Learner Centered

7/23/2019 Learner Centered

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This historical document is derived from a 1990 APA presidential task force (revised in 1997).



This historical document is derived from a 1990 APA presidential task force (revised in 1997).This historical document is derived from a 1990 APA presidential task force (revised in 1997).This historical document is derived from a 1990 APA presidential task force (revised in 1997).This historical document is derived from a 1990 APA presidential task force (revised in 1997).

LEARNER-CENTERED PSYCHOLOGICAL PRINCIPLES:

A Framework for School Reform & Redesign

TABLE OF CONTENTS:

BackgroundLearner-Centered Principles

Prepared by the Learner-Centered Principles Work Group of the American Psychological Association's

Board of Educational Affairs BEA!" #o$ember %&&

BACKGROUND

(hroughout its history" psychology has pro$ided $ital information for the design of schooling based on

theory and research on human learning" de$elopment" and moti$ation) *esearch in psychology rele$ant

to education has been particularly informati$e during the past decade) Ad$ances in our understanding of

thinking" memory" and cogniti$e and moti$ational processes can contribute directly to impro$ements in

teaching" learning" and the +hole enterprise of schooling) At the same time" educators concerned +ith

the gro+ing problems of school dropout" lo+ le$els of academic achie$ement" and other indicators of

school failure are arguing for more learner-centered models of schooling) ,uch models attend to the

di$ersity among students" and use this di$ersity to enrich learning and to produce results +ithin the

contet of current school reform)

(he learner-centered psychological principles" +hich are consistent +ith more than a century of research

on teaching and learning" are +idely shared and implicitly recogni.ed in many ecellent programs found

in today's schools) (hey also integrate research and practice in $arious areas of psychology" including

de$elopmental" educational" eperimental" social" clinical" organi.ational" community" and school

psychology) /n addition" these principles reflect con$entional and scientific +isdom) (hey comprise not

only systematically researched and e$ol$ing learner-centered principles that can lead to effecti$e

schooling but also principles that can lead to positi$e mental health and producti$ity of our nation0s

children" their teachers" and the systems that ser$e them)

Learner-centered psychological principles pro$ide a frame+ork for de$eloping and incorporating thecomponents of ne+ designs for schooling) (hese principles emphasi.e the acti$e and reflecti$e nature of

learning and learners) 1rom this perspecti$e" educational practice +ill be most likely to impro$e +hen the

educational system is redesigned +ith the primary focus on the learner) Psychologists" in collaboration

+ith educators" can help decide ho+ best to apply sound psychological principles in the redesign of

America's schools) A ne+ and eciting $ision of schooling" and psychology's role in this $ision" can then

emerge)

2ur immediate goal in offering these learner-centered psychological principles is to pro$ide a frame+ork

that can contribute to current educational reform and school redesign efforts) (hrough dialogue +ith




concerned groups of educators" researchers" and policy makers" these learner-centered principles can

e$ol$e further to contribute not only to a ne+ design for America's schools" but also to a society

committed to lifelong learning" healthy human de$elopment" and producti$ity) /n de$eloping these

principles" psychology -- together +ith other disciplines -- can contribute to the betterment of America's

schools and the enhancement of the nation's $ital human resources)




LEARNER-CENTERED PSYCHOLOGICAL PRINCIPLES

(he follo+ing %3 psychological principles pertain to the learner and the learning process4) (hey focus on

psychological factors that are primarily internal to and under the control of the learner rather than

conditioned habits or physiological factors) 5o+e$er" the principles also attempt to ackno+ledge eternalen$ironment or contetual factors that interact +ith these internal factors)

(he principles are intended to deal holistically +ith learners in the contet of real-+orld learning situations)

(hus" they are best understood as an organi.ed set of principles6 no principle should be $ie+ed in

isolation) (he %3 principles are di$ided into those referring to cogniti$e and metacogniti$e" moti$ational

and affecti$e" de$elopmental and social" and indi$idual difference factors influencing learners and

learning) 1inally" the principles are intended to apply to all learners -- from children" to teachers" to

administrators" to parents" and to community members in$ol$ed in our educational system)

Cognitive and Metacognitive Factors

1. Nature of the lear!" #ro$e%%&

The learning of complex subect matter is most effective when it is an intentional process

of constructing meaning from information and experience!

