulationstypically found to impair generalization. For

example, a change of context from the pretreat-

ment to the blocking phase reduced the impact ofthesubadditivitytrials.Thissuggeststhepos-

sibility that the effect emerges not because of controlled inference, but rather because the

pretreatment allows the formation of some as-sociative structures that generalize (or fail to

generalize under a context switch) to the block-ing phase.

The nature of this putative generalizationmechanism has been explored by Haselgrove

(2009). One common way of building gen-eralization into associative theories is to as-

sume that stimuli are composed of multiple el-

ements and that some of these elements may be shared between nominally distinct stimuli.

Consider the additivity design employed by Beckers et al. (2006) and Wheeler et al. (2008)

in which blocking of A after B+ and AB+ trialsis attenuated if subadditivity is demonstrated in

a previous learning phase with C+, D+, andCD+ trials. Haselgrove (2009) noted that most

of the stimuli used in these experiments camefrom the same modality (auditory) and sug-

gested that this might enhance generalizationbetween them. To model this, Haselgrove con-

ducted a simple simulation of this experimen-

tal design using the Rescorla-Wagner theory,but assuming that one additional element or

cue was present on every trial. Surprisingly, thissimple model reproduced the key finding that

the pretreatment stage reduced blocking, andthe reason for this was that the common ele-

ment accrued asymptotic associative strength inthe pretreatment stage, such that when A was

presented in the blocking test (with the com-monelementassumedalsotobepresent),ahigh

level of responding was predicted. Haselgrove(2009) also showed that the model predicted

the contrasting effect of an enhancement of

blocking after additivity pretraining (i.e., C+,D+, CD++), as observed by Beckers et al.

(2006), as well as after submaximality pretrain-ing, and concluded that the inferential basis for

the additivity effect, at least in rats, is far fromproven.

Schmajuk & Larrauri (2008) also testeconnectionist model with the events of a typ

additivity design. In their model, associatconnections are updated by a reinforcem

process, and the connections have no sy

bolic reference. Although different frHaselgrove’s (2009) model in some import

respects, it also reproduced the additiveffect. Schmajuk & Larrauri (2008) conclu

that it is not necessary to interpret additiveffects in terms of propositional reasoning.

Another line of research has considered possibility that maximality and additivity effe

have their influence not via changing hypothses and reasoning about cue combinations b

ratherby inducing shifts between elemental aconfigural processing. There is now a consid

able body of evidence suggesting that organis(both human and nonhuman) can repres

stimuli in rather flexible ways (Melchers et

2008). In particular, the same nominal stimucan be coded either as an irreducible config

ration or as the sum of a set of elements. Finstance, in a human Pavlovian conditioni

study by Melchers et al. (2004a), participainitially saw either a feature-neutral discri

ination or a matched control discriminati The control discrimination (A +, AB+, C

CB−) afforded an elemental solution: Corrresponses are made on all trials if theparticip

learns a strong positive association between A and the US, with all other cues having assoc

tive weights of zero, and assuming additivity

cue weights. Despite being almost identical,feature-neutral discrimination (A −, AB+, C

CB−) cannot be solved this way; there is no of weights for the individual elements that yi

correct responses across all trial types. Henthis problem requires a more complex soluti

such as the formation of configural representions in which AB and CD are represented

distinct from the sum of their constituent pa To test the hypothesis that participants

deed solved these discriminations in qualitively different ways, Melchers et al. (200

next gave both groups a new discriminati

(EX+, FX−, followed by test trials withand F) and found very different behavior a

280 Shanks



function of the initial problem. Specifically,greater responding to E than to F was evident

in the group pretrained on the control discrim-

ination but not in the one pretrained on thefeature-neutral one. Such a pattern is consis-

tent with the hypothesis that the group trainedon the control discrimination transferred an el-

emental strategy to the new problem, broke theEX and FX compounds into elements, and as-

signed a positive weight to E and weights of zero to F and X, whereas the group trained on

the feature-neutral discrimination transferreda configural strategy in which compounds and

elements are treated as independent.Building on this idea, Livesey & Boakes

(2004; see also Williams et al. 1994) reported

that a range of manipulations thought to en-hance elemental processing increased blocking

(in much the same way as additivity instruc-tions), whereas manipulations assumed to en-

hanceconfigural processing decreased blocking(as with subadditivity instructions). Strikingly,

by presenting the cues in a configural manner,Livesey & Boakes (2004) were able to elimi-

nate blocking even when an additivity pretreat-mentstagewasprovided.Sucharesultraisesthe

strong possibility that maximality and additiv-ity effects have some of their influence via shift-

ing the balance between elemental and config-

ural processing. However, whether this account can explain all of the relevant results is unclear.

Beckers et al. (2005) found, for example, that additivity information affected blocking even

when it was presented after the target trials, anoutcome difficult to reconcile with the idea that

the locus of additivity effects resides solely intheir influence on the way the blocking stimuli

are coded. Lastly, a subtractivity pretreatment employed by Mitchell et al. (2005b) affected

blocking in the way predicted by a reasoningaccount.

Retrospective Revaluation

Cognitive interpretations have also been of-fered for the phenomenon of backward block-

ing (Dickinson & Burke 1996, Shanks 1985, Van Hamme & Wasserman 1994) and other

Retrospectiverevaluation: indirechange in a cue’sassociative strengthresulting from laterinformation. An

example is backwardblocking (when B+trials follow AB+ onthey cause a reductioin responding to A)

examples of retrospective revaluation. In abackward blocking design ( Table 1), trials in

which A and B are paired with the outcome pre-

cede B-outcome trials. According to traditionaltheories (Rescorla & Wagner 1972), blocking

(reduced judgmentsof therelationship between A and the outcome) should not occur under

such circumstances; yet numerous studies haveconfirmed that it does. The inferential expla-

nation is that individuals reason just as they doin forward blocking. B and AB predict the same

outcome, thus they conclude that A is not anindependent cause.

But once again the main findings are not incompatible with associationism. In an elegant

analysis, for instance, Ghirlanda (2005) showed

that a range of retrospective effects includingbackward blocking are in fact entirely compati-

ble with the Rescorla-Wagner theory, provideda suitable scheme for stimulus representation

is employed. Traditional applications of thetheory simply assume that each stimulus is rep-

resented by a single unit or node in a network.Under such circumstances, it is true that back-

ward blocking cannot be predicted. However,Ghirlanda (2005) showed that this conclusion

does not hold when each cue is instead rep-resented via a pattern of activity distributed

over a large number of units. Ghirlanda

(2005) reported simulations in which arrays of 50 units coded each elemental stimulus, yield-

ing backward blocking (reduction of judgmentsfor A after AB+, B+ training) as well as its con-

verse, unovershadowing (increase in judgmentsfor A after AB+, B− training) and backward

conditioned inhibition (negative judgmentsfor A after AB−, B+ training). A key element

of distributed coding schemes is that they allow distinct cues to activate overlapping sets

of elements, thus capturing the fundamentalprinciple of stimulus generalization. Kruschke

(2008) has reported similar theoretical de-

velopments for dealing with retrospectiverevaluation, but in the context of models

driven by Bayesian considerations. Kruschkeassumes that knowledge is not captured by a

single strength of association, but instead by adistribution of degrees of belief over a range of




hypotheses, with these beliefs being optimally adjusted in response to learning feedback.

Another prominent development is

Dickinson & Burke’s (1996) proposal that theformation of a within-compound association

between cues A and B in a backward blockingdesign plays a key role in the retrospection

effect. In the first stage, these cues are com-bined and jointly predict the outcome (AB+).

