Leadership in Desperate Times: An Analysis of Endurance: Shackleton's Incredible Voyage through the Lens of Leadership Theory

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2007 9: 183Advances in Developing Human ResourcesBlair W. Browning

Incredible Voyage through the Lens of Leadership TheoryLeadership in Desperate Times: An Analysis of Endurance: Shackleton's

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Leadership in Desperate Times:An Analysis of Endurance:Shackleton’s Incredible Voyage through the Lens ofLeadership Theory

Blair W. Browning

The problem and the solution. Ernest Shackleton led a crew onthe Endurance that would attempt to be the first group of individualsto cross the Antarctic continent overland.Only one day’s sail away fromthe land, the Endurance became “iced in” and eventually sank, leavingthe men with limited supplies. Shackleton’s new goal quickly becamegetting every man home alive.Alfred Lansing’s account of this amazingstory,Endurance: Shackleton’s Incredible Voyage, shows actual photographsand utilizes vivid accounts from different crew members’ journals.Shackleton’s leadership is viewed as nothing short of spectacular duringthis journey, and this article highlights three leadership approaches/theories he displayed in this remarkable story: the skills and the styleapproaches and the contingency theory. Finally, this article offersvarious exercises and teaching tools that may aid instructors as theyuse this story in the classroom.

Keywords: Shackleton; Endurance; leadership; skills approach; styleapproach; contingency theory

“For scientific leadership give me Scott; for swift and efficient travel,Amundsen; but when you are in a hopeless situation, when there seems noway out, get down on your knees and pray for Shackleton.”

Alfred Lansing (2002, p. 14)

Exemplars of strong leadership are in constant demand and are quickly writtenup and described in various forms and forums in modern culture. However, itwould be naive to believe that these excellent examples of leadership can onlycome from the current day. Recently, there has been a renewed examination inboth the academic and practitioner worlds of a story from early in the 20thcentury that points to one of the most amazing examples of leadership that the

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world has experienced: Sir Ernest Shackleton and his voyage on theEndurance.

There have been multiple books and movies (including a recent IMAXfilm) that have told the story of Shackleton; this article focuses on AlfredLansing’s epic account of the 1914-1916 Imperial Trans-Antarctic Expedition,entitled Endurance: Shackleton’s Incredible Voyage. This article utilizes thisnonfiction piece of literature as an example of how one can teach or facilitatediscussions about leadership theory using a historical event re-created throughthis text as a means to further our understanding of this pertinent aspect oforganizational life.

This article provides a brief synopsis of the account that Shackleton and hismen experienced but trusts that those reading it will have also read the book.Thus, details are provided but certainly not an in-depth, conclusive reportof the book. The article provides learning opportunities as certain leadershiptheories/approaches are highlighted in conjunction with accounts fromEndurance. In order to provide some practical steps for teachers and/or facil-itators, this article concludes with a table summarizing some potential activi-ties that can be utilized in conjunction with this nonfiction book in order tofurther our understanding of leadership.

Endurance is a remarkable real-life story of heroic leadership and unre-lenting perseverance through seemingly impossible odds. The 27-man crew ofthe Endurance, led by the famous British explorer Sir Ernest Shackleton, cameto brilliantly exemplify the character reflected in the ship’s very name. Thegoal of the men on the Endurance was to be the first individuals to ever crossthe Antarctic continent overland from west to east. However, as temperaturesdropped, the Endurance froze and the men were shipwrecked in the viciousAntarctic with little hope of survival. Shackleton refused to allow his men togive up hope, even after the Endurance sank and they were left to riding icefloes and their small lifeboats. Rather, he led them effectively through a try-ing, perilous quest for survival, ultimately succeeding and leading them homedespite facing nearly every hindrance imaginable. Upon the British crew’sarrival in Germany at the peak of World War I, they received a hero’s welcomedespite their nationality, due to the awe the Germans felt at the unbelievablefeat of surviving and returning home.

“Succeeding” may be a peculiar way to frame the expedition since it actu-ally failed, if measured solely by its stated goals. At a minimum, however, itmust be considered an extremely successful failure. Shackleton’s crew neverexperienced the goal of the expedition—to actually cross the Antarcticoverland—but through their unfortunate encounters in their journey one is ableto see how Shackleton led his crew. Many of the men kept journals thatrecorded many uncertain encounters that allow us to vividly experienceShackleton’s leadership in action. His leadership would be tested throughoutthe journey in every context and situation imaginable, and some unimaginable,but he always came through as a shining example.