(here are different types of learning processes" for eample" habit formation in motor learning6

and learning that in$ol$es the generation of kno+ledge" or cogniti$e skills and learning strategies)

Learning in schools emphasi.es the use of intentional processes that students can use to

construct meaning from information" eperiences" and their o+n thoughts and beliefs) ,uccessful

learners are acti$e" goal-directed" self-regulating" and assume personal responsibility for

contributing to their o+n learning) (he principles set forth in this document focus on this type oflearning)

2. Goal% of the lear!" #ro$e%%&

The successful learner" over time and with support and instructional guidance" can createmeaningful" coherent representations of knowledge!

(he strategic nature of learning re7uires students to be goal directed) (o construct useful

representations of kno+ledge and to ac7uire the thinking and learning strategies necessary for

continued learning success across the life span" students must generate and pursue personallyrele$ant goals) /nitially" students' short-term goals and learning may be sketchy in an area" but

o$er time their understanding can be refined by filling gaps" resol$ing inconsistencies" and

deepening their understanding of the sub8ect matter so that they can reach longer-term goals)

Educators can assist learners in creating meaningful learning goals that are consistent +ith both

personal and educational aspirations and interests)




3. Co%tru$t!o of 'o(le)"e&

The successful learner can link new information with existing knowledge in meaningful wa#s!

9no+ledge +idens and deepens as students continue to build links bet+een ne+ information

and eperiences and their eisting kno+ledge base) (he nature of these links can take a $arietyof forms" such as adding to" modifying" or reorgani.ing eisting kno+ledge or skills) 5o+ these

links are made or de$elop may $ary in different sub8ect areas" and among students +ith $arying

talents" interests" and abilities) 5o+e$er" unless ne+ kno+ledge becomes integrated +ith the

learner's prior kno+ledge and understanding" this ne+ kno+ledge remains isolated" cannot be

used most effecti$ely in ne+ tasks" and does not transfer readily to ne+ situations) Educators

can assist learners in ac7uiring and integrating kno+ledge by a number of strategies that ha$e

been sho+n to be effecti$e +ith learners of $arying abilities" such as concept mapping and

thematic organi.ation or categori.ing)




4. Strate"!$ th!'!"&

The successful learner can create and use a repertoire of thinking and reasoning strategies to achieve complex learning goals!

,uccessful learners use strategic thinking in their approach to learning" reasoning" problem

sol$ing" and concept learning) (hey understand and can use a $ariety of strategies to help themreach learning and performance goals" and to apply their kno+ledge in no$el situations) (hey

also continue to epand their repertoire of strategies by reflecting on the methods they use to see

+hich +ork +ell for them" by recei$ing guided instruction and feedback" and by obser$ing or

interacting +ith appropriate models) Learning outcomes can be enhanced if educators assist

learners in de$eloping" applying" and assessing their strategic learning skills)

5. Th!'!" a*out th!'!"&

$igher order strategies for selecting and monitoring mental operations facilitate creativeand critical thinking!

,uccessful learners can reflect on ho+ they think and learn" set reasonable learning or

performance goals" select potentially appropriate learning strategies or methods" and monitor

their progress to+ard these goals) /n addition" successful learners kno+ +hat to do if a problem

occurs or if they are not making sufficient or timely progress to+ard a goal) (hey can generate

alternati$e methods to reach their goal or reassess the appropriateness and utility of the goal!)

/nstructional methods that focus on helping learners de$elop these higher order metacogniti$e!

strategies can enhance student learning and personal responsibility for learning)

6. Cote+t of lear!"&%earning is influenced b# environmental factors" including culture" technolog#" andinstructional practices!

Learning does not occur in a $acuum) (eachers a ma8or interacti$e role +ith both the learner and

the learning en$ironment) Cultural or group influences on students can impact many

educationally rele$ant $ariables" such as moti$ation" orientation to+ard learning" and +ays of

thinking)

(echnologies and instructional practices must be appropriate for learners' le$el of prior

kno+ledge" cogniti$e abilities" and their learning and thinking strategies) (he classroom

en$ironment" particularly the degree to +hich it is nurturing or not" can also ha$e significant

impacts on student learning)

Motivational and Affective Factors

7. ,ot!at!oal a) e.ot!oal !flue$e% o lear!"&

hat and how much is learned is influenced b# the motivation! Motivation to learn" in

turn" is influenced b# the individual's emotional states" beliefs" interests and goals" and




habits of thinking!