It is assumed that participants not only learnassociations between each of the cues and the

outcome, but also between the cues themselves.In the second stage, B is presented in isolation

and predicts the outcome (B+). Dickinson& Burke’s (1996) revised associative theory

proposes that B activates the representation of

A in the second stage via the within-compoundassociation formed in the first stage. While

the physically presented cue, B, undergoes anormal increment in associative strength when

the outcome is presented, the associatively ac-tivated representation of A undergoes a change

of the opposite polarity. Hence the B+ trialslead to a reduction in A’s associative strength.

Learning is governed by associative processesand by reinforcement as conceptualized in the

traditional theory. Melchers et al. (2004b) proposed an alterna-

tive account based more on memory retrieval

processes than on associative activation. Onthis account, participants access trial types from

memoryandreplaythemmentally[asimilarno-tion is central to McClelland et al.’s (1995) con-

nectionist theory of the relationship betweenthe hippocampal and neocortical memory sys-

tems]. Hence AB+ trials are recalled and re-hearsed during stage two when B+ trials are

observed. If such replayed trials function muchlike experienced trials, then backward block-

ing would emerge as a simple result of the on-going adjustment of associative strengths and

would not be the product of true reasoning.

The concepts of within-compound associations(Dickinson & Burke 1996) and memory-based

rehearsal (Melchers et al. 2004b) are obviously closely related.

These associative accounts are supportedby a range of evidence. Aitken et al. (2001)

reported that retrospective changes are relato the strength of the critical within-compou

association. In another set of tests, Melchet al. (2004b, 2006; see also Vandorpe et

2007) found that the magnitude of the r

rospective change was related to participanmemory for the trial pairings and proposed t

it is only if the AB pairing can be recalled thdownward adjustments in A’s strength can

induced. Importantly, Melchers et al. (2002006) and Vandorpe et al. (2007) also fou

that there was no corresponding correlationtween forward blocking and participants’ me

ory for the compound trials. This is as expecby standard associative theories, because f

ward blocking (B+ followed by AB+) is drivsimply by competition between A and B on t

AB trials. Any association between A and Birrelevant for such competition.

As noted by Mitchell et al. (2005a) a

Vandorpe et al. (2007), however, these retspective revaluation effects are also consist

with cognitive accounts. Having observed Atrials, participants can infer that A has so

predictive value, but when they subsequenobserve B+ trials, they should now alter th

conclusion because they have informatindicating that A adds nothing beyond wha

signals. Such a chain of inference assigns an iportant role to memory in that the adjustm

of belief about A requires recollection of thepairing. On the other hand, forward blocki

is not expected to be similarly dependent

memory. In this case (B+ followed by ABindividuals can infer during the AB trials t

A is nonpredictive so long as they rememthe B+ trials, and there is no necessity

memory of the conjunction of A and B. Henthe asymmetry observed by Melchers et

(2004b, 2006) and Vandorpe et al. (200 where backward but not forward block

correlates with memory for the cue compouis compatible with a cognitive account.

Indeed, Mitchell et al. (2005a) andVandoet al. (2007) have argued that the patterns

behavior in the retrospective case are better

plained by inference than by associative mecanisms. In an ingenious experiment, Mitch

282 Shanks



et al. (2005a) succeeded in reversing thenormal backward blocking effect such that B+trials presented subsequent to AB+ ones actu-

ally caused an increase rather than a decreasein ratings for cue A. They achieved this re-

sult by employing a method akin to the ad-ditivity manipulation described previously, in

which they pretrained participants to believethat compoundspredictive of theoutcome must

be composed of elements with equivalent pre-dictive values. Mitchell et al. (2005a) thus con-

cluded that their participants solved the task viadeliberate inference, akin to that observed in

other rule-learning designs (Shanks & Darby 1998). Associative approaches might seek to ex-

plain this result in terms of a shift between ele-

mental and configural processing. The reversalof blocking observed by Mitchell et al. (2005a)

is consistent with configural-based associativetheory, assuming there was some generalization

between the A and B cues. An even more striking empirical example of

backward blocking is the second-order effect reported by De Houwer & Beckers (2002a,b;

Melchers et al. 2004b). In their three-stage pro-cedure, participants first saw cues AB paired

with the outcome (AB+) and then were showntrials in which cues AC were paired with the

outcome (AC+). Finally, trials were presented

in which B occurred either with or without the outcome (B+ or B−). To give a concrete

illustration, imagine that the foods avocadoand banana cause an allergic reaction and that,

subsequently, avocado and cheese also causethe allergy. Finally, banana in isolation either

causes or does not cause the allergy. Consider aparticipant for whom B was paired with the out-

come in the final stage. On a cognitive reason-ing account, such a participant might be ex-

pected to infer that since B is a good predic-tor, then A must be a poor predictor: This is

a standard backward blocking effect. However,

the participant might go on to infer that if A isa poor predictor, then C is a good one. Thus,

even though B is never paired with C, the finalstage trials (B+ or B−) might alter the attri-

bution of predictive significance to C, and thisis exactly the result observed by De Houwer

& Beckers (2002a,b). The occurrence of theallergy in the presence of banana (B+) led to

a concomitant increase in the judged relation-ship between cheese (C) and the allergy, while

conversely its nonoccurrence led to a decrease.

Although it is true that such a result might sig-nal the importance of reasoning in blocking-

like designs, Melchers et al. (2004b) found that the magnitude of the retrospective change in

second-order blocking was again related to par-ticipants’ memory for the trial pairings and ar-

gued that the data were therefore compatible with an alternative account based on associa-

tive reinforcement combined with rehearsal of previous trial types.

Blocking: Memory for theBlocked Cue

The role of memory in cue learning has been

central to the evaluation of another predictionthat distinguishes associative and cognitive

models. As noted above, the classic associativeanalysis of blocking (B+ trials followed by AB+trials) proposes that the accumulation of asso-ciative strength by B in the first stage endows it

with the capacity to compete more effectively with cue A in the compound stage. This com-

petition can arise because the outcome, being

unsurprising, is not processed (Rescorla & Wagner 1972) or because cue A is only

weakly attended to and hence not processed(Mackintosh 1975, Pearce & Hall 1980). Ei-

ther way, the consequence of these processingfailures is that only a very weak association (if

any) is formed between cue A and the outcome,resulting in low judgments of the A-outcome

association. A clear prediction from such ananalysis is that there should be a further man-

ifestation of blocking, namely poor memory for the outcome paired with A. Thus not only

should participants judge the association to be

weak, but they also should find it hard to recallthat the outcome co-occurred with A because

that cue will fail to activate the outcomerepresentation associatively. The opposite

prediction, however, follows from inferentialaccounts. Indeed, these must assume that the




A-outcome relationship is strongly recalled.Participants are assumed to reason roughly as

follows: “If A predicts the outcome, then the ef-

fect of AB would have been greater than that of B alone. B and AB predicted the same outcome,

thus A is not predictive.” Intrinsic to this chainof inference is that participants must remember

that AB predicted the outcome, which is to say they must code the fact that A (in conjunction

with B) was paired with the outcome. This hypothesis has been tested in recent

experiments. Mitchell et al. (2006) devised ablocking task with many different foods as the

cues and with allergies as the outcomes, suchthat recall could be tested. In addition to re-

vealing blocking on judgments, the results were

clear in showing that recall of the outcome as-sociated with cue A was poor in comparison

with appropriate control cues. This pattern isexactly as predicted by the associative account.