Advances in Developing Human Resources May 2007184



Although there are many leadership theories and approaches that can beinformed by this book, this article specifically teases out three leadershipapproaches or theories illustrated through this riveting story: the skills approach,the style approach, and the contingency theory. The skills approach wasselected because it is a leader-centered approach and the primary focus of thisbook is on Shackleton’s ability to lead his men. Further, the book emphasizestechnical and human skills that are not simply innate characteristics, such aspersonality; these skills can be learned and developed. Shackleton came by hisskills through his past experience; part of the reason the men respected him somuch was due to his superior knowledge. The style approach was selectedbecause it emphasizes the behavior of the leader toward both tasks and inter-personal relationships. Shackleton frequently led his men by example, resolvedinterpersonal conflicts among the crew, and tackled the insurmountable task ofsurvival—making the style approach a natural fit with this historic account.Finally, the contingency theory was selected because it attempts to matchleaders to appropriate situations. The leader’s effectiveness is, in essence, howwell the leader’s style fits the context. The unforeseen events that took placeduring this expedition would have caused a lesser person to stumble, butShackleton’s style fit the unknown context— primarily because of his skills andhis style. As a result, though there are many theories and approaches that couldbe highlighted, the skills and style approaches and contingency theory stood outas providing excellent material from which to examine this work of nonfiction.

The Leadership LinkIn order to understand the magnitude of this journey, Lansing (2002) noted,

“After Shackleton’s failure, the crossing of the continent remained untried[emphasis added] for fully forty-three years—until 1957-1958 . . . Even Fuchs(leader of that expedition), though his party was equipped with heated, trackedvehicles and powerful radios, and guided by reconnaissance planes and dogteams, was strongly urged to give up” (p. 9). Shackleton and his men obviouslydid not have these luxuries, which makes the story that much more intriguing.It was imperative that Shackleton had skills that would be necessary to not onlysucceed under optimal circumstances but also help in a treacherous situation.

Skills Approach

As mentioned above, the skills approach focuses on the competencies thata leader possesses and recognizes that these leadership skills are able to belearned. Mumford, Zaccaro, Harding, Jacobs, and Fleishman (2000) devel-oped a skills model of leadership that focuses on these competencies.However, Katz (1955) provided the impetus for examining leadership skills.Traditionally, leadership had been examined from a trait perspective or onethat studied solely the leader’s personality. Katz believed leadership depended

Browning / LEADERSHIP IN DESPERATE TIMES 185



on three basic personal skills: technical, human, and conceptual, which wereskills that were different from those that other leadership theories studied.

Katz (1955) stated, “Skills imply what leaders can accomplish whereas traitsimply who leaders are” (as cited in Northouse, 2004, p. 36). Shackleton wasobviously skilled in a specific, technical area and had been on the seas most ofhis life. One South Pole Web site noted:

Longing for the sea, Ernest at the age of sixteen in 1890 went to Liverpool and joined the fullrigger Hoghton Tower, which would make up Ernest’s first experience at sea. Shackleton wenton to spend five years sailing to and from the Far East and America. In 1896, without muchdifficulty, Shackleton passed for First Mate. In April 1898, he was certified as Master. At theage of twenty-four [emphasis added] he had qualified to command a British ship anywhere onthe seven seas. (South-Pole.com)

There is certainly no argument that Shackleton possessed the technical skillnecessary to command the Endurance, but an interesting note is that technicalskills are typically less important the higher one’s position. However, inShackleton’s case, his technical skills, as well as those of the crew that he handselected, were of vital importance. Due to the hands-on nature of command-ing a ship and particularly as a result of the trials that lay ahead, Shackleton’stechnical skills proved invaluable. Many individuals possess either technical orhuman skill, which are quite different from one another; Shackleton seemed toexude both.

Katz (1955) stated, “Human skill is having knowledge about and being ableto work with people. It is quite different from technical skill, which has to dowith working with things” (as cited in Northouse, 2004, p. 37). Northouse(2004) continued, “To be a leader with human skills means being sensitive tothe needs and motivations of others, and taking into account others’ needs inone’s decision making” (p. 37). This process of being able to both lead peopleand yet also work alongside them is a struggle for some leaders, as manyleaders today enjoy the hierarchical separation between themselves and lower-level employees. This separation was nonexistent for Shackleton, who lived,ate, slept, and worked up close with his “employees” on a daily basis.

