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Learning. Unit 6 Myers. How do we Learn?. Habituation: An organism’s decreasing response to a stimulus with repeated exposure to it Sea slug withdraws its gills when disturbed by a squirt of water. Overtime the sea slug will withdrawal the response - PowerPoint PPT Presentation
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Unit 6 Myers
Habituation: An organism’s decreasing response to a stimulus with repeated exposure to it◦ Sea slug withdraws its gills when disturbed by a
squirt of water. Overtime the sea slug will withdrawal the response
◦ Learned associations feed our habitual behaviors ◦ Behavior associated with context
• Associative: Learning that certain events occur together –Observational learning– Classical conditioning: may be two stimuli• Lightening example
–Operate conditioning: response + consequence• Seal: ball, food
We learn to expect and prepare for significant events such as food or pain ___________. We learn to repeat acts that bring good results to avoid acts that bring bad results___________. By watching others we learn new behaviors______________.
Ivan Pavlov and John B. Watson shared both a disdain for “mentalisitic” concepts (such as consciousness) and a belief that the basic laws of learning were the same for all animals
Basic form of learning http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZvCI-gNK
_y4 http://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=Nq6pekM6sZQ
• Read page 218-219 (Pavlov’s Experiments)• Unconditioned response-salvation in response
to food in the mouth• Unconditioned stimulus-food• Conditioned response-salvation is in response
to the tone• Conditioned stimulus- tone (previously neutral)• *UR and CR are almost always the same
response it’s the stimulus the elicits the response that is different
• http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nE8pFWP5QDM (Office-Altoid experiment)
IF the aroma of cake baking sets your mouth to watering, what is the US? The CS? The CR?
Classical Conditioning: When one links the neutral stimulus (US) so that the neutral stimulus begins triggering the CR.
The CS must procede the US by about ½ to 1 sec in order to bring about the CR
Girlfriend and onion example
Conditioning helps up survive and reproduce-by responding to cues that help it gain food, avoid dangers, locate mates, and produce offspring
Higher-ordering conditioning: a new neutral stimulus can become a CS. Just needs to be associated with previously neutral stimulus
• The diminished responding (CR-salvia) that occurs when the CS (tone) no longer signals an impending US (food)
• Pavlo found that if he allowed several hours to elapse before sounding the tone again, the salivation to the tone would reapper spontaneously. – This proves that extinction suppresses the CR
rather than eliminating it–Girlfriend and onion example
Quite automatic Tendency to respond to stimuli similar to
the CS (Pavlo the closer a stimulated spot was to the thigh, the stronger the CR)
Can be adaptive Food poisoning example
Result of overtraining Learned ability to distinguish between a CS
and other irrelevant stimuli Being able to recognize differences is
adaptive because of vastly different consequences
Cognitive Processes (thoughts, perceptions, expectations)
Biological Constraints on an organism’s learning capacity
• An animal can learn the predictability of an event
• The more predictable the association, the stronger the conditioned response (ex: tone before light before shock)
• The animal learns an expectancy, an awareness• Learned helplessness: hopelessness an animal
or human learns when unable to avoid traumatic events
• Classical conditioning treatments that ignore cognition often have limited success
Animal’s capacity for conditioning is constrained by its biology
Each species predisposition prepare it to learn the associations that enhance its survival
John Garcia challenged the idea that all association can be learned equally well◦ Taste aversion
• Taste aversion: examples? Food poisoning?– Secondary disgust: reminds disgusting in its own
right• Our ancestors who learned taste aversion
were unlikely to eat toxic food and therefore survive and reproduce
• Nausea, anxiety pain and other bad feelings serves as a good purpose (alerts the body to a threat)
• Learning enables an animals to adapt to their environment
Many other responses to many other stimuli can be classically conditioned in many other organisms
Showed us how a process such as learning can be studied objectively
Set the stage for behaviorism to emerge WWII article
Former drug users and drug-using context Body’s disease-fighting immune system
(taste accompanies a drug that influences response)
Watson’s and “Little Albert” operate conditioning (provided a basis)
Organisms associate their own actions with consequences. Actions followed by reinforces increase; those followed by punishers decrease
Behavior that operates on the environment to produce rewarding or punishing stimuli is operant behavior
Hot and Cold Example
Operant vs. Classical Is the organism learning associations
between events it does not control Is it learning associations between its
behavior and resulting events
Law of effect: rewarding behavior is likely to recur
Skinner designed an operant chamber, where an animal hits a bar or key to release a reward of food or water and the device records these responses
Skinner: WWII and pigeons
Reinforcers such as food guide desired behavior
First build on existing behaviors Successive approximations-reward
responses that are ever-closer to the desired behavior
Helps us understand what nonverbal organisms perceive
Reward/shape unintentionally (kid example-whining)
Shaping is important because animals rarely performed desired behaviors
Discrimination is used to show which type of stimulus gets the reaction that is reinforced (red vs. green light)
Any event that strengthens a preceding response
May tangible reward such as food or money or praise or attention or an activity (study breaks)
What’s reinforcing in one situation may not be in another (like…..)