(he rich internal +orld of thoughts" beliefs" goals" and epectations for success or failure can

enhance or interfere the learner's 7uality of thinking and information processing) ,tudents' beliefs

about themsel$es as learners and the nature of learning ha$e a marked influence on moti$ation)

:oti$ational and emotional factors also influence both the 7uality of thinking and information

processing as +ell as an indi$idual's moti$ation to learn) Positi$e emotions" such as curiosity"

generally enhance moti$ation and facilitate learning and performance) :ild aniety can also

enhance learning and performance by focusing the learner's attention on a particular task)

5o+e$er" intense negati$e emotions e)g)" aniety" panic" rage" insecurity! and related thoughts

e)g)" +orrying about competence" ruminating about failure" fearing punishment" ridicule" or

stigmati.ing labels! generally detract from moti$ation" interfere +ith learning" and contribute to lo+

performance)




8. Itr!%!$ .ot!at!o to lear&

The learner's creativit#" higher order thinking" and natural curiosit# all contribute tomotivation to learn! (ntrinsic motivation is stimulated b# tasks of optimal novelt# anddifficult#" relevant to personal interests" and providing for personal choice and control!

Curiosity" fleible and insightful thinking" and creati$ity are ma8or indicators of the learners'intrinsic moti$ation to learn" +hich is in large part a function of meeting basic needs to be

competent and to eercise personal control) /ntrinsic moti$ation is facilitated on tasks that

learners percei$e as interesting and personally rele$ant and meaningful" appropriate in

compleity and difficulty to the learners' abilities" and on +hich they belie$e they can succeed)

/ntrinsic moti$ation is also facilitated on tasks that are comparable to real-+orld situations and

meet needs for choice and control) Educators can encourage and support learners' natural

curiosity and moti$ation to learn by attending to indi$idual differences in learners' perceptions of

optimal no$elty and difficulty" rele$ance" and personal choice and control)

9. Effe$t% of .ot!at!o o effort&

Ac)uisition of complex knowledge and skills re)uires extended learner effort and guided practice! ithout learners' motivation to learn" the willingness to exert this effort isunlikel# without coercion!

Effort is another ma8or indicator of moti$ation to learn) (he ac7uisition of comple kno+ledge and

skills demands the in$estment of considerable learner energy and strategic effort" along +ith

persistence o$er time) Educators need to be concerned +ith facilitating moti$ation by strategies

that enhance learner effort and commitment to learning and to achie$ing high standards of

comprehension and understanding) Effecti$e strategies include purposeful learning acti$ities"

guided by practices that enhance positi$e emotions and intrinsic moti$ation to learn" and methods

that increase learners' perceptions that a task is interesting and personally rele$ant)

*evelopmental and Social Factors

10. Deelo#.etal !flue$e% o lear!"&

As individuals develop" there are different opportunities and constraints for

learning! %earning is most effective when differential development within and across

ph#sical" intellectual" emotional" and social domains is taken into account!

/ndi$iduals learn best +hen material is appropriate to their de$elopmental le$el and is presented

in an en8oyable and interesting +ay) Because indi$idual de$elopment $aries across intellectual"

social" emotional" and physical domains" achie$ement in different instructional domains may also

$ary) 2$eremphasis on one type of de$elopmental readiness--such as reading readiness" for

eample--may preclude learners from demonstrating that they are more capable in other areas of

performance) (he cogniti$e" emotional" and social de$elopment of indi$idual learners and ho+

they interpret life eperiences are affected by prior schooling" home" culture" and community

factors) Early and continuing parental in$ol$ement in schooling" and the 7uality of language

interactions and t+o-+ay communications bet+een adults and children can influence these




de$elopmental areas) A+areness and understanding of de$elopmental differences among

children +ith and +ithout emotional" physical" or intellectual disabilities" can facilitate the creation

of optimal learning contets)

11. So$!al !flue$e% o lear!"&

%earning is influenced b# social interactions" interpersonal relations" and communicationwith others!