A further important aspect of Mitchell et al.’s(2006) experiments was that these results were

obtained in a task in which subadditivity pre-training was employed. Recall that such pre-

training ought to eliminate or at least reduceblocking. In providing evidence that the out-

come is no larger following a compound of predictive cues than with the cues in isolation,

subadditivity pretraining leaves the predictive

status of B ambiguous. The fact that forwardblocking (on both predictive judgments and re-

call measures) was observed thus seems to offerstrong support for the associative analysis and is

difficult to reconcile with inferential accounts,although other data involving more complex

designs have favored the latter (Mitchell et al.2005c, 2007).

Scully & Mitchell (2008) conducted a sim-pler test of cue memory in the context of ex-

tinction rather than blocking. After pairing acue with an outcome (A +), the cue was then

extinguished (A −). In a subsequent test, ratings

of the A-outcome relationship were reduced asa result of the extinction phase. More impor-

tantly, cued recall of the outcome paired with A in the first stage was significantly impaired in

comparison to a nonextinguished control cue.Such a result is again problematic for inferential

accounts. The basic extinction result (on cotingency judgments) can be explained very e

ily by assuming that participants compute someasure of the statistical contingency betwe

the cue and the outcome. For example, an

ferential account might incorporate rules baon the metric P [defined as the difference

tween the probability of the outcome given cue, P (O/C), and the probability of the o

come in the absence of the cue, P (O/ ∼C which would yield a lower measure for an

tinguished cue compared to a control cue bcause the extinction (A −) trials reduce P (O/

(For discussion of the possible psychologicalality of these and similar rules, see Cheng 19

Cheng & Holyoak 1995; Perales & Shan2007, 2008). However, such an account p

vides no reason to anticipate poor memory the initial A + pairings. Indeed, to the ext

that the calculation of P (O/C) requires a reco

of the history of trial outcomes, good recolltion of the pairings would seem to be necessa

Of course, inferential accounts could be suppmented with additional processes to accomm

date memory failure, but these processes wouhave to include precisely the sorts of interf

ence mechanisms that associative theory has voted much effort to developing (Bouton 199

Whereas the Mitchell et al. (2006) study scribed above assessed memory for the exten

which a blocked cue can prompt recall of its sociated outcome, other research has asked

related question of whether a weakened me

ory representation is formed for the blockcue itself. It was noted above that some (but n

all) associative analyses assume that blockarises from a failure adequately to process

blocked cue (Mackintosh 1975, Pearce & H1980). Griffiths & Mitchell (2008) devised

ingenious modification of a blocking task agusing foods as the cues and allergies as the o

come, but added the feature that categoriesfoods (e.g., fruits) played the role of cues A a

B in a blocking design. These categories wcomposed of instances (e.g., apples, banan

such that each actual instance only appea

once in the training stage. At test, new aold instances from the critical categories w

284 Shanks



presented, and participants rated the likelihoodof each instance causing the food allergy, as well

as making a conventional old/new recognition

memory judgment. Blocking of predictiveratings was, as usual, observed. Griffiths &

Mitchell’s (2008) most striking finding, how-ever, was that recognition of the instances of the

blocked category was significantly poorer thanthat of appropriate control cues, consistent

with associative theories that attribute blockingto a reduction in attention to and processing

of the blocked cue. In sum, then, these studiesexamining memory in the context of blocking

designs provide quite strong support for the involvement of associative processes. As Griffiths

& Mitchell (2008) also note, their procedure

provides a novel bridge between studies of as-sociative learning and research on recognition

and other forms of memory, and hence opensup several promising avenues for further work.

This draws to a close the review of recent studies guided by cognitive or inferential views

of learning. There is no doubt that this researchhas considerably enriched our understanding

of basic learning processes in both humans andanimals. An extensive body of evidence can be

marshaled in support of the radical claim that associative processes play no role in learning.

However, although manipulations designed to

alter individuals’ beliefs have certainly beenshown to influence behavior, it remains possible

that the locus of some or all such manipulationsis in their effects on associative rather than

inferential processes. Associative theory has,over the decades, often succeeded in explaining

phenomena initially thought to be beyondits bounds, and there are solid reasons to

believe that the same may apply to some of thefindings described here (e.g., additivity effects).

Results such as the effects of cue competitionon memory and judgment for a blocked cue

seem, in contrast, to provide positive evidence

for basic associative processes, and it remainsa challenge, therefore, to inferential accounts

to explain such findings. A view of learning in which knowledge is formed out of associative

connections between distributed representa-tions of events remains viable, perhaps offering

a middle way between the extreme cognitivismof inferential accounts and the equally extreme

reductionism of S-R theory.

AWARENESS AND LEARNING

Brewer’s (1974) view of conditioning was that

in humans it is invariably accompanied by con-tingency awareness. There has been a wealth

of research on this topic since the 1970s, so it is natural to ask whether a contemporary per-

spective would lead us to revise this conclusion. The outcome of one recent review (Lovibond

& Shanks 2002) tended to confirm Brewer’sposition. After analyzing experimental results

on Pavlovian autonomic conditioning, condi-

tioning with subliminal stimuli, eyeblink con-ditioning, conditioning in amnesia, evaluative

conditioning, and conditioning under anesthe-sia, Lovibond & Shanks (2002) concluded that

there were no strong grounds for revising the view that awareness is a necessary condition for

learning in these preparations. In the present section, some recent studies of eyeblink, fear,

and evaluative conditioning are described priorto a selective review of implicit learning stud-

ies using other experimental procedures, suchas motor sequence learning.

Eyeblink Conditioning The voluminous literature on human skele-tal conditioning has been supplemented by a

small number of studies published since the review period covered by Lovibond & Shanks

(2002). An important distinction in such stud-ies is between trace conditioning procedures,

in which there is a temporal gap between thetermination of the CS and the onset of the

US, and delay conditioning, in which the on-

set of the US occurs before the termination of the CS. It is generally agreed that awareness,

typically measured by a postconditioning as-sessment of contingency knowledge, is neces-

sary for the acquisition of responding in typicallaboratory trace eyeblink conditioning prepa-

rations (Clark & Squire 1998, Lovibond &Shanks 2002). However, the possibility of delay




CR: conditionedresponse

conditioning in the absence of awareness ismuch more controversial.

Two recent studies (Bellebaum & Daum

2004, Knuttinen et al. 2001) failed to obtain ev-idence of conditioning in the absence of contin-

gency awareness. A study by Smith et al. (2005),however, did obtain such evidence. Specifi-

cally, participants were presented with two au-ditory stimuli (a tone and white noise), one of

which predicted an airpuff to the eye. Smithet al. (2005) observed reliable delay condi-

tioning in participants classified subsequently as being unaware of the correct CS-US rela-

tionship. The status of this work is difficult to gauge, however, because a subsequent at-

tempt to replicate the key findings yielded no

evidence whatsoever of unaware conditioning.Lovibond and colleagues (P.F. Lovibond, J.J.C.

Loo, G. Weidemann, and C.J. Mitchell,manuscript submitted) reported two experi-

ments that used the same methods and pro-cedure and in addition introduced some fur-

ther variables (e.g., contrasting short versuslong awareness questionnaires). Even for par-

ticipants treated identically to those of Smithet al. (2005), awareness was a necessary con-

dition for the observation of differential con-ditioning. Plainly, whatever the basis of these

discrepant findings, it would be premature to

abandon the conclusion from earlier studiesthat awareness and conditioning tend to be as-

sociated rather than dissociated.