Positive Reinforcement-strengthens a response by presenting a pleasurable stimulus◦ http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2lXh2n0aPyw
(paino) Negative Reinforcement-strengthens a
response by reducing or removing something undesirable or unpleasant◦ Snooze bottom, aspirin ◦ Negative removes a punishing event (not
punishment!!!!!!)◦ http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=euINCrDbbD4 (big
bang theory-operate conditioning)
Primary-getting food when hungry are unlearned
Conditioned-learned through association◦ Money, good grades, pleasant tone of voice, rat
example of light in skinner box
If the delay last longer than 30 seconds of the act and the reinforcement, the rat will not learn to press the bar to receive the food
Humans can respond to delayed reinforces◦ Example???
Learning to control our impulses (maturity) (marshmellow video)
However, small but immediate consequences are more alluring than big but delayed consequences (EX??)
Continuous Reinforcement: reinforcing the desired behavior every time it occurs◦ Until a behavior is mastered (quick results)◦ Problem of extinction
Partial reinforcement: responses are sometimes reinforced sometimes not◦ Slot machines
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rLD17r0U2D0◦ Even occasionally giving in: tantrums
Fixed-ratio: reinforce behavior after a set number of responses◦ Reward us with free drink after every 10 purchased
Variable-ratio: provide reinforcers after an unpredictable number of responses (slot machines)
Fixed-interval: reinforce the first response after a fixed time period (checking mail on delivery day) (anticipation)
Variable-interval: reinforce the first response after varying time intervals (email)
__________schedule involve a time element. Time must pass before reinforcement will occur
__________schedule are dependent on the behavior itself. A certain number of behaviors are needed before reinforcement will occur.
Reinforcement increase a behavior; punishment does the opposite
It decreases the frequency of a preceding behavior
Studies show that criminal behavior is not deterred by threat of severe consequences
Punished behavior is suppressed not forgotten◦ Spanking
Punishment teaches discrimination◦ Effective? Children learn to swear elsewhere
Punishment can teach fear Physical punishment may increase
aggressiveness by modeling aggression as a way to cope with problems◦ Spanked children are at increased risk for
aggression
Positive (adding) punishment Negative (subtracting) punishment:
Spanking________ Time-out________ Parking ticket_____
Parents: reframe threats to positive incentives◦ Examples?
Cognition and Operate Condition Animals and people develop a cognitive
map, a mental representation of the maze. ◦ Rat/maze, freshmen/high school
Latent Learning: learning that becomes apparent only when there is some incentive to demonstrate it
Some learning occurs after little or no systematic interaction with our environment (insight: sudden novel realization)
Intrinsic motivation: a desire to perform a behavior effectively for its own sake
Extrinsic motivation: a desire to perform a behavior to receive promised rewards or avoid punishment
Excessive rewards can undermine intrinsic motivation◦ Promising a reward can backfire
Rewards can be effective if used neither to bribe nor to control but to signal a job well done (most improved awards)
Cognitive dissonance-reconcile a conflict between attitudes and actions. Change their attitudes to support the actions
Biological Understanding◦ Biological constraints predispose organism to
learn association that are naturally adaptive◦ Instinctive drift: even trained animals act
naturally
Applications of Operant Conditioning School: students must be told immediately
what they did right or wrong and must be directed to the step to be taken next
Sports: reinforce small successes and then gradually increase the challenge◦ Shooting/basketball
Applications of Operate Conditioning Work: Partial ownership (benefits from
rewards and potential risks), rewards to increase productivity
Home: Give children attention and praise for behaving well!!! (target specific, reward it, watch it increase)
Self: state goals, monitor, reinforce, & reduce rewards gradually
Both/Same Differ
Forms of associative learning
Involve acquisition, extinction, spontaneous recovery, generalization, and discrimination
Cognitive processes and biological predispositions
Classical: organism associates different stimuli that it does not control and responds automatically
Operate: organism associates it operant behaviors (those that produce a reward or punishing stimuli) with their consequences
Higher animals can learn without direct experience through observational learning (social learning)
We learn all kinds of specific behavior by observing and imitating models (modeling)
Mirror neurons: A neural basis for imitation and observational learning
When monkey sees, these neurons mirror what another monkey does
Imitation shapes our human behavior
PET scans of different brain areas reveal that humans have a mirror neuron system that supports empathy and imitation
Helps children to infer another mental state We grasps others’ state of mind-often
feeling what they feel-by mental stimulation
We find ourselves yawning after observing another’s yawn
Harder to frown when viewing a smile Seeing a loved one’s pain, our faces mirror
their emotion
Bobo doll experiment◦ http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hHHdovKHDNU
Those who viewed the model’s actions were much more likely to lash out at the doll
By watching, we learn to anticipate a behavior’s consequences in situation like those we are observing. We are likely to imitate people we perceive as similar to ourselves, as successful, or as admirable
Prosocial models can have prosocial effects MLK drew on the power of modeling
(nonviolent action for social change) Observational learning of morality begins
early They are most effective when their actions
and words are consistent
Observational learning may have antisocial effects (absusive parents-aggressive children, men who beat their wives and wife-battering fathers)
Research suggests that exposure to media violence tends to lead to more expressions of aggression◦ However, it does not mean that EVERY person
exposed to media violence will become more aggressive
Violence viewing effect stems from:◦ http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lrHFB2KP8fc
(Marlin Mason) Imitation-observed a sevenfold increase in
violent play immediately after children viewed a more violent show (power rangers)◦ Imitated/modeled violent acts
Pro-longed exposure desensitizes viewers◦ Become more indifferent (brawl, sexual violence)