Leadership

Prepared for SHP 1313 at UTM Skudai, Johore, MALAYSIA by Siti Rokiah Siwok, srsiwok@gmail.com LEADERSHIP

First , a basic question:Is study of leadership important? LeadershipWhat is leadership?Who are leaders?What do they do?What are their characteristics?Any difference between effective leaders and ineffective leaders?Do they have similar/different styles of leadership?EtcAn overviewDefine what leadership is. Identify traits of effective leaders.Describe behaviors that effective leaders demonstrate.Explain the concepts of contingency , transactional, transformational, and charismatic leadership. Specify the contexts in which various leadership styles are effectiveDevelop your own leadership skills.

What is leadership?What is Leadership?Leadership is the ability to guide a group toward the achievement of goals.Leaders can be formally recognized by the organization, or individuals can emerge as informal leaders within work groups because they have some characteristic that the group members value.7Leader and LeadershipLeadership is an influence process that includes any behavior that helps clarify a groups purpose or guides the group to achieve its goals.A leader is a person who is assigned or selected, or emerges from a group, to guide or provide direction towards reaching the groups goal ( Sieler and Beall, 2011 page 431) 7LeadershipMany questions are being asked related to leadership, such as: Are leaders born?Are leaders bred/developed?

Leader emergenceIt is the idea that people who become leader have traits or characteristics different from people who do not become leaders.

Universalist Theories of LeadershipUniversalist theories look for the major characteristics common to all effective leaders.Great man/woman theory maintains that great leaders are born, not made.Trait theory attempts to discover the traits shared by all effective leaders.

Traits are enduring attributes associated with an individuals personality or makeup.(Riggio, 2009)Universalist Theories of LeadershipResearch indicates that extraversion, conscientiousness, openness to experience, agreeableness, and emotional stability, in combination, are associated with effective leadership (Bono and Judge, 2004 in Riggio 2009).Possession of flexibility, charisma, and social intelligence are also important for leadership (Riggio, 1986).The major problem with the original trait approach is that it was too general.

Characteristics of LeadersLeaders have special characteristics . Recent reviews show that :People high in openness, conscientiousness, extraversion and low in neuroticism are more likely to emerge as leaders (Judge, Bono, Ilies and Gerhardt, 2002 in Aamodt 2010)High self monitors emerge as leaders more often then low self-monitors.More intelligent

Characteristics of LeadersMeta-analysis by Youngjohn (1999) found that individual-difference variables were good predictors of leadership performance:CharismaticDominantEnergeticHigh in self monitoring14Summary of Leadership Characteristics: Leader EmergenceTraitsIntelligenceOpenness to experienceExtraversionConscientiousnessEmotional stabilityHigh self-monitoringLeadership emergence seems to be stable across the life-spanTraits and leadership: BIG 5 Personality Traits

Traits and leadership: IntelligenceGeneral mental ability, which psychologists refer to as g and which is often called IQ in everyday language, has been related to a persons emerging as a leader within a group. Specifically, people who have high mental abilities are more likely to be viewed as leaders in their environmentWe should caution, though, that intelligence is a positive but modest predictor of leadership.Leadership and EQIn addition to having high IQ, effective leaders tend to have high emotional intelligence (EQ)People with high EQ demonstrate a high level of self-awareness, motivation, empathy, and social skills.According to Goleman ( 1995), what differentiates effective leaders from ineffective ones becomes their ability to control their own emotions and understand other peoples emotions, their internal motivation, and their social skillsEmotional intelligenceGoleman (1995) identified the five 'domains' of EQ as: Knowing your emotions. Managing your own emotions. Motivating yourself.Recognising and understanding other people's emotions.Managing relationships18Looking at what leaders doLeader Performance/BehaviourLeader performance involves the idea that people who perform well have certain characteristics that poor performing leaders do not.Rather then thinking that a leader emerge, we can look into the performance of the leaders. We see what are the characteristics of leaders who perform well vis--vis those not performing well. Behavioral Theories of LeadershipBehavioral leadership theories (derived from Ohio State and University of Michigan studies) focus on the behaviors common to effective leaders.The Ohio State Leadership Studies identified two important leader behaviors:Initiating structure (defining, organizing, structuring the work situation).Consideration (showing concern for feelings and needs of followers).Behavioral Theories of LeadershipThe University of Michigan Leadership Studies also identified two important leader behaviors.In task-orientated behaviors, leader behaviors focused on the work task.In relationship-oriented behaviors, leader behaviors focused on maintaining interpersonal relationships on the job.Both types of behaviors have been linked to effective leadership.23Task Versus Person OrientationPerson-Oriented Leadersact in a warm, supportive manner and show concern for the employeesbelieve employees are intrinsically motivatedTask-Oriented Leadersset goals and give ordersbelieve employees are lazy and extrinsically motivatedTask oriented leadersTask-oriented leaders see their employees as lazy , extrinsically motivated, undisciplined etc, so task-oriented leaders lead by giving directives, setting goals and making decision without consulting their subordinates. Included in the task oriented leaders are :Task-centred leadersTheory X leadersHigh initiating structurePerson oriented leadersAct in a warm, supportive manner and show concern for the employeesbelieve employees are intrinsically motivated