Shackleton walked this delicate tightrope of being friendly with the crewwhile at the same time acknowledging his position as their superior. To themen, “he was addressed simply as ‘Boss’—by officers, scientists, and seamenalike. It was really more a title than a nickname. It had a pleasant ring of famil-iarity about it, but at the same time ‘Boss’ had the connotation of absoluteauthority” (Lansing, 2002, pp. 85-86). Shackleton was unafraid to seek coun-sel from a few of the men that he had past expedition history with, but in theend the decision making was done by him alone. However, those decisionsalways prioritized the crew’s well-being rather than what was simply best forhim. For example, he recognized that Hurley “was also the sort of man whoresponded best to flattery” (Lansing, 2002, p. 73). Being aware of details likethis enabled Shackleton to somewhat cater to these needs. At one point he evenassigned Hurley to his own tent, “which appealed to Hurley’s snobbishness




and also minimized his opportunities for gathering other latent malcontentsaround himself ” (p. 73). This episode reflects just one story of howShackleton utilized the human skill portion of this approach. He frequentlydisplayed an uncanny understanding of his men and what made them tick.

Another example regarding tent assignments was the fact that in addition toHurley, Shackleton also put himself in a tent with Hudson and James. Lansing(2002) noted,

Hudson was just as he had always been, simple and a little irritating. His attempts at humorwere often more foolish than funny because he lacked perception . . . he was quite self-centered and a poor listener. . . . Shackleton was not at all fond of Hudson, but he preferredputting up with him to inflicting him on others. (p. 74)

As one in charge, Shackleton could have very easily moved Hudson in withsomeone else because there were certainly enough things to be thinking aboutwithout being further bothered by a tent-mate. However, Shackleton never dis-counted the possibility of discontent or anger spreading among the other men. Hewanted to either immediately defuse discontent as it arose or, as in this case, nevergive it a chance to spread in the first place by having Hudson within his own tent.

The third skill necessary for leaders within this approach are conceptualskills, which are believed to be vital for those in top management positions.Northouse (2004) stated that “conceptual skills involve the ability to work withideas. . . . A leader with conceptual skills works easily with abstractions andhypothetical notions” (p. 36). There are numerous events that describeShackleton being forced to deal not only with what had happened but also withwhat might happen, which shows his ability to exemplify these conceptual skills.

At one point on the journey, Shackleton called everyone together andexplained that all excess weight had to be left behind, excluding two poundsof personal gear. Other than a few exceptions, such as the men who wanted tokeep their journals, this was a strict policy and Shackleton provided leadershipin action.

Speaking with the utmost conviction, Shackleton pointed out that no article was of any value whenweighed against their ultimate survival, and he exhorted them to be ruthless of its value. After hehad spoken, he reached under his parka and took out a gold cigarette case and several gold sov-ereigns and threw them into the snow at his feet. Then he opened the Bible Queen Alexandra hadgiven them and ripped out the flyleaf and the page containing the Twenty-third Psalm. . . . Thenhe laid the Bible in the snow and walked away. It was a dramatic gesture, but that was the wayShackleton wanted it. From studying the outcome of past expeditions, he believed that those thatburdened themselves with equipment to meet every contingency had fared much worse than thosethat had sacrificed total preparedness for speed. (Lansing, 2002, pp. 64-65)

Through Shackleton’s study of past expeditions, he understood that theywould face challenges that they had not expected, and he was prepared to dealwith the unknown. While it is impossible to prepare for every contingency, themen knew that Shackleton had wrestled with many of them in his mind before they had departed due to both his study of others’ expeditions and hisknowledge that he had acquired through more than two decades of experience.




Northouse (2004) noted, “The [skills] model is characterized as a capabil-ity model because it examines the relationship between a leader’s knowledgeand skills (i.e., capabilities) and the leader’s performance. Leadership capabil-ities can be developed over time through education and experience” (p. 39).Table 1 summarizes some examples of how this work of nonfiction highlightsthe skills approach. Since there is a strong human element to the skillsapproach, it provides a nice segue into another approach that should be exam-ined within the context of this journey—the style approach.

Style Approach

Whereas the skills approach concerns a leader’s capabilities, the styleapproach focuses on what leaders do and how they act. Hackman and Johnson(2004) noted that “styles can be pared down to two primary models ofcommunication: one model compares authoritarian, democratic, and laissez-faire styles of leadership communication; a second model contrasts task andinterpersonal leadership communication” (p. 36). The style approach focuseson behavior and explains how leaders combine task and relationship behaviorsto influence subordinates in their efforts to reach a goal. Due to the volume ofliterature, this section of the article focuses on one of the most prominentlyused models within the style approach. Blake and Mouton (1964) initially


TABLE 1: Skills Approach as Identified through Endurance

Skills Approach as Defined by Katz (1955) Example from Endurance Text

Technical Skills: Knowledge and profi- Shackleton was certified as Master ciency in a specific type of work at age 22, and was qualified to or activity. Competencies in use command any British ship anywhere of appropriate tools or techniques. by age 24.

