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Learning: Classical Conditioning
Learning1)Behaviorists:relatively
permanent change in behavior that results from experience
2) Cognitive:learning is made evident by behavioral change, but learning is defined as an internal and not directly observable process.
Classical Conditioning Involves some of the ways in
which we learn to associate events (red traffic light=stop)
Ivan Pavlov:Salivating dogs Salivation in response to meat
powder=Reflex (unlearned response to a stimuli)
Classical Conditioning Stimulus: an environmental condition that elicits a response (ex:stopping because we see a red light)
Pavlov discovered that reflexes can also be learned, or conditioned, through association (dogs began to salivate when they heard clinking of a food tray)
US,UR,CS,CR Unconditioned Stimulus
(US):meat powder
Unconditioned response (UR):salivation in response to the meat powder is unlearned
US,UR,CS,CR Conditioned stimulus (CS):
ringing of the bell (before it was just a neutral stimulus not associated with anything)
Conditioned response (CR): salivation in response to the bell is learned
More examplesUS: walking my puppyUR: puppy gets excited
CS: leash or running shoesCR: puppy gets excited_________________________
US: dancing with your crush to a love songUR: getting warm fuzzies
CS: hearing the love song randomlyCR: getting warm fuzzies
Extinction The process by which
conditioned stimuli (CS) lose the ability to elicit conditioned responses (CR) because the CSs are no longer associated with unconditioned stimuli (US)
The CS no longer serves its predictive function (ex: bell and no food)
Spontaneous Recovery The recurrence of an
extinguished response as a function of the passage of time
Pairing the CS with the US once more will build response strength rapidly
(ex: present food after ringing the bell)
Generalization Adaptation requires that we respond
similarly to stimuli that are equivalent in function and that we respond differently to stimuli that are not
Generalization:the tendency for a conditioned response to be evoked by stimuli that are similar to the stimulus to which the response was conditioned (Ex:Little Albert)
Discrimination Organisms must also learn1)That many stimuli perceived as
being similar are functionally different
2) Respond adaptively to each Ex: presenting circles and ellipses
to salivating dogs, discriminate between houses, spouses, etc
Higher-Order Conditioning A previously neutral stimulus
comes to serve as a CS after being paired repeatedly with a stimulus that has already become the CS
Ex: lightbellsalivate TV showcar in drivewaysqueal of
happiness
Flooding Fear-evoking reduction technique
in which the fear-evoking stimuli (CS) are presented continuously in the absence of harm so that fear responses (CR) are extinguished
Ex: Little Albert-presenting rat without the banging noise until the fear is no longer evoked
Can be unpleasant
Systematic Desensitization
Client is exposed gradually to fear-evoking stimuli under circumstances in which he or she is relaxed
Ex: when Little Albert is relaxed, show him pictures of rats before gradually bringing them over
Counterconditioning A pleasant stimulus is paired
repeatedly with a fear-evoking object, in this way counteracting the fear response
Ex: Joneses experiment with 2 year old Peter.
Placed rabbit in corner of room while Peter munched on cookies. Gradually, the animal was brought closer. Peter ate treats and touched the rabbit at the same time
Learning: Operant Conditioning
Operant Conditioning
A simple form of learning in which an organism learns to engage in behavior
because it is reinforced.
Edward L. Thorndike Cats in a box-trial and error As trials were repeated, it would
take less time for the cat to pull the string
Law of Effect: responses are “stamped in” by rewards (escaping from box and eating) and “stamped out” by punishments.
B.F. Skinner Reinforce: to follow a response
with a stimulus that increases the frequency of the response
Operant behavior: an organism learns to do something because of its effects or consequences
Classical conditioning-response was involuntary (salivation, eyeblink)
Operant Conditioning-response is voluntary (pressing lever, athletic skills)
“Skinner Box” Hungry rats in a cage Sniffed around the cage and engaged in
random behavior Rat’s first pressing of lever is by
accident-food pellet dropped in cage Food pellet increased the probability
that the rat would press lever again Pellet serves as a reinforcement for the
lever pressing
Types of Reinforcers Positive: a reinforcer that
when presented increases the frequency of the operant (pellet, approval, praise)
Negative: a reinforcer that when removed increases the frequency of an operant (removal of fear and pain)
Types of Reinforcers Primary-an unlearned reinforcer that are
effective because of the biological makeup of the organism
(food, water, warmth) Secondary- a stimulus that gains
reinforcement value through association with established reinforcers
(money, attention, social approval)
Positive ReinforcerBehavior Consequence Change in Behavior
Studying Positive reinforcer (Teacher approval) frequency of
is presented behavior increases-
when student ( student studies more)
studies
Negative ReinforcerBehavior Consequence Change in Behavior
Studying Negative reinforcer (Teacher disapproval)
frequency of is removed behavior increases-
when student ( student studies more)
studies
Rewards and Punishments
Reward: a pleasant stimulus that increases the frequency of the behavior it follows
Rewards and Punishments Punishments: an unpleasant
stimulus that suppresses the behavior it follows-although it works it is usually undesirable (pg. 229-230)-better to focus on rewarding behavior
Negative ReinforcerBehavior Consequence Change in Behavior
Studying Negative reinforcer (Teacher disapproval)
frequency of is removed behavior increases-
when student ( student studies more)
studies
PunishmentBehavior Consequence Change in Behavior
Talking in Punishment class (detention) frequency of
is presented behavior decreases-
when student ( student talks less in
talks in class class)
Discriminative Stimulus Act as cues
They provide information about when an operant (pecking a button) will be reinforced (food pellet dropping in cage)
Learn social discriminative stimuli (smiles, tones of voice, body language)
Schedules of Reinforcment Continuous reinforcement-a
schedule of reinforcement in which every correct response is reinforced
Partial reinforcement-one of several reinforcement schedules in which not ever correct response is reinforced (gambling and slot machines)
Shaping A procedure for teaching
complex behaviors that at first reinforces approximation of the target behavior (smiling and saying good)
Ex: driving stick shift car-first reinforce and say good when they shift without stalling
Token Economies An environmental setting that
fosters desired behavior by reinforcing it with tokens (secondary reinforcers)
Ex: giving tickets for good behavior and using the tickets to buy goodies
Star stickers for reading: more stars allows you free time or buy more books etc.
Learning: Cognitive Factors
Contingency TheoryLearning occurs when stimuli
provides information about the likelihood of the
occurrence of other stimuli.Ex: Rescorla’s dogs
(tone and shock)
Latent Learning Latent: hidden or concealed Tolman’s rats:
Rats learned about mazes in which they roamed even when they were unrewarded for doing so
Rats would acquire a cognitive map of the maze
Learning remained hidden until they were motivated to follow the rapid routes for food goals
Observational Learning The acquisition of
knowledge and skills through the observation of others (who are called models) rather than by means of direct experience.
Observational Learning May account for most human
learning Not mechanically acquired through
reinforcement We can learn by observation
without engaging in overt responses at all
Ex: observe parents cook, read, clean
Modeling Models may be live,
symbolic, or verbal instruction
Behaviors learned: Academic skills: reading, problem-solving Aggression: doll experiment, media
violence Moral thinking: generosity, self-control,
temptation resistance
Modeling Effects of modeling on Behavior:
Learn new behaviors and ways of responding
Reinforcement may facilitate or inhibit frequency of behaviors
Increases similar behavior
Modeling Traits of Effective Models:
Perceived as competent, successful, and high status individuals
Typically exhibit “gender-appropriate” behavior
Relevant to observer’s situation