Learning can be enhanced +hen the learner has an opportunity to interact and to collaborate +ith

others on instructional tasks) Learning settings that allo+ for social interactions" and that respect




di$ersity" encourage fleible thinking and social competence) /n interacti$e and collaborati$e

instructional contets" indi$iduals ha$e an opportunity for perspecti$e taking and reflecti$e

thinking that may lead to higher le$els of cogniti$e" social" and moral de$elopment" as +ell as

self-esteem) ;uality personal relationships that pro$ide stability" trust" and caring can increase

learners' sense of belonging" self-respect and self-acceptance" and pro$ide a positi$e climate for

learning) 1amily influences" positi$e interpersonal support and instruction in self-moti$ation

strategies can offset factors that interfere +ith optimal learning such as negati$e beliefs about

competence in a particular sub8ect" high le$els of test aniety" negati$e se role epectations" and

undue pressure to perform +ell) Positi$e learning climates can also help to establish the contet

for healthier le$els of thinking" feeling" and beha$ing) ,uch contets help learners feel safe to

share ideas" acti$ely participate in the learning process" and create a learning community)

(ndividual *ifferences Factors

12. I)!!)ual )!ffere$e% ! lear!"&

%earners have different strategies" approaches" and capabilities for learning that are a

function of prior experience and heredit#!

/ndi$iduals are born +ith and de$elop their o+n capabilities and talents) /n addition" through

learning and social acculturation" they ha$e ac7uired their o+n preferences for ho+ they like to

learn and the pace at +hich they learn) 5o+e$er" these preferences are not al+ays useful in

helping learners reach their learning goals) Educators need to help students eamine their

learning preferences and epand or modify them" if necessary) (he interaction bet+een learner

differences and curricular and en$ironmental conditions is another key factor affecting learning

outcomes) Educators need to be sensiti$e to indi$idual differences" in general) (hey also need to

attend to learner perceptions of the degree to +hich these differences are accepted and adapted

to by $arying instructional methods and materials)

13. Lear!" a) )!er%!t/&

%earning is most effective when differences in learners' linguistic" cultural" and socialbackgrounds are taken into account!

(he same basic principles of learning" moti$ation" and effecti$e instruction apply to all learners)

5o+e$er" language" ethnicity" race" beliefs" and socioeconomic status all can influence learning)

Careful attention to these factors in the instructional setting enhances the possibilities fordesigning and implementing appropriate learning en$ironments) When learners percei$e that their

indi$idual differences in abilities" backgrounds" cultures" and eperiences are $alued" respected"

and accommodated in learning tasks and contets" le$els of moti$ation and achie$ement are

enhanced)




14. Sta)ar)% a) a%%e%%.et&

Setting appropriatel# high and challenging standards and assessing the learner as well aslearning progress ++ including diagnostic" process" and outcome assessment ++ areintegral parts of the learning process!

Assessment pro$ides important information to both the learner and teacher at all stages of thelearning process) Effecti$e learning takes place +hen learners feel challenged to +ork to+ards

appropriately high goals6 therefore" appraisal of the learner's cogniti$e strengths and

+eaknesses" as +ell as current kno+ledge and skills" is important for the selection of instructional

materials of an optimal degree of difficulty) 2ngoing assessment of the learner's understanding of

the curricular material can pro$ide $aluable feedback to both learners and teachers about

progress to+ard the learning goals) ,tandardi.ed assessment of learner progress and outcomes

assessment pro$ides one type of information about achie$ement le$els both +ithin and across

indi$iduals that can inform $arious types of programmatic decisions) Performance assessments




can pro$ide other sources of information about the attainment of learning outcomes) ,elf-

assessments of learning progress can also impro$e students self appraisal skills and enhance

moti$ation and self-directed learning)

4 (he de$elopment of each principle in$ol$ed thorough discussions of the research supporting that

principle) (he multidisciplinary research epertise of the (ask 1orce and Work Group members facilitatedan eamination of each principle from a number of different research perspecti$es)

Center for Psychology in ,chools and Education

APA Education <irectorate

=> 1irst ,treet" #)E)

Washington" <C ?>>>?

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Lear!" #ro$e%%

Kolb identified to separate learnin! activities that occur in the learnin! c"cle#

• perception (the a" e take in information) and

• processing (ho e deal ith information).

This is represented on the dia!ram as to a$is dividin! the c"cle into four %uadrants.