Fear Conditioning

In studies of fear conditioning, the US is typ-ically a shock or loud noise, and the CR is

a change in skin conductance. The literatureon awareness and fear conditioning has been

supplemented by a handful of recent studies.

Knight et al. (2003) devised a novel delay con-ditioning procedure for studying unconscious

fear conditioning. One tone CS (CS+) pre-dicted the US (loud noise), whereas another

tone (CS−) did not, but during acquisitionthe intensity of the CSs was varied to render

some of them imperceptible. Participants in-dicated whenever they heard a tone and also

continuously registered their expectancy of US on a rating scale. Knight et al. (2003)

portedthatunperceivedCSs evokeddifferen

CRs but not differential US expectancy ratin That is to say, when the tone CS+ could not

detected, it failed to evoke a conscious repof expectancy of the loud noise but did evok

conditioned change in skin conductance. This impressive demonstration of unaw

learning was subsequently replicated in tfurther studies by Knight et al. (2006, 200

Knight et al. (2006) reported at the same tithat the effect was not observed in trace co

ditioning, where differential conditioned sponding only occurred to perceived CSs.

the delay condition that replicated the earlKnight et al. (2003) study, statistical analy

found that differential CRs to unperceived C

yielded a t value of 1.86, significant at 0.05 (otailed, df = 12). A comparable analysis fou

that differential expectancy ratings yielded value of 1.68 which is nonsignificant at 0.05

a neuroimaging study employing the same pcedure, Knight et al. (2009) obtained similar

sults, with CR differentiation yielding a relia

t value of 2.46 compared to expectancy ratin

reported to be nonsignificant at t = 2.05 (df

14 in both cases, though this latter effect is s

nificant one-tailed). Hence, the conclusionunaware conditioning in these two replicatio

rests on one effect falling on just one side of t

critical t value and the other effect falling just the other side. Firmer replication eviden

is needed to allow the Knight et al. (2003) resto be properly evaluated.

Moreover, in a careful study employing snal detection methods, unperceived CSs in f

conditioning did not elicit differential skin coductance responses (Cornwell et al. 2007), a

other research has found that fear conditionin delay as well as trace procedures is depend

on awareness. For instance, Weike et al. (20used a conventional procedure in which fa

served as CS+ and CS− and shock as the U

in trace and delay conditioning preparatioDifferential skin conductance conditioned

sponses only occurred in participants clasfied by a postconditioning test as contingen

286 Shanks



aware. As Weike et al. (2007, p. 178) noted,“electrodermal conditioning seems to primarily

index cognitive learning of the rules or circum-

stances in which a specific stimulus is signal-ing an aversive event, which is a declarative and

explicit memory.” Weike et al. (2007) did re-port that a differentmeasure of fear, potentiated

startle responses, developed in participants un-aware of the CS-US contingency in delay con-

ditioning, but this result is hard to interpret asit occurred only on trials administered prior to

the awareness questionnaire and not on onespresented after it. Dawson et al. (2007), in con-

trast, found a good association between startlemodulation and awareness.

Evaluative Conditioning

Evaluative conditioning refers to the transfer of

affect or liking from one stimulus to another asa result of the pairing of those stimuli.This may

be an important mechanism involved in the development of people’s likes and dislikes for such

everyday things as faces, consumer goods, andmusic. In a typical experiment, pictures judged

pre-experimentally as being affectively neutralare paired with ones rated as highly liked or dis-

liked. The neutral pictures therefore serve asCSs and the affectively valenced ones as USs.

The common finding is that affective reactions

to the CS pictures are pulled in the directionof the US pictures with which they are asso-

ciated, such that a neutral picture paired witha highly liked picture itself comes to be liked;

the converse is true for a neutral picture paired with a disliked picture. The important question

is whether participants have to be aware of thenature of the stimulus pairings in order to show

these learning effects. Is it necessary to be awarethat a certain CS picture was paired with a liked

or disliked US picture in order for its valenceto change? Lovibond & Shanks (2002) (see also

Field&Davey1999,Shanks&Dickinson1990)

highlighted a number of methodological con-cerns in some of the studiesincluded in their re-

view but concluded that the more careful onesdemonstrated (with the possible exception of

evaluative conditioning of tastes—see below)that contingency awareness is indeed necessary.

More recent studies serve to confirm thisconclusion. For example, Pleyers et al. (2007)

and Stahl et al. (2009) paired images (e.g., con-sumerproducts;theCSs)withpositivelyorneg-

atively valenced US pictures. Evaluative condi-

tioning only occurred for those CSs for whichparticipants were contingency aware. Dawson

et al. (2007) used faces as their CSs and USsand embedded CS-US pairings in a short-term

visual memory test. Instead of measuring evalu-ative conditioning viaexplicit ratings, they mea-

sured skin conductance. Again, evaluative con-ditioning only occurred when participants were

aware of the CS-US pairings. A study by Walther & Nagengast (2006)

againshowed evaluative conditioning accompa-nied by above-chance awareness—as measured

by a recognition test—at the group level. These

authors claimed, however, that the condition-ing effect they observed was significant only in

participants classified as performing at or below chance in the recognition test and not in those

performing above chance. Apart from the fact that the interaction between awareness group

and conditioning was not in fact statistically significant in their data, the method of exam-

ining learning effects post hoc in a subgroupof participants classified as unaware can lead

to highly questionable conclusions. This widely used technique is almostguaranteedto generate

apparent but potentially misleading evidence of

unaware learning. To illustrate this point, consider the fol-

lowing extremely simple simulation. Supposedata for a number of hypothetical participants

are generated, each producing a conditioningscore. Assume also that this score is based on a

normally distributed variable x with a mean of 30 and standard deviation of 20. Hence x rep-

resents the knowledge underlying the partici-pant’s conditioned responding. The mean con-

ditioning score for the group is of course about 30, but a proportion of participants will score

at or below zero, taken here to reflect chance

performance. Next, assume that the awarenessscore is also based on x, but with added noise.

Specifically, the awareness score is derived foreach value of x by simply adding a uniformly




distributed random number, for example be-tween −40 and 40. The critical point is that

the conditioning and awareness scores are both

based on the same underlying knowledge, x.

The only difference is that noise is added to

generate the awareness score. If one nowselectsall the participants who score at or below zero

on the awareness measure, what is their aver-age conditioning score? The answer is that it is

about 10 (SD ≈ 15), reliably greater than zero. This in statistical terms is just a regression-to-

the-mean effect (the expected value of a normal variable x conditional upon x + e < 0, where e

is a random variable with mean 0, is not con-strained to be less than or equal to zero), but

it illustrates that the practice of looking at con-

ditioning (or any other measure) in a sampleof participants selected post hoc as scoring at

or below chance on an awareness measure isa very dangerous practice. Above-chance con-

ditioning may be evident in such a subsampleeven though conditioning and awareness derive

solely (except for random noise) from the sameunderlying source.