26Consequences of Leaders Orientation

Instruments The orientation of a leader can be measured by several instruments such as:

Leadership Opinion Questionnaire ( LOQ)Leader Behaviour Description Questionnaire (LBDQ) 28Unsuccessful Leaders(Hogan, 1989)Lack of trainingCognitive deficienciesPersonality problemsparanoid/passive-aggressivehigh likeability floaternarcissist29Unsuccessful Leader BehaviorsShen et al. (2008)Engaging in illegal and unethical behaviorAvoiding conflict and people problemsDemonstrating poor emotional control (e.g., yelling and screaming)Over-controlling (e.g., micromanaging)Demonstrating poor task performancePoor planning, organization, and communicationStarting or passing on rumors or sharing confidential informationProcrastinating and not meeting time commitmentsFailing to accommodate the personal needs of subordinatesFailing to nurture and manage talentLeadership and SituationInteraction between leader and situationLeaders effectiveness not only depends on traits that s/he posses but also on the particular situation in which the leader is in.

Several theories ( or models) have emerged to explain the situational nature of leadership. 32Interaction Between the Leader and the SituationSituational FavorabilityOrganizational ClimateSubordinate AbilityRelationships with SubordinatesLeader and situation: Fiedlers Contingency Model Fiedlers contingency model holds that any leader is effective only in certain situations. Thus Fiedler argue that rather than change the leadership style , leadership training should concentrate on helping people understand their leadership style and manipulate the environment to make a perfect match. Fiedler developed Least Preferred coworker scale ( LPC) Fiedlers ideas supported by researchesFiedlers training : Leader match

35LPC The least-preferred coworker (LPC) scale classifies leadership styles.Describe the one person with whom he or she worked the least well with. From a scale of 1 through 8, describe this person on a series of bipolar scales:

Unfriendly 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Friendly Uncooperative 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Cooperative Hostile 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Supportive Guarded 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Open

Chapter 153536Relationship Between LPC Scores and Group SuccessHigh LPCScoreLow PerformanceHigh PerformanceLow PerformanceLow LPCScoreHigh PerformanceLowPerformanceHighPerformanceLowModerateHighSituation Favorability

38Fielders Contingency Model: ImplicationsThe favorableness of leadership situations should be assessed.Candidates for leadership positions should be evaluated using the LPC scale . If a leader is being sought for a particular leadership position, a leader with the appropriate LPC profile should be chosen.If a leadership situation is being chosen for a particular candidate, a situation should be chosen which matches his/her LPC profile.Chapter 1538Applying Fiedlers Contingency TheoryFill out the LPCDetermine whether you are task or relationship oriented.Think of a leadership situation in which you were not optimally effective and/or one in which you excelledEvaluate the situation(s)Does your experience support Fiedlers theory?

40Contingency theory: StrengthsSupported by a lot of empirical researchLooks at the impact of the situation on leadersIt is predictiveIt does not require that people be effective in all situationsIt provides a way to assess leader style that could be useful to an organization

Chapter 154041Contingency Theory: WeaknessesThere is some doubt whether the LPC is a true measure of leadership styleIt is cumbersome to use Doesn't explain what to do when there is a mismatch between style and situationOther situational variables, like training and experience, have an impact in a leader's effectiveness

Chapter 1541Leader and situation: IMPACT TheoryLeader and situation: IMPACTIMPACT theory, developed by Geier, Downey and Johnson (1980).Leaders have 6 behaviour styles : informational, magnetic, position, affiliation, coercive and tactical.Each style is effective with only one particular situation or organizational climate.IMPACT THEORYInformational style in climate of ignoranceMagnetic style in a climate of despairPosition style in a climate of instabilityAffiliation style in a climate of anxietyCoercive style in a climate of crisisTactical style in a climate of disorganizationIMPACT THEORY: STRATEGIESFind a climate consistent with your leadership styleChange your leadership style to better fit the climateChange your followers perception of the climateChange the actual climateLeader and situation: Path-goal TheoryLeaders who can adapt their behaviour to match the needs of their subordinates will be more effective than leaders who stick to one leadership style ( Foster, 1999, in Aamodt, 2010) According to the path-goal theory ( House, 1971, in Aamodt, 2010), a leader can adopt one of the leadership styles to manage different situations: Instrumental/DirectiveSupportiveParticipative Achievement -orientedPath-goal TheoryEach style will work in certain situations and also depends on the subordinates abilities and the extent the task is structured.The higher the level of subordinates abilities, the less directive the leader should be. On the contrary, the less structured the situation , the more directive will the leader be ( Schriesheim and DeNisi, 1981 in Aamodt 2010) Path-goal TheoryIn addition, according to this theory, a leader should:Recognize the needs of subordinates and work to satisfy those needs.Reward subordinates who reach their goals.Help subordinates identify the best paths to take in reaching particular goals.Clear those paths so that employees can reach their goals.