Human Skills: Knowledge about and Shackleton realized that Hurley responded being able to work with people. to flattery and was a bit of a malcontent.Working effectively with Thus, Shackleton shared his own tent subordinates, peers, and superiors with Hurley to both appeal to Hurley’s to successfully accomplish goals. snobbishness and to keep him away

from others where opportunities tospread discontent existed.

Conceptual Skills:Ability to work with Shackleton believed that speed was more ideas and concepts.Works easily important than total preparedness and with abstractions and speculation thus required his men to leave behind or conjecture. most personal belongings with few

exceptions—one of which was a man’s journal.



developed the managerial grid, which has since been refined and revised byBlake and McCanse (1991) and named the leadership grid.

The leadership grid was an effort to reflect the manner in which leaders reachtheir goals based upon their concern for production and concern for people.Northouse (2004) stated, “The style approach works not by telling leaders howto behave, but by describing the major components of their behavior. . . . It offersa means of assessing in a general way the behaviors of leaders” (pp. 73-74). Thisapproach is intriguing because it states the leader’s style in fluid rather thanabsolute terms. Consequently, there is freedom for the leader to assess his or herstyle and adapt to exhibit more of either task or relationship behaviors.

The grid is divided into five distinct dimensions based upon the concern forproduction and concern for people. Thus, there is a range from a leader who ishighly concerned with production with a very low concern for people—an“authority-compliance” leader—to the exact opposite type of leader who haslow concerns for production and high concerns for people—the “country-club” leader. The “middle-of-the-road” manager has an equal balance,whereas the “impoverished management” leader actually lacks concern inboth areas. Blake and McCanse (1991) believe that the ideal leadership styleis categorized within the dimension called “team management,” which has ahigh concern for both people and production.

There were times in which Shackleton certainly showed an autocratic style,but one would be hard-pressed to subject him to the authoritarian-compliancedimension. There are multiple instances in Endurance that describeShackleton placing the crew’s needs before his own. At the same time, he wasextremely concerned that the men stayed on task. Although it is difficult toplace Shackleton in a box or in a certain style, the team management approachaptly depicts his general style (see Table 2 for examples).

The label “team management” may initially cause some hesitation when onethinks of strong examples individual leadership. However, Northouse (2004) dis-cussed work accomplishment as coming from committed people, and assertedthat “interdependence through a ‘common stake’ in organization purpose leads torelationships of trust and respect” (p. 70). The men on the Endurance shared aninitial common stake that had to be adjusted along the way, but without the inter-dependence that the men showed in desperate times, their ultimate purpose ofsurvival and a safe return never could have been accomplished.

All leaders are accountable to some extent for their followers and theiractions, especially when the leader is the one that has assembled the group—as Shackleton did. As a result, Shackleton felt strongly that it was his duty tolook after those under his command. Lansing (2002) said, “He felt he had got-ten them into their situation, and it was his responsibility to get them out”(p. 73). He continued, “He was simply emotionally incapable of forgetting—even for an instant—his position and the responsibility it entailed” (p. 86).Thus, the men were fully aware that they had a leader who was concerned forthem and was fully committed to the task of getting them home safely. The men




knew that he was the right man for the job and that his leadership ability fit thesituation at hand, which leads to the final leadership theory to be examined.

Contingency Theory

Fiedler and Chemers (1974) said that contingency theory is a leader-matchtheory, which means it tries to match leaders to appropriate situations. Nort-house (2004) stated, “It is called contingency because it suggests that aleader’s effectiveness depends on how well the leader’s style fits the context”(p. 109). While other theories, such as the situation theory would argue thatdifferent situations demand different types of leadership, the contingencytheory is more interested in finding a leader who has the correct style to matchthe existing situation. Gill (2006) said that Fiedler argues that “it is more dif-ficult for a leader to change his or her style to suit the situation than it is tochange the leader according to the situation” (p. 47). Debate could ensue as towhether Shackleton’s leadership style would be effective in other contexts, butthere is no question that he was a perfect situational match for those on theEndurance expedition.

There are three factors that make up contingency theory: leader-memberrelations, task structure, and position power. Examples from the book that


TABLE 2: Team Management Style Approach as Identified through Endurance

Team Management Dimension of the Style Approach as Defined by

Blake and McCanse (1991) Example from Endurance Text

Team Management:This dimension Attempting to find a solid ice floe,shows an equal amount of Shackleton and his men had trekked importance and concern on 2.5 miles. However, he became uneasy production and on people, or as about the floe and while “the thought Northouse (2004) stated,“tasks and of quitting was abhorrent” and he interpersonal relationships” (p. 71). did not like retreating,“prudence

demands this course” (p. 96). Shackleton required production, but he alsorefused to place his men in any more danger than necessary.