As mentioned above, there were a smallnumber of studies (e.g., Baeyens et al. 1990)

on evaluative conditioning with tastes that Lovibond & Shanks (2002) highlighted as pro-

viding tantalizing evidence of unaware learn-

ing and thus meriting further research. Twostudies have indeed followed up this earlier

work. Dickinson & Brown (2007) replicated theBaeyens et al. (1990) procedure, which involves

presenting participants with compound drinksthat are both flavored (e.g., vanilla) and col-

ored (e.g., blue) as well as being pleasant or un-pleasant. Pleasant tastes were created by adding

sugar; unpleasant ones had the bitter substancepolysorbate 20 added to them. From a condi-

tioning perspective, pleasantness can be consid-ered the US and the flavors and colors as CSs,

and evidence of evaluative conditioning would

comprise pairing-dependent changes in likabil-ity ratings for the flavors or colors when pre-

sented in isolation. Thus a participant might come to increase her liking of vanilla as a re-

sult of blue-vanilla-sugar pairings, or decrease

her liking ratings for red drinks as a resultred-banana-polysorbate pairings. At the end

the experiment, awareness for the various CUS contingencies can be assessed by prese

ing colorless flavors or flavorless colors with

any US. Although Dickinson & Brown (20introduced a number of procedural impro

ments on the original Baeyens et al. (19procedure, they nonetheless replicated the k

observation, namely evidence of flavor evuative conditioning in the absence of awa

ness. More specifically, liking ratings of the vors changed as a consequence of their pairin

with sugar/polysorbate. Strikingly, participa were able to recall the color-US pairings

not the flavor-US ones. Thus participants show some degree of contingency awarene

butitwasnotrelatedtoevaluativeconditioni

They knew the color contingencies and not flavor ones, but showed conditioning of flavo

Wardle et al. (2007) introduced some furtprocedural improvements such as counterb

ancing the order of presentation of the evaative conditioning and contingency awaren

tests and using a better format for the awaness questions. Whereas Dickinson & Bro

(2007) asked participants to identify which vor went with a particular US, in Wardle et a

procedure they tasted a flavor and rated thconfidence that it went with sugar or polys

bate. Under such circumstances, Wardle et(2007)found high levels of flavor-USand col

US awareness, as well as evaluative con

tioning of the flavors (but not of the colo Thus the key evidence of unaware conditio

ing was no longer observed. When Waret al. (2007) broke down their data according

contingency awareness, they found that flaevaluative conditioning was confined to tho

participants who demonstrated awareneNotwithstanding the earlier cautions expres

about such analyses, the results revealed no idence of evaluative conditioning in unaw

participants. Moreover, when Wardle et (2007) reanalyzed Dickinson & Brown’s (20

data by separating aware from unaware part

ipants, they obtained the same pattern. Th

288 Shanks



whatever the final picture to emerge from thisintriguing line of research, it seems safe to

conclude that it has not as yet yielded strong

evidence of unconscious learning.

The Perruchet Effect

In the Lovibond & Shanks (2002) review, oneother empirical result was highlighted as pro-

viding potentially convincing evidence of un-aware learning. This is the Perruchet effect,

which arises in conditions of partial reinforce-ment. Perruchet (1985) used an eyeblink con-

ditioning preparation in which the CS wasreinforced on 50% of trials. In the trial se-

quence, runs of CS-alone or CS-US trials oc-

curred. When a run comprised CS-alone trials,Perruchet found that the likelihood of the con-

ditioned response declined across trials. Forexample, if there happened to be a sequence

of four CS-alone trials, the likelihood of aCR would tend to decline across these four

trials. Conversely, in a run of CS-US trials,the likelihood of the CR would tend to in-

crease across trials. Such changes are consis-tent with the increments and decrements in

associative strength that would be predictedby any reinforcement-based learning theory.

Perruchet (1985) reported, however, that par-

ticipants’ expectation of the US showed exactly the opposite pattern. In a run of CS-alone tri-

als, expectation of the US increased the longerthe run, consistent with the well-known gam-

bler’s fallacy. In a run of CS-US trials, expec-tation of the US decreased the longer the run.

Thus, the Perruchet effect comprises a strikingdissociation between conditioned responding

and awareness, and hence evidence for unawarelearning.Participantsseemtohavethoughtthat

the next trial must contain an outcome different from the preceding ones in order to maintain

the 50% reinforcement probability. Perruchet

et al. (2006) obtained a similar pattern in a re-action time (RT) experiment. Here, the CS was

a warning tone and the US an imperative stim-ulus to which participants had to respond with

a rapid button-press. While expectancy ratings

Perruchet effect: while CRs increaseacross a run of CS-Utrials, US expectancyratings decrease, and vice versa for a serie

of CS-alone trialsRT: reaction time

showed the gambler’s fallacy pattern, RTs be-came slower with runs of CS-alone trials and

faster with runs of CS-US ones.

Recent follow-up studies on this intriguingphenomenon have raised as many questions as

they have answered, however. Both the gam-bler’s fallacy aspect of the results (the changes

in conscious expectancy with run length) andthe behavioral part of the results are matters

of dispute. The circumstances for assessing ex-pectancy are hardly ideal. In Perruchet et al.’s

(2006) studies, participants moved a pointer ona dial to indicate their moment-by-moment ex-

pectancythatthetargetwouldoccuronthenext trial. These expectancies, measured at a point

just before presentation of the target, were the

primary data. But suppose the participant only changed his/her expectancy rating every few

seconds. With a very short cue (<1 sec) anda stimulus-onset asynchrony of only 500 msec,

the participant has virtually no time to registerany CS-dependent change in expectancy. Sup-

pose that, for whatever reason, expectancy of the target is not the same in the intertrial in-

terval as it is when the CS is actually present. The method would provide almost no chance of

detecting such changes. Perruchet et al. (2006)acknowledged this issue and took some steps

to ameliorate it, but without a much longer

stimulus-onset asynchrony it is hard to be con-fident in their results. In short, although the

gambler’s fallacy is unquestionably observed inmany situations, it is difficult to accept uncrit-

ically the claim that it occurs here and that ex-pectancy ratings are largest after runs of cue-

alone trials. Turning to the other part of the dissociation,

recall that CRs and speeded button-pressesshow a pattern whereby responses are less likely

or rapid after a run of CS-alone trials than arun of CS-US trials. A key question is whether

these changes in responding are genuinely as-

sociative in nature. If they are not, then theresult may have less to do with learning and

more to do with performance aspects of thetask, such as US-recency effects. To investigate

whether the effect is truly associative, Mitchell




et al. repeated the Perruchet et al. (2006) RTstudy but arranged backward pairings or ran-

dom occurrences of the warning stimulus (CS)

and imperative stimulus (US). Under such cir-cumstances, participants have no opportunity

to use the warning stimulus to prepare for theUS. Despite this, Mitchell et al. (2009) saw

the same behavioral effect as in the standardforward-pairing condition. They also observed

the typical pattern when the CSs were omittedentirely. The obvious conclusion is that changes

in RT to the imperative stimulus have nothingto do with learning predictive relationships, but

rather are a consequence of runs of motor re-sponses. When there is a run of CS-US trials,

for example, then the frequency of the US (and

hence of responses to the imperative stimulus)is high, whereas when there is a run of CS-alone

trials, the frequency of the US declines. It seemsthat in the RT experiment it is variation in the

frequency of responses that determines reac-tion times, unconnected to learning anything

about the relationship between the CS andUS.

Weidemann et al. (2009) reported a similaranalysis in the context of eyeblink condition-

ing rather than speeded button pressing. In thiscase, the associative basis of the effect seems

more secure. They found that the behavioral

effect (fewer CRs after a run of CS-alone trialsthan a run of CS-US trials) was not the conse-

quence of US (airpuff) recency. Thus, there issome reason to believe that the Perruchet effect

in eyeblink conditioning represents genuine ev-idence of unaware learning, in that conditioned

eyeblink responses follow a pattern that is com-pletely opposite to the pattern displayed in ex-

pectancy ratings. However, the effect in otherbehavioral preparations such as speeded button

pressing seems much less secure. Plainly thisis an area where more research is needed and

where firm conclusions must await the outcome

of that research. What of other experimental procedures

within the broad domain of implicit learning?Numerous tasks have been developed and ex-

plored over the past few years, such as artificialgrammar learning, the learning of sequential

dependencies in speeded RT settings, and learning of contextual cues in visual sear

We now turn to a brief review of some of tevidence.