As path-goal theory is behaviour based, the theory could be used in training.

Path-Goal Theory

Path-Goal Theory: Leadership BehavioursDirective leadership leader gives instructions, expectations, time lines, and performance standardsSupportive Leadership- leader is friendly and approachable, attends to the well being of subordinates, and treats everyone as equalsParticipative Leadership- leader invites subordinates to give ideas, share opinions and integrates their suggestions into the decision making processAchievement-Oriented Leadership- leader challenges subordinates to perform at the highest level possible. Leader has high standards of excellence and seeks continuous improvement.

Path-Goal Theory: Subordinate CharacteristicsNeed for affiliation- prefer supportive leadershipPreferences for structure prefer directive leadershipDesires of control- prefer participative leadershipSelf-perceived level of task ability- prefer achievement orientated leadership

Path-Goal TheoryProsHelps understand how leader behavior effects subordinates satisfaction and work performanceDeals directly with motivation one of the only theories to address thisProvides a very practical model make a clear path and follow it

Path-Goal TheoryConsThis is a very complex theory that incorporates many aspects of leadership.Research only partially supports the theory.Fails to explain adequately the relationship between leader behavior and subordinate motivationTreats leadership as a one way street, places a majority of the responsibility on the leader.Situational leadership: Hersey and Blanchard (1988)Leader and situation: Situational leadership theoryDeveloped by Hersey and Blanchard (1988), a leader uses four leadership styles :DelegatingDirectingSupportingCoaching

Situational leadership: Hersey and Blanchard (1988)

Leader and situation: LMX (VDL)Leader and situation: LMX (VDL)LMX is another leadership theory and was originally called vertical dyad linkage ( VDL) theory.The uniqueness of this theory is the focus on interaction between ,leaders and subordinates.These interactions are called leader-member exchanges ( LMX).The idea originates from the relationship between two people( dyad) whereby the leader is in the position above the subordinate ( vertical) plus their interrelated behaviours ( linkage). Hence VDL. 60Relationships with SubordinatesLeader-Member Exchange (LMX) TheoryConcentrates on the interactions between leaders and subordinatesSubordinates fall into either the:in-groupout-groupIn-group employeesMore satisfiedHigher performanceLess likely to leaveLeader-Member Exchange (LMX) TheoryThe leader-member exchange model asserts that effective leadership is determined by the quality of the interaction between leaders and particular group members.Leader-member exchange can range from low quality to high quality.With high quality leader-member exchange, there is frequent, positive communication between leaders and members.

62Other Leadership StylesCharismatic Leadership TheoryCharismatic leadership theory states that leaders possess some exceptional characteristics that cause followers to be loyal and inspired.Charismatic leaders communicate shared group goals and convey confidence in their own abilities and those of followers.Charismatic leaders are most effective when goals are unclear and situational conditions are unstable.Some researchers suggest that charismatic leaders possess exceptionally high-quality social skills and an ability to inspire followers at a deep emotional level (Riggio, 1987).Charismatic Leadership: Key CharacteristicsSelf Confidence- They have complete confidence in their judgment and ability.

A vision- This is an idealized goal that proposes a future better than the status quo. The greater the disparity between idealized goal and the status quo, the more likely that followers will attribute extraordinary vision to the leader.

Ability to articulate the vision- They are able to clarify and state the vision in terms that are understandable to others. This articulation demonstrates an understanding of the followers needs and, hence acts as a motivating force.

Charismatic Leadership: Key CharacteristicsStrong convictions about vision- Charismatic leaders are perceived as being strongly committed, and willing to take on high personal risk, incur high costs, and engage in self-sacrifice to achieve their vision.

Behavior that is out of the ordinary- Those with charisma engage in behavior that is perceived as being novel, unconventional, and counter to norms. When successful , these behaviors evoke surprise and admiration in followers.

Charismatic Leadership: Key CharacteristicsPerceived as being a change agent- Charismatic leaders are perceived as agents of radical change rather than as caretakers of the status quo.

Environmental sensitivity- These leaders are able to make realistic assessments of the environmental constraints and resources needed to bring about change.