Encourages employee/subordinate Shackleton would roll cigarettes for involvement and commitment by himself and Worsley and they spoke promoting participation. of many things. He would ask Worsley’s

opinion of things (pp. 220-221).Further, he would create shifts for the

men throughout the expedition in which each man would be counted on to perform his duties.



reflect these three factors can be found in Table 3. The type of group atmos-phere that the leader has created is one way to gauge leader-member relationsand whether they are positive or negative. In other words, is the group atmos-phere one of trust and loyalty, among other things, or is it marked by frictionwithin the group and an unfriendly environment? As mentioned previously,Shackleton was very intentional about stemming any possible discord amongthe crew and desired a positive atmosphere despite the enormous challengesthey were faced with on a daily basis.

One of Shackleton’s reasons for quelling a potential dispute or a challengeto his authority was revealed in the book: “Shackleton felt that if dissensionarose, the party as a whole might not put forth that added ounce of energywhich could mean, at a time of crisis, the difference between survival anddefeat. Thus he was prepared to go to almost any length to keep the party


TABLE 3: Contingency Theory as Identified through Endurance

Contingency Theory as Defined by Northouse (2004) Example from Endurance Text

Leader-Member relations:The group Shackleton was prepared to go to almost atmosphere the leader has created, any length to keep the party close-knit as well as the degree of confidence, and under his control (p. 73).loyalty, and attraction that followers feel for their leader (p. 110)

One crew member, Macklin, said just to be in his presence was an experience.It was what made Shackleton so great a leader (p. 103).

Task Structure:The degree to which Even in the midst of an uncertain the requirements of a task are environment, Shackleton desired to clear and spelled out. Clearly keep the men on some type of a spelled-out tasks give more routine.When a situation arose, each control to the leader. man knew his task because it had been

well-rehearsed many times.Position Power: Refers to the amount McNeish briefly rebelled due to the fact

of authority a leader has to reward that he believed since they were off or punish followers. the ship, he was no longer under

Shackleton’s authority. However,Shackleton reminded him of the article that each man signed that read that they were “to perform any duty on board, in the boats, or on the shore as directed by the master and owner”—Shackleton.They were now, by Shackleton’s definition,“on shore” (p. 95).



close-knit and under his control” (Lansing, 2002, p. 73). Shackleton saw thevalue in leader-member relations and believed that the men would follow hislead. He maintained high self-confidence, and it took the form of optimism.One crew member, Macklin, said, “Just to be in his presence was anexperience. It was what made Shackleton so great a leader” (p. 103).

The second factor of contingency theory is task structure. Obviously, anideal situation for the leader is one in which the tasks are highly structured.Such tasks give more control to the leader because task clarity is apparent andtask completion is typically measurable or clearly demonstrated. Despite thefact that the men were forced off of the Endurance and they were clearly in anunstructured environment, Shackleton still tried to keep a routine and a sem-blance of highly structured tasks. The men were at the mercy of many thingsbeyond even Shackleton’s control, such as the weather and ice floes. Theweather and floes could cause various problems such as a shift in the windstaking the floe (and the men) in the wrong direction, the floes breaking apart,or even the floes melting beneath the men thus forcing them to find anothertemporary place to reside.

When the men needed to take action because of an unforeseen event or achange in weather, Shackleton instantly began structuring tasks to fit theirneeds. For example, one day “ice jostled and badgered the ship until she was pinned up against two floes” (Lansing, 2002, p. 57). The ice tore into the Endurance and water poured in, requiring the men to pump water out ofthe ship. Lansing (2002) described the structured tasks that Shackletonordered:

All night long they kept at it . . . fifteen minutes on the pumps, fifteen minutes off, then overthe side or back to the engine room. Though they were lean and hard after a year’s tough workon the ship and on the sledges, ten hours at the pumps and saws left even the strongest soexhausted they stumbled as they walked. At dawn, Shackleton ordered an hour’s rest, andGreen ladled out a bowl of porridge for each man. Then it was time to begin again. (p. 58)

The third factor within contingency theory is position power. Although the vastmajority of the crew would have done anything at anytime for Shackleton,there were rare instances when Shackleton relied not on his commands but onthe power that he held due to his position. One vivid example concerned thecarpenter aboard the expedition, McNeish, who Shackleton would laterrecount in his diary: “I shall never forget him” (Lansing, 2002, p. 96); this wasnot written as a compliment.