&ach %uadrant represents different learnin! processes as follos#

• Converging processes relate to brin!in! a number of perspectives to findin! a sin!le anser ' usuall"

ri!ht or ron!. ou ma" use this a" of thinkin! in a scientific conte$t.

• Diverging processes are about !eneratin! a number of accounts of different e$periences. T"picall" the

are more creative processes.

• Assimilating processes describe (rou!hl") the takin! in of ne knoled!e.

• Accommodating processes describe (a!ain rou!hl") the related of the ne knoled!e to our prior

e$periences and beliefs.




LESSON 01: USING THE PRO2ECT-BASED LEARNING ,ULTI,EDIA AS TEACHING-LEARNINGSTRATEGY

This lesson is about the effective use of pro*ect+based multimedia learnin! re%uires throu!h

plannin!. ,nitial plannin! involves# clarif"in! !oals and ob*ectives determinin! ho much time is needed ande$tent of students involvement in decision makin! settin! up forms of collaboration identif"in! and determin

hat resources are needed and decidin! on the mode to measure hat students learn.

The various phases of the pro*ect include# before the pro*ect starts introduction of the pro*ect

learnin! the technolo!" preliminar" research and plannin! concept desi!n and stor"boardin! first draft production assessin! testin! and finali-in! presentations and concludin! activities. The su!!ested steps for e

phase ere outlined in this lesson.

There are steps on the process of multimedia creations

Plannin!+ settin! a !oal choosin! a theme specif"in! the purpose. /esearchin!+ collectin! information from a variet" of sources.

r!anisin!+ arran!in! and displa"in! the ideas(ritin! la"out !raphics ect.) evelopin!+ puttin! ever"thin! into the computer

2ommunicatin!+ Presentin! the pro*ect to an audience

&valuatin!+ hat orked3 hat needs improvement3 on4t be turned off b" the man" steps presented here on usin! pro*ect+based multimedia learni

5ust bear in mind that e use the strate!" to enable the student to remember and understand better content as th

perform real+orld tasks such as researchin! for ansers problems anal"-in! assessin! makin! decisions

orkin! ith others. ou are not tied to the steps shon here. Provided "ou kno hat "ou ant to accompliscommon sense ill tell "ou ho to !et there. 6ut ever" be!inner needs a roadmap to simpl" her task. After "ou

first venture into pro*ect+based multimedia learnin! "ou ma" be able to come up ith a more simple roadmap.

USING THE PRO2ECT-BASED LEARNING ,ULTI,EDIA AS A TEACHING-LEARNING STRATEGY

The effective use of Pro*ect+base multimedia learnin! re%uires throu!h plannin!

,nitial Plannin! ,nvolves#

A. 2larif"in! !oals and ob*ectives.

6. eterminin! ho much time is needed and e$tent of students involvement in

the makin!.

2. ettin! up forms of collaboration.

. ,dentif"in! and determinin! hat resources are needed

&. ecidin! on the mode to measure hat students learn.

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This are the various phases of the pro*ect included #

A. 6efore the pro*ect starts.

6. ,ntroduction of the pro*ect

2. 8earnin! the technolo!"

. Preliminar" research and plannin!&. 2oncept desi!n and stor" boardin!

. irst draft production

:. Assessin! testin! and finali-in! presentations

;. 2oncludin! activities.

PRO2ECT BASED LEARNING AND ,ULTI,EDIA: 3hat !% !t4

1. <hat is pro*ect+based multimedia learnin!3

Pro*ect+based multimedia learnin! is a teachin! method in hich students =ac%uire n

knoled!e and skills in the course of desi!nin! plannin! and producin! multimedia product=

>. <h" use pro*ect+based multimedia learnin!3

6ecause it is =value added= to "our teachin!. ,t is poerful motivator as proven in the

class. ,t activel" en!a!es a!es students in the learnin! task. tudents are likeise en!a!ed in th

production of multimedia presentation.

?. <hat are the disadvanta!es of the use of pro*ect+based learnin! and multimedia pro*ect3

ou need time to orient the students on hat are e$pected of them !uideline of th

!uidelines !oals and ob*ectives of the pro*ect and more so for "our students to !ather

or!ani-e their data ork on their presentations and the like. ,f the basic computer courses did

teach them these skills demanded b" this strate!" there ill be a problem. The tendenc" to l

track of the !oals and ob*ectives of "our lesson because the technolo!" aspect has !otten

limeli!ht.