What it means to be a leader: Specific Leader Skills68Leadership Through Decision MakingVroom-Yetton Model

69Leadership Through ContactManagement by walking around

70Leadership Through Power Expert PowerLegitimate PowerReward PowerCoercive PowerReferent PowerLeadership Styles, Behaviour and PowerLeadership can also be classified according to the extent power is given to the group members.

Theoretically, there are three different styles: Autocratic: Keep controlDemocratic: Share controlLaissez-Faire: Give up control

AutocraticLeader makes decisions without reference to anyone elseHigh degree of dependency on the leaderCan create de-motivation and alienation of staffMay be valuable in some types of business where decisions need to be made quickly and decisively

72DemocraticEncourages decision making from different perspectives leadership may be emphasised throughout the organisationConsultative: process of consultation before decisions are takenPersuasive: Leader takes decision and seeks to persuade others that the decision is correct

73DemocraticMay help motivation and involvementWorkers feel ownership of the firm and its ideasImproves the sharing of ideas and experiences within the businessCan delay decision making

74Laissez-FaireLet it be the leadership responsibilities are shared by allCan be very useful in businesses where creative ideas are importantCan be highly motivational, as people have control over their working lifeCan make coordination and decision making time-consuming and lacking in overall directionRelies on good team workRelies on good interpersonal relations

75Types of Leadership Style: PaternalisticLeader acts as a father figurePaternalistic leader makes decision but may consult.Believes in the need to support staff.7677Leadership Through VisionTransformational Leadership Visionary CharismaticInspirationalChallenge the status-quoCarefully analyze problemsConfident and optimisticTransformational LeadershipTransformational leadership focuses on the leaders ability to provide shared values and a vision for the future of the work group.There are four components of transformational leadership.Idealized influence: the transformational leader is a positive role model.Inspirational motivation: the leader inspires followers by providing a compelling vision of a positive future.Intellectual stimulation: followers curiosity and creativity are stimulated and challenged.Individualized consideration: the leader pays personal attention to each members needs and concerns.Transactional vs Transformational leadersTransactional LeadersContingent Reward: Contracts exchange of rewards for effort, promises rewards for good performance, recognizes accomplishmentManagement by exception (active): Watches and searches for deviations from rules and standards, takes corrective action.Management by exception (passive): Intervenes only if standards are not metLaissez faire: Abdicates responsibilities, avoids making decisions

Transactional vs Transformational leadersTransformational Leaders Charisma : Provides vision and sense of mission, instills pride, gains respect trust.Inspiration: Communicates high expectations, uses symbols to focus efforts, expresses important purposes in simple ways.Intellectual Stimulations: Promotes intelligence, rationality, and careful problem solving.Individualized consideration: Gives personal attention, treats each employee individually, coaches, advises.

Summary of leadership theoriesTheory

ComponentsModel typeGreat man-great women theoryEffective leaders are born, not madeDescriptiveTrait theoryCommon traits to all effective leadersDescriptiveTheory X , theory Y Two types of leaders: traditional and non-traditionalDescriptiveFiedlers Contingency theoryLeader must be matched to situational characteristicsPredictivePath goal theoryLeader must play roles to help groups attain goalsDescriptive-predictiveSummary of leadership theoriesTheory

ComponentsModel typeVroom Yetton Decision Making ModelLeader asks situation-related questions before choosing decision-making stylePrescriptiveLeader-member exchangeFocuses on quality of leader-member relationshipDescriptive-predictiveTransformational leadership Leaders inspire and provides vision for followersDescriptiveCharismatic leadershipFollowers drawn to exceptional characteristics possessed by leaderDescriptiveApplications of Leadership TheoriesLeadership training can follow two general approaches.Teaching leaders diagnostic skills for assessing situations to determine types of leader behaviors that work best.Teaching leaders specific skills or behaviors that they lack.A combination of both approaches is likely to be most effective.Please read moreand it will get more interesting..

ReferencesAamodt, M.G (2010). Industrial and organizational psychology. An applied approach (6th ed) Belmont, CA: WadsworthRiggio, R. E. ( 2009). Introduction to Industrial/Organizational Psychology (5th ed). New Jersey: Pearson/Prentice Hall.Northouse, P.G. (2007) Leadership Theory and Practice. Sage Publications, Inc. Thousand Oaks, CA. http://www.flatworldknowledge.comhttp://psychology.about.com/od/theoriesofpersonality/a/trait-theory.htm

High Person

OrientationLow performance

Low turnover

Few grievances

High performance

Low turnover

Few grievances

Low Person

OrientationLow performance

High turnover

Many grievances

High performance

High turnover

Many grievances

Low Task

OrientationHigh Task

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