Prior to departing for the expedition, crew members signed papers thatobliged them to obey orders from their superiors. Typically, these articles areautomatically terminated if the ship sinks. However, Shackleton had inserteda special clause (again showing rare conceptual skills of possible outcomesprior to departing), which was signed by all crew members aboard theEndurance. It read that they were “to perform any duty on board, in the boats,or on the shore as directed by the master and owner”—Shackleton. They were




now, by Shackleton’s definition, “on shore.” (Lansing, 2002, p. 95). One dayas the crew trudged along an ice floe, McNeish apparently forgot about thisclause and proclaimed that he believed that his obligation to obey authorityhad ended when the ship had sunk.

Shackleton “took McNeish aside and told him ‘very strongly’ what his dutywas” (Lansing, 2002, p. 95). This reliance on position power was necessary attimes during the long, tedious time the men were stranded. Each timeShackleton utilized his position power, the men respected the authority of theposition that Shackleton held and fell in line with his wishes.

ApplicationThis article provides specific examples from the book Endurance that

reflect aspects of three leadership approaches/theories: skills, style, and con-tingency. Like most topics, when absorbed in smaller quantities the material ismore easily understood. Thus, in the classroom an instructor may choose tohave quizzes or discussions that cover each section rather than cover the entirebook. This article only scratches the surface of both leadership shown through-out this book and the leadership theories that could be applied.

A salient point to remember when using a text, movie, or any other mediumto communicate a message is that the medium not only offers an example ofthe topic one is trying to teach but also serves as an impetus for further dis-cussion. Upon hearing these examples and their connection to leadershiptheory, learners should be prompted to offer their own insights and examplesof these theories that may or may not come from the book. Thus, a few poten-tial discussion questions may be:

1. The skills approach notes that technical skills are less important thehigher one reaches in the organization; yet having technical skill iswhat greatly aided Shackleton in his leadership on this expedition.Discuss the importance of having technical, human, and conceptualskills as a leader.

2. What are some examples that favor one skill over another? Do youbelieve leaders at different levels on a hierarchy require different skills?Why or why not?

3. What is your preferred leadership style? What style would you likeyour leader or superior to display? Are they the same? Would you pre-fer to work for someone that has a similar leadership style to yours?Why or why not?

4. The contingency model is a situational model based on matching up aleader to appropriate situations. There have certainly been times whena leader’s style does not fit the situation. What are some examples youcan recall of a poor fit? What about examples of a time in which theleader’s style and situation were a perfect match?




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eton

’s Si

nks,”

whi

ch fo

reve

r w

atch

ing

curr

ent

clip

s of

the

Le

gend

ary

Anta

rctic

ch

ange

s th

e cr

ew’s

regi

on w

here

Sha

ckle

ton

and

Expe

ditio

n,w

hich

si

tuat

ion.

his

men

wer

e he

lps

brin

g th

esh

ows

actu

al

text

to

life.

phot

os a

nd

foot

age

from

th

e ex

pedi

tion

Rol

e Pl

aySt

uden

ts a

re p

rovi

ded

a –

Con

tinge

ncy

theo

ryT

he E

ndur

ance

sin

king

T

his

sim

ple

activ

ity p

rovi

des

a si

tuat

ion

to s

trat

egiz

e an

d lo

sing

item

s or

gl

imps

e to

stu

dent

s th

at

for

and

once

the

y be

ing

forc

ed t

o le

ave

even

if t

he o

rigi

nal p

lans

be

gin

the

activ

ity,t

he

behi

nd in

valu

able

lo

ok g

ood,

they

mus

t be

ru

les

chan

ge.T

his

coul

d m

ater

ials

tha

t co

uld

read

y fo

r ci

rcum

stan

ces

to

be s

omet

hing

as

sim

ple

have

hel

ped

the

men

in

chan

ge.T

his

activ

ity c

an le

ad

as t

akin

g th

eir

cell

thei

r su

rviv

al.