@. <hat are the elements of pro*ect+based multimedia learnin!3

The elements of pro*ect+based multimedia learnin! are#

Ø core curriculum

Ø real+orld connection

Ø e$tended time frame

Ø student decision makin!

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Ø collaboration

Ø assessment

Ø multimedia

Pro*ect based multimedia learnin! does not onl" involve in user of multimedia learni

The students end up ion ith the multimedia product to sho hat the" learn. The !oals

ob*ectives of a pro*ect is are based on the core curriculum as laid don in the circular standa

and are made cr"stals clear to students at the be!innin! of the pro*ect.

ROLES AND FUNCTION OF AN EDUCATIONAL ,EDIA CENTER

<hat is an educational media center3

The &ducational edia 2enter functions as a vital instrument as ell as a b

re%uirement for %ualit" education b" enrichin! all parts of the school4s educational process. Anis desi!ned for the housin! and utili-ation of all educational media ith in the school.

Ø ,t reflects and supports the philosoph" of the school.

Ø ,t shares and implements the school aims and ob*ectives.

Ø ,t is involved in the teachin! and learnin! process.

Ø ,t is a source center.

Ø ,t is a learnin! laborator".

Ø ,t is a teachin! a!enc".

Ø ,t is a service a!enc".

Ø A coordinatin! a!enc".

Ø A center for recreational readin! viein! and listenin!

/oles of &2

Ø center for resources.

Ø laborator" for learnin!

Ø a!ent of teachin!

Ø service a!enc"

Ø coordinatin! a!enc"

Ø recreational readin! center Ø a steppin! stone to the other recreational activities in school.

BC2T,C &2

Ø edia and instruction

Ø the instructional media services

Ø classroom facilities

Ø media pro!ram

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An &2 is a facilit" of the school s"stem tasked to re%uire maintain care

promote the full effective used of educational media. ,t houses the both old ne technolo

meant to make learnin! more efficient and effective. ,t facilitates and ensures the optimum use

all instructional media. ,t or!ani-es learnin! activities for students and teachers alike for them

up!rade and improve on their technolo!" manipulative skills all fort he purpose of motivat

them to keep on developin! on their communications anal"tical inte!rative creative

collaborative skills for meanin!ful lifelon! learnin!.

,a+!.!5!" the U%e of the Oerhea) Pro6e$tor a) the Chal'*oar)

The overhead projector is probably one of the most versatile and useful visual aids that has been m

available to the modern-day lecturer. The overhead projector has long since replaced the traditi

chalkboard as one of the main teaching aids and is used in lecture theaters and classrooms all over

world.

Even though computer-based data projectors are increasing in popularity they are indeed very e!pen

and this means that they are in no way a match for the overhead projector. Therefore it is very impor

for lecturers and teachers to know how to use overhead projectors effectively so as to e!ploit its potentia

the ma!imum level

"trengths of the #verhead $rojector than Chalkboard

The overhead projector definitely has a number of advantages that would outdo most other visual teach

aids. %or instance a lecturer can use it in just the same way that he or she would use a chalkboard but th

biggest advantage would be that with the overhead projector lecturers all over the world now get to face

whole class and maintain eye contact all times with their students instead of having to turn around and

write. As a teacher you would know that this eye contact plays a very big role in both facilitative as well

e!pository teaching and serves both as a means of receiving feedback from the class on how good or bad

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the session is and as an outward non-verbal communication medium for the teacher.

Another very important benefit that the overhead projector has over the chalkboard is that it is multi-

purpose and can be used to present pre-prepared material which enables lecturers to build notes tables

diagrams and so on. and these can be used anytime repeatedly.

&f designed well and planned well these overhead transparencies will provide all the aides and cues that

needed during a lecture so that you don't have to resort to the conventional note taking. These overhead

transparencies are fairly compact when you compare them with some of the other types of visual aids lik

charts and can easily be stored in bo!es folders files or large envelopes.

As compared to most other projected visual aids the overhead projector also has another big advantage

it does not re(uire a room to be darkened so it allows students to take notes easily. &t can also be used in

any kind of room e!cept ones with e!treme bright lights or in the direct sunlight.

The overhead projector is (uiet 'user-friendly' and clean and re(uires no technical knowledge or skill o

the part of the person operating it apart of course from the ability to change the lamps occasionally.