Sequence Learning

Nissen & Bullemer (1987)deviseda simple pcedure in which a visual target appeared

each trial at one of four locations in a displand the participant’s task was to press the a

propriate key for that location as fast as psible. Targets moved from location to locati

according to a fixed, but nonsalient, sequen(later studies have employed noisy or prob

bilistic sequences). Although participants w

not instructed about the presence of the quence, they nonetheless showed evidence

sequence learning in that their RTs were fasthan in a control condition with random tar

locations, an effect that has been replicatednumerous subsequent studies. This task, w

its heavy emphasis on perceptual-motor speprovides an ideal method for studying impl

learning: If participants readily learn the tarsequence as evidenced by speeded RTs, are th

also aware of the sequence? Or can procedulearning occur even in the absence of sequen

awareness?

To avoid the likelihood that verbal responto postexperimental questions underestim

awareness, researchers have developed altnative tests to assess awareness. In one su

test, participants are asked to report thconscious sequence knowledge by reproduc

or generating the training sequence or paof it. In another test, they observe sequen

chunks and signal whether they are old (tis, from the learned sequence) or new. W

such tests, Gaillard et al. (2009), Jim ´ enez et(2006), Norman et al. (2006, 2007), Perruc

& Amorim (1992), Perruchet et al. (199

Shanks & Johnstone (1999), Shanks et (2003, 2005, 2006), Stefaniak et al. (200

and Wilkinson & Shanks (2004) have all ported clear associations between learning a

awareness, and indeed Perruchet et al. (19and Shanks & Johnstone (1999) have sho

290 Shanks



that above-chance performance on a test of awareness can precede any reliable degree of

chronometrically measured sequence learning.

Bremner et al. (2007) discovered, remarkably,that 2-year-olds were able to report their

sequence knowledge in a generation test.Some studies have reported sequence learn-

ing in the absence of awareness as measuredby generation or recognition tests (e.g., Dennis

et al. 2006; Fu et al. 2009, Vandenberghe et al.2006), but these results are hard to interpret.

For example, Dennis et al. (2006) reported that sequence learning in young participants was

accompanied by awareness, but not in olderparticipants. Yet, in one experiment, the older

group did show awareness. Fu et al. (2008) re-

ported that after short amounts of sequencetraining, participants lacked awareness in that

they generated the learned sequence even wheninstructed to avoid doing so. Taking control

as an index of awareness ( Jacoby 1991), Fuet al. (2008) concluded that under these cir-

cumstances, sequence knowledge was not con-sciously accessible. However, in a subsequent

report, Fu et al. (2009) failed to observe this ef-fect when they used a slightly different genera-

tion test for assessing awareness, although they did obtain other apparent evidence of implicit

learning.

Vandenberghe et al. (2006) trained both am-nesic and control participants with a determin-

istic sequence comprising a fixed 12-locationsequence or with a probabilistic sequence in

which the majority of targets appeared at pre-ordained locations while the minority appeared

at unexpected locations. Vandenberghe et al.(2006) concluded that although control par-

ticipants were able to learn both types of sequences, amnesics could learn only the de-

terministic ones (although learning of prob-abilistic sequences in amnesia is possible: see

Shanks et al. 2006). On subsequent tests (gen-

eration andrecognition)of sequence awareness,there was evidence that participants in the con-

trol group trained on a deterministic sequence were conscious of that sequence (replicating the

findings of Wilkinson & Shanks 2004), whereascontrols trained on a probabilisticsequence and

amnesics trained with a deterministic sequence were not. Vandenberghe et al. (2006) there-

fore concluded that in the latter cases, learn-ing was implicit. However, they did not re-

port statistical tests to confirm the reliability

of deterministic sequence learning in the am-nesic group, and with only six participants in

this group, it is by no means clear that learningoccurred. The results for the controls trained

on probabilistic sequences must also be treated with caution. Participants in comparable con-

ditions of experiments by Shanks et al. (2003,2005) and Fu et al. (2008) showed substan-

tial levels of sequence awareness, despite be-ing trained for only about half as many trials.

Until more is known about the basis of thesediscrepant results, null results such as those of

Vandenberghe et al. (2006) should be treated with caution.

Also relevant are data from brain imaging

studies of implicit and explicit learning. Plainly,data showing that different neural networks are

activated under implicit and explicit learningconditions would provide powerful support

for the idea that learning can be dissociatedfrom awareness. In fact, this does not seem to

be the case. In a careful functional magneticresonance neuroimaging study, Willingham

et al. (2002) defined an implicit condition asone in which recognition was at chance and

an explicit condition as one above chance inrecognition. These investigators found that

the same neural systems (e.g., left prefrontal

cortex, left inferior parietal cortex, and right putamen) were activated in both conditions but

that additional regions were activated in theexplicit condition (e.g., premotor cortex). This

seems to challenge the idea of distinct implicit and explicit learning processes. Even under

implicit conditions, Willingham et al. (2002)did find a difference (albeit nonsignificant)

between recognition ratings for old and new test sequences of a comparable magnitude to

those typically found. Thus, it seems reason-able to conjecture that Willingham et al.’s

implicit and explicit groups merely represented

participants with weaker and stronger sequenceknowledge.




Visual Search and Contextual Cuing

Another task that has gained some popularity

for the study of implicit learning involves thecontextual cuing of target locations in a visual

search setting. Suppose that a target such as ahorizontal letter T appears among a set of hor-

izontal L distracters, and the participant’s task

is to indicate the orientation of the T. Supposealso that on some trials the configuration of dis-

tracters is repeated from earlier trials, and that intheserepeateddisplaysthelocationofthetar-

get is constant. If the participant is able to learnabout the repeated displays, and that the loca-

tion of the target is reliably cued by a familiardistracter context, then faster localization re-

sponses might be made to repeated comparedto unique displays. Chun & Jiang (1998), who

devisedthis task, showed that participants could

indeed learn about repeated configurations andmake especially fast responses to them whileapparently being unaware of the repetition of

displays (see also Chun & Jiang 2003).

Later studies have replicated these resultsbut have also suggested that participants are

generally aware of the display repetitions, pro- vided that their awareness is assessed appropri-

ately. Smyth & Shanks (2008) measured aware-ness with two methods. In one, participants

were shown repeated displays, but with the

T replaced by another distracter L, and wereasked to indicate where they thought the miss-ing T would be located. When this test incor-

porated only 12 trials, no evidence of aware-ness was obtained (that is, performance was at

chance despite the fact that in the preceding

target-search part of the experiment, RTs werefaster to repeated displays). However, when the

number of trials was increased to 48, thus in-creasing the reliability and power of the test,

above-chance performance was observed. For

instance, reliability increased from r = 0.09to r = 0.46. Thus, evidence that learning inthe contextual cuing task is unconscious comes

from studies in which the assessment of aware-ness is unreliable. Smyth & Shanks (2008) also

evaluated awareness in a test in which partici-pants were simply shown repeated and unique

displays and asked to report which ones thhad seen previously. This test once again

vealed above-chance levels of awareness. Suabove-chance recognition was also observed

Preston & Gabrieli (2008) and Vaidya et

(2007, Exp. 2). In the influential study by Ch& Phelps (1999), contextual cuing was observ

in control but not amnesic individuals. Tauthors argued that the task assesses impli

learning because recognition was statisticallychance. Yet, the mean recognition hit and fal

alarm rates (0.37 versus 0.32 for the contro0.64 versus 0.42 for the amnesics) for old a

new displays suggest the alternative possibithat a real awareness effect was masked by u

reliability in their measure and low statistipower.