to d

iscu

ssio

ns o

f how

194 at SETON HALL UNIV on September 14, 2014adh.sagepub.comDownloaded from


phon

es o

r th

eir

car

lead

ersh

ip is

affe

cted

by

a ke

ys fr

om t

hem

and

chan

ge in

situ

atio

n or

as

king

the

m t

o ex

plai

n co

ntex

t.ho

w t

hey

will

co

mm

unic

ate

or g

et

hom

e or

som

ethi

ng

else

tha

t se

ems

triv

ial

but

actu

ally

dis

play

sco

ntin

genc

y th

eory

.Bu

ildin

g Bl

ock

Div

ide

clas

s in

to g

roup

s –

Styl

e ap

proa

ch,

The

exp

editi

on c

rew

fed

In t

his

exer

cise

,the

re is

a

Exer

cise

of fo

ur.A

set

of

spec

ifica

lly t

he t

eam

of

f of S

hack

leto

n’s

sim

ilar

grou

p of

will

ing

build

ing

bloc

ks/L

egos

m

anag

emen

t st

yle

in

lead

ersh

ip a

nd t

hey

indi

vidu

als

who

are

aw

aitin

g ar

e de

liver

ed t

o ea

ch

whi

ch m

embe

rs a

re

wer

e ac

tivel

y in

volv

edin

stru

ctio

n.Ea

ch m

embe

r is

gr

oup.

One

per

son

part

icip

ativ

e an

d in

the

ir fa

tes

as h

e ga

ve

need

ed fo

r su

cces

sful

tas

k fr

om e

ach

grou

p m

ust

activ

e as

the

gro

up

them

res

pons

ibili

ties

com

plet

ion

and

the

lead

er

com

e fo

rwar

d an

d co

llect

ivel

y en

gage

s th

roug

hout

the

tex

t.m

ust

real

ize

that

in o

rder

to

exam

ine

the

desi

gn

in t

he t

ask.

Each

cre

w m

embe

r at

tain

the

gro

up’s

goal

,cr

eate

d by

the

se

rved

an

impo

rtan

t he

/she

mus

t le

ad w

ell (

by

inst

ruct

or.E

ach

grou

p pu

rpos

e th

roug

hout

ob

serv

ing

and

reta

inin

g th

e m

ust

repl

icat

e th

eth

eir

time

and

as t

heir

in

form

atio

n w

ell)

and

then

ob

serv

ed m

odel

,but

le

ader

,Sha

ckle

ton

knew

com

mun

icat

e w

ell w

ith h

is/

the

obse

rver

s m

ay n

ot

how

to

not

only

mai

ntai

nhe

r gr

oup

mem

bers

.to

uch

any

piec

es.T

hey

the

crew

’s co

nfid

ence

in

are

only

allo

wed

to

his

lead

ersh

ip b

ut a

lso

expl

ain

to t

he b

uild

ers

to k

eep

them

invo

lved

ho

w t

o pr

ocee

d.so

the

y w

ould

feel

O

ther

mem

bers

ask

impo

rtan

t in

the

ir

ques

tions

as

the

resp

ectiv

e ro

les.

(Con

tinue

d)



TA

BL

E 4

:S

ugge

sted

Tra

inin

g A

ctiv

itie

s (C

onti

nued

)

End

uran

ceR

efer

ence

(s)

Type

of A

ctiv

ity

Des

crip

tio

n o

f Act

ivit

yL

eade

rshi

p C

onc

ept

(if

appl

icab

le)

Obj

ecti

ve o

f Act

ivit

y

build

ers.

The

obs

erve

rs

may

exa

min

e th

e m

odel

thr

ee t

imes

w

ith o

ne o

ther

gro

up

mem

ber

bein

g al

low

ed t

o lo

ok o

nce.

Joha

ri W

indo

w

Prov

ide

Joha

ri W

indo

w

Skill

s ap

proa

chM

ultip

le

Enab

le s

tude

nts

to p

roce

ssEx

erci

sem

odel

for

a cl

ass

to le

ader

ship

th

e te

xt b

y an

alyz

ing

the

disc

ussi

on,o

r di

vide

(t

echn

ical

,hum

an,

diffe

rent

ski

lls t

hat

clas

s in

to g

roup

s an

d an

d co

ncep

tual

)Sh

ackl

eton

exu

ded

thro

ugh-

have

eac

h gr

oup

wor

k ou

t En

dura

nce

and

build

thro

ugh

the

mod

el.

know

ledg

e of

bot

h th

e sk

ills

By a

naly

zing

whi

ch

appr

oach

as

wel

l as

the

skill

s (t

echn

ical

,hum

an,

Joha

ri W

indo

w t

hrou

gh t

his

and

conc

eptu

al)

wer

e ex

erci

se.

know

n to

Sha

ckle

ton

and

know

n to

oth

ers,

know

n to

Sha

ckle

ton

and

unkn

own

to o

ther

s,,

and

so fo

rth,

a de

eper

un

ders

tand

ing

of

Shac

klet

on’s

skill

s de

velo

ps.