)eaknesses of the #verhead $rojector

The drawbacks of the overhead projector include the basic fact that it re(uires a constant power supply

also re(uires a white flat surface on which its image can be projected. Another disadvantage is that if the

surface is not suitable inclined at the correct angle the image will suffer from a phenomenon called

'keystoning'.

*nlike marker boards and chalkboards overhead projectors re(uire a small amount of maintenance. Th

are more likely to crack or break so you must be very careful and always keep a spare bulb close at han

Another disadvantage is that some teachers find the glare that is emitted from the overhead projector (u

bothersome even though this can be overcome by attaching a shade to the device.

+esides these hardware 'glitches' the basic problems that are associated with the overhead projectors ar

from the fact that most users do not really provide enough thought or consideration to the production of

their display material. The writing is generally too untidy or too small and can't be read easily and apar

from this it could also e!tend beyond the area of transparency. ,ecturers and teachers always forget tha

this illuminated projection area in the overhead projector is not the same e!act sie as the acetate sheets

that produce the transparencies. owever most overhead projectors are still of the older 's(uare' variety

,astly lecturers and teachers tend to overuse these projectors only because they are so convenient. They

employ it in situations where on other occasions other visual aids would have been more effective.

Tea$h!" 3!th 7!%ual S/.*ol

Teachin! ith visual s"mbols the teacher makes use of abstract representation such as !raphs dia!rams comi

strip chart and cartoons. These visual s"mbols orth a thousand ords because the" are easier to understand ords of a para!raph.

1. :raph is consist of diff. t"pes#Pie !raph

http://galamitonmonyenlec.blogspot.com/2012/01/teaching-with-visual-symbol.html






- use for shoin! parts of the hole.

6ar !raph

- use in comparin! the ma!nitude of similar items at diff. ties.

Pictorial !raph- makes use of picture s"mbols.

>. 2artoons

- these s"mbols can brin! novelt" to teachin!. The" tell the stor" metamorphic all"

?. 2omic strip

- this can be used b" teacher for educational and entertainin!. This can serves as motivation and starter of the

lesson.

@. ia!ram

- this is an" line drain! that shos arran!ements and relations as to part of the hole relative values ori!ins

development chronolo!ical fluctuation and distribution.

,t is composin! of three t"pesD

a. Affinit" dia!ram

- use to cluster comple$ apparentl" unrelated data into natural and meanin!ful !roups.

b. ish bone

- it is also called cause+and+effect dia!ram. ,t is a structured form of brainstormin! that !raphicall" shos

relationship of possible causes and sub+causes directl" related to an identified effect or problem.

c. Tree dia!ram

- depicts development !roth and chan!e b" be!innin! ith a sin!le course hich spreads out in man" branc

E. 2hart- this is a dia!rammatic representation of relationship amon! individuals ithin an or!ani-ation.

,t is compose of diff. t"pes#

- lo chart+s visual a" of shoin! a process from the be!innin! to the end.

- r!ani-ational chart+shos ho are part of the or!ani-ation relates to other parts of the or!ani-ation

- Pareto chart+t"pe of bar chart prioriti-ed in descendin! order of ma!nitude from left and ri!ht.

- :annt chart+is an activit" time chart.

- Time chart+a tabular time chart that presents data in ordinal se%uence.

The Coe of E+#er!e$e

+ + The cone device is a visual metaphor of learning experiences, in which the various type

audio-visual materials are arranged in the order of increasing abstractness as

proceeds from direct experiences.

+ The sensory aids in the cone of experience is often overlap and sometimesblend into one another.

http://galamitonmonyenlec.blogspot.com/2011/11/cone-of-experience.html

http://galamitonmonyenlec.blogspot.com/2011/11/cone-of-experience.html




+ For teaching implication is to avoid teaching directly at the symbolic level ofthought without adequate foundation of the concrete

Here’s a version with some overlays to indicate those learning activitiethat are active and passive

ctive learning would include those activities that charge our brains a

capacities to remember what we are experiencing! "assive learning wo

include those activities that people can still learn from, but not generally

e#ective as active learning.

$iven this, we should reali%e that every human being is di#erent! &e

instructors and educators should be 'exible to adapt to every perso

learning style and see( out their needs



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