Nevertheless, a common finding in this

search is that awareness (as measured by reconition, for example) and implicit performan

tend to be uncorrelated. For instance, in Preston & Gabrieli (2008)and Smyth & Shan

(2008) studies, the correlations were closezero, and implicit performance was no grea

for recognized than for unrecognized configrations. In the Smyth & Shanks (2008) study

was also the case that analyses of contextual ing in “unaware” participants showed relia

learning effects (see also Howard et al. 200But for the reason described above, these fin

ings still do not constitute clear evidenceimplicit learning. In addition to the possibi

that the awareness test was unreliable (How

et al. 2004 tested awareness with only test displays), such dissociations are predic

by single-system models that do not incorprate the implicit–explicit distinction (Shanks

Perruchet 2002, Shanks et al. 2003) when iteor participants are selected post hoc. Su

pose that there is a single knowledge bthat controls performance both in an impli

test, such as contextual cuing, and in an plicit test, such as recognition. Suppose al

however, that independent sources of noor error contribute to each performance m

sure. As noted above, under such circu

stances, it will inevitably be the case that siulated participants selected after the fact

292 Shanks



scoring at or below chance on the explicit measure will score above chance on the im-

plicit one, and likewise for configurations se-

lected post hoc on the same basis. Indeed, thesemodels can even predict correlations of zero

between implicit and explicit measures, despitethem arising from the same underlying repre-

sentation (Berry et al. 2006, Kinder & Shanks2003).

Thus the evidence is rather compelling that awareness is a necessary condition for learning

across a wide range of experimental prepara-tions. On this substantial issue, Brewer (1974)

seems to have been correct in his conclusion.

CONCLUSIONS AND FUTUREDIRECTIONS

This review of recent research on the roles of associative and cognitive processes in human

learning points to two main conclusions: first,that learning across a range of preparations and

conditions is almost invariably accompanied by awareness of the experimentalcontingency; and

second, that although manipulations of individuals’ beliefs can profoundly affect the way

they acquire information, associationist con-cepts continue to play a key role in explaining

learning.

These conclusions run counter to the cur-rent zeitgeist in the psychology of learning.

The study of implicit (i.e., unconscious) learn-ing has become a very substantial and distinct

research topic, influencing other areas such asdevelopmental psychology and cognitive neu-

roscience, and perpetuating a belief going back at least as far as Thorndike (1931) that learning

can proceed independently of awareness. Thepresent review suggests that the core concept

at the heart of this research area commands re-markably little empirical support. The present

review also suggests that the current fashion

for viewing learning as an entirely cognitive,inferential process faces a number of chal-

lenges. Certainly, cognitive processes penetrate very deeply into many of the subprocesses that

contribute to learning, yet associationist con-cepts such as reinforcement and activation are

nevertheless implied by some of the key find-ings considered here.

An important question is the extent to which so-called dual-process theories have util-

ity in helping us to understand learning. These

theories (Broadbent et al. 1986, Evans 2008,Kahneman 2003, Sloman 1996) propose that

the mind is composed of two systems, one au-tomatic, implicit, nonrational, and unconscious

and the other slow, effortful, rational, explicit,and conscious. Thus the first system is consis-

tent with unconscious learning and the second with inferential reasoning. The present review

should make it clear that the need for two sys-tems has yet to be established, at least in rela-

tion to learning. It is quite debatable whetherany significant forms of learning can proceed

automatically or unconsciously, nor is it the

case that apparently rational forms of learningcan be explained only by reasoning-like pro-

cesses: We have seen several examples of phe-nomena, such as retrospective revaluation, that

can be explained associativelyas well as they caninferentially.

Of course, advocates of dual-process theo-ries drawsupport froma range of domains inad-

dition to learning, including decision-making,reasoning, andmany aspects of social cognition.

There are numerous examples of what appearto be powerful unconscious influences on be-

havior (Nisbett & Wilson 1977, Wilson 2002).

Yet it is equally important to note that sophis-ticated theoretical and methodological analysis

of consciousness has been applied to few do-mains more thoroughly than it has to the field

of learning. When examples of apparent uncon-scious influences in other domains have been

subjected to the same levelof scrutiny, it has not been uncommon to find that the evidence for

such influences is considerably weakened; goodillustrations are Maia & McClelland’s (2004)

demonstration of the role of awareness in theIowa Gambling Task, and the extensive evi-

dence that attitudes measured implicitly (e.g.,

by the Implicit Association Test) are often not truly unconscious (Gawronski et al. 2006). It is

plain that future research with more demand-ing tests of awareness will allow much firmer




conclusions to be drawn about the limits of un-conscious processing.

The phenomenon of blocking has been cen-

tral to the research reviewed here. It is of coursepossible that what appear to be instances of

the same phenomenon in fact arise for differ-ent reasons. For instance, blocking might be

a single name for a set of related outcomesthat arise from overlapping or even indepen-

dent processes. It was mentioned above that blocking can be observed in marine molluscs

as well as in humans and numerous species inbetween; plainly that does not imply that it oc-

curs for the same reason. Perhaps associativeprinciples are more important in some species

or circumstances, and cognitive ones in others.

Although such a possibility must be borne inmind, it must also be recognized that the sim-

ilarities between blocking in different speciesrun very deep. In both humans and rats, for

example, blocking is sensitive to manipulationsof additivity information. Indeed, it has proven

quite difficult to find any associative learningphenomena that appear to be qualitatively dif-

ferent across species or across contexts withina species (such as across implicit and explicit

learning conditions in humans). Thus, support-ers of dual-process theories face the important

challenge in future work of demonstrating such

qualitative differences more convincingly thanhas been achieved so far.

It is also entirely reasonable to take the view that whereas unconscious learning has proven

hard to demonstrate in the sorts of preparationsreviewed here (e.g., eyeblink conditioning), it

does nonetheless occur in other circumstances. Typical experimental procedures for studying

implicit learning tend to employ single labo-ratory sessions with meaningless stimuli (tones

and lights), so perhaps forms of more graduallearning with meaningful stimuli are being ig-

nored. It is undoubtedly important that future

work attempts to extend beyond simple labo-ratory tasks. Yet a good deal of research has

been undertaken in which learning is studiedover quite prolonged periods during which ex-

pertise is established (e.g., 10,000 repetitionsin table tennis: Koedijker et al. 2008) and with

meaningful (e.g., linguistic: Leow & Bow2005) materials and numerous perceptual a

motor as well as cognitive tasks, without yieing stronger evidence.