Rou

ndta

ble

Div

ide

clas

s in

to g

roup

s St

yle

appr

oach

to

Mul

tiple

Build

s a

deep

er u

nder

stan

ding

of

five

and

ass

ign

lead

ersh

ip (

the

five

of S

hack

leto

n an

d ho

w h

e ea

ch p

erso

n on

e of

st

yles

pos

ited

by

allo

wed

him

self

to v

ary

in

Blak

e an

d M

outo

n’s

Blak

e an

d M

outo

nst

yle

at t

imes

alo

ng t

he

five

lead

ersh

ip s

tyle

s,(1

964)

.ex

pedi

tion,

and

show

s th

e (c

ount

ry c

lub,

team

cl

ass

that

the

sty

les

are

not

man

agem

ent,

mid

dle

of

mut

ually

exc

lusi

ve.I

t al

so

the

road

,im

pove

rish

ed

forc

es t

he c

lass

to

be

man

agem

ent,

and

crea

tive

as t

hey

repr

esen

t au

thor

itari

an-

hypo

thet

ical

sce

nari

os o

f co

mpl

ianc

e).E

ach

Shac

klet

on u

sing

a d

iffer

ent

pers

on t

hen

eith

er

styl

e an

d w

hat

that

res

ult

pres

ents

an

exam

ple

coul

d ha

ve lo

oked

like

.Thi

s fr

om t

he t

ext

in w

hich

ex

erci

se le

ads

to a

ctiv

e th

eir

styl

e w

as u

sed

disc

ussi

on w

ithin

the

gro

ups

or p

rovi

des

an e

xam

ple

as t

hey

enga

ge t

he m

ater

ial.

of h

ow h

is o

r he

r st

yle

coul

d ha

ve b

een

used

by

Sha

ckle

ton

in a

sc

enar

io fr

om t

he t

ext.

The

gro

up m

embe

rs

then

dis

cuss

the

ir

opin

ions

of e

ach

repr

esen

tatio

n of

the

st

yles

.



These are just a few broad discussion questions that could spark conversationand dialogue in the classroom. Other types of activities and their objectives aresummarized in Table 4.

ConclusionShackleton eventually led his entire crew back to safety after a staggering two

years of facing nearly impossible odds. If one dogmatically sticks to the originaldesired outcome of the trip, the Endurance crew failed to meet their stated goal.However, most would simply consider their safe return one of the most amazingsuccess stories ever accomplished. In fact, Shackleton and his men accomplishedsomething even greater than they had set out to do. He and all 27 of his men sur-vived the harshest conditions known to man and returned home safely.

This article reflected the skills and style approaches and the contingencytheory through the backdrop of Alfred Lansing’s book Endurance: Shackleton’sIncredible Voyage. Future writings could certainly engage this account by ana-lyzing Shackleton through additional leadership theories. His leadership abilityin the face of crisis is undisputed and is probably told best through the wordsfrom a diary of one of his crew members. He wrote that Shackleton was “thegreatest leader that ever came on God’s earth, bar none” (Lansing, 2002, p. 12).

References

Blake, R. R., & McCanse, A. A. (1991). Leadership dilemmas—Grid solutions.Houston: Gulf.

Blake, R. R., & Mouton, J. S. (1964). The managerial grid. Houston: Gulf.Fiedler, F. E., & Chemers, M. M. (1984). Improving leadership effectiveness: The

leader match concept (2nd ed.). New York: John Wiley.Gill, R. (2006). Theory and practice of leadership. London: Sage.Hackman, M. Z., & Johnson, C. E. (2004). Leadership: A communication perspective

(4th ed.). Long Grove, IL: Waveland Press.Katz, R. L. (1955). “Skills of an effective administrator”, Harvard Business Review.

33(1), 33–42.Lansing, A. (2002). Endurance: Shackleton’s incredible voyage. New York: Carroll &

Graf.Mumford, M.D., Zaccaro, S.J., Harding, F.D., Owen Jacobs, T., & Fleishman, E.A.

(2000). Leadership skills for a changing world: Solving complex social problems.Leadership Quarterly, 11(1), 11-35.

Northouse, P. G. (2004). Leadership: Theory and practice (3rd ed.). London: Sage.South-Pole.com, Ernest H. Shackleton. Retrieved November 2006 from http://www

.south-pole.com/p0000097.htm.

Blair Browning is currently a Senior Lecturer in the Communication Studies depart-ment at Baylor University. He is completing his dissertation in the OrganizationalCommunication program for his PhD at Texas A&M University.




Documents

Leadership in Desperate Times: An Analysis of Endurance: Shackleton's Incredible Voyage through the Lens of Leadership Theory