The major alternative to the inferential a

dual-process perspectives derives both frtraditional associative learning theory but a

from the success of the connectionist projin human cognition (McClelland & Rumelh

1986, Rumelhart & McClelland 1986, Thom& McClelland 2008). It is not possible to

view this project in detail here, but its essencomponents are the critical role played by as

ciative processes together with the appreciatthat when such processes operate across d

tributed representations, high-level reasoninlike behavior may emerge. The simulation

Ghirlanda (2005) described above is a strikillustration of this, in that it showed how r

rospective revaluation (the apparently infer

tial readjustment of the weight assigned tcue) may result from activationand incremen

learning withina simple network of neuron-lprocessing units. Although connectionist mo

els are in principle consistent with unconsciolearning, it is often assumed that stable state

activation within the brain, subject to selectattention, are precisely those states of which

are conscious (Maia & Cleeremans 2005). Although the present review has focused

studies explicitly designed to test and compassociative and inferential accounts, other fin

ings not reviewed here continue to defy exp

nation in anything other than associative termPrinciple among these is the nonrational asp

of many conditioned behaviors, a point maforcefully by Dickinson (1980, 2009; see a

Shanks 1990). In a procedure such as fear coditioning,forexample,presentationofaCSt

predicts an aversive US such as shock evokerange of responses including sweating and

evated heart rate, yet there is no rational bafor these responses. Or consider the even m

striking example of pigeon autoshaping, a m jor source of evidence in the study of con

tioned behavior. If a keylight signals the p

sentation of food, the pigeon will approach apeck it. Although the approach behavior mig

294 Shanks



be the product of rational inference—if the pi-geon “believes”that approach will cause food to

be obtained—it is hard to see any chain of infer-

ences that would cause the pigeon to peck thekeylight. Such pecking does not affect the de-

livery of food, and indeed pigeons will continueto peck even when pecking causes omission of

the food. The form of the response (the pigeonappears to try to eat a keylight that predicts food

and drink one that predicts water) strongly sug-gests Pavlov’s original mechanism of stimulus

substitution, whereby the CS becomes associ-ated with and takes the place of the US. It is

very hard to see any involvement of cognitiveor inferential operations in this type of learning

and behavior.

Many gaps remain in our knowledge of thecontributions of cognitive and associative pro-

cesses to learning. Perhaps the most important

item for the research agenda is to gain a fullerunderstanding of the limits of associative prin-

ciples in explaining additivity and related ef-

fects on blocking. As described in this review, it hasbeen clearly demonstrated that the outcome

of a blocking experiment, in both humans andanimals, can be radically altered by pretreat-

ments designed to demonstrate the additivity or nonadditivity of cues. Yet the precise locus of

these effects is still unknown. It is possible that they operate by altering the beliefs that form

the basis for inferences about predictive value,but it is also possible that configural process-

ing or generalization are the key mechanismsthat are affected by such manipulations. These

and related questions will surely feature promi-nently in future research seeking to under-

stand the inferential and associative aspects of

learning.

SUMMARY POINTS

1. A review of the literature illustrates that although they are based on radically different

principles, cognitive and associative accounts of learning can both encompass a broadrange of empirical phenomena. Decisive tests are difficult to devise.

2. Forty years after its discovery, the phenomenon of blocking continues to lie at the heart of theoretical debate. Explanations in terms of the automatic formation of associations

are certainly inadequate.

3. Learning is strongly influenced by pretreatments that provide information about the

additivity or nonadditivity of cue weights and by other manipulations of beliefs relevant to inferential reasoning.

4. There is a substantial body of results, including the effects of cue competition on memory and judgment, that provides evidence for associative processes such as activation and

reinforcement.

5. Robust and replicable instances of unconscious learning have failed to emerge in the

experimental literature, consistent with the view that awareness is a necessary conditionfor all forms of learning, including conditioning.

6. Although its basis is not yet fully understood, the Perruchet effect represents perhaps themost clear-cut current evidence for independent implicit and explicit learning systems.

DISCLOSURE STATEMENT

The author is not aware of any biases that might be perceived as affecting the objectivity of thisreview.




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Annual Review of

Psychology

Volume 61, 2010 Contents

Prefatory

Love in the Fourth Dimension

Ellen Berscheid

Brain Mechanisms and Behavior

The Role of the Hippocampus in Prediction and Imagination

Randy L. Buckner

Learning and Memory Plasticity; Neuroscience of Learning

Hippocampal-Neocortical Interactions in Memory Formation,

Consolidation, and Reconsolidation

Szu-Han Wang and Richard G.M. Morris

Stress and Neuroendocrinology

Stress Hormone Regulation: Biological Role

and Translation Into Therapy Florian Holsboer and Marcus Ising

Developmental Psychobiology

Structural Plasticity and Hippocampal Function

Benedetta Leuner and Elizabeth Gould

Cognitive Neuroscience

A Bridge Over Troubled Water: Reconsolidation as a Link Between

Cognitive and Neuroscientific Memory Research Traditions

Oliver Hardt, Einar ¨ Orn Einarsson, and Karim Nader

Cognitive Neural Prosthetics

Richard A. Andersen, Eun Jung Hwang, and Grant H. Mulliken

Speech Perception

Speech Perception and Language Acquisition in the First Year of Life

Judit Gervain and Jacques Mehler

vi



Chemical Senses (Taste and Smell)

An Odor Is Not Worth a Thousand Words: From Multidimensional

Odors to Unidimensional Odor Objects

Yaara Yeshurun and Noam Sobel 219

Somesthetic and Vestibular Senses

Somesthetic Senses

Mark Hollins 243

Basic Learning and Conditioning

Learning: From Association to Cognition

David R. Shanks 273

Comparative Psychology

Evolving the Capacity to Understand Actions, Intentions, and Goals

Marc Hauser and Justin Wood 303

Human Development: Processes

Child Maltreatment and Memory

Gail S. Goodman, Jodi A. Quas, and Christin M. Ogle 325

Emotional, Social, and Personality Development

Patterns of Gender Development

Carol Lynn Martin and Diane N. Ruble 353

Adulthood and Aging

Social and Emotional AgingSusan T. Charles and Laura L. Carstensen 383

Development in Societal Context

Human Development in Societal Context

Aletha C. Huston and Alison C. Bentley 411

Genetics and Psychopathology

Epigenetics and the Environmental Regulation

of the Genome and Its Function

Tie-Yuan Zhang and Michael J. Meaney

439

Social Psychology of Attention, Control, and Automaticity

Goals, Attention, and (Un)Consciousness

Ap Dijksterhuis and Henk Aarts 467

Co nt en ts v ii



Bargaining, Negotiation, Conflict, Social Justice

Negotiation

Leigh L. Thompson, Jiunwen Wang, and Brian C. Gunia

Personality Development: Stability and Change

Personality Development: Continuity and Change Over theLife Course

Dan P. McAdams and Bradley D. Olson

Work Motivation

Self-Regulation at Work

Robert G. Lord, James M. Diefendorff, Aaron C. Schmidt, and Rosalie J. Hall

Cognition in Organizations

Creativity

Beth A. Hennessey and Teresa M. Amabile

Work Attitudes ( Job Satisfaction, Commitment, Identification)

The Intersection of Work and Family Life: The Role of Affect

Lillian T. Eby, Charleen P. Maher, and Marcus M. Butts

Human Factors (Machine Information, Person Machine Information,

Workplace Conditions)

Cumulative Knowledge and Progress in Human Factors

Robert W. Proctor and Kim-Phuong L. Vu

Learning and Performance in Educational Settings The Psychology of Academic Achievement

Philip H. Winne and John C. Nesbit

Personality and Coping Styles

Personality and Coping

Charles S. Carver and Jennifer Connor-Smith

Indexes

Cumulative Index of Contributing Authors, Volumes 51–61

Cumulative Index of Chapter Titles, Volumes 51–61

Errata

An online log of corrections to Annual Review of Psychology articles may be found

http://psych annualreviews org/errata shtml

Documents

Learning; From Association to Cognition