LEADERSHIP

By Ahuma Bosco Ocansey

Accra, Ghana

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

1. INTRODUCTION…………………………………………………………………………………………..3

2. PROBLEM STATEMENT…………………………………………………………………………………3

3. DEFINITION OF A LEADER…….…………………………………………………………..………….3

4. THEORIES OF LEADERSHIP…………………………………………………………………………….4

5. EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE…………………………………………………………………………...16

6. AUTHENTIC LEADERSHIP………………………………………………………………………………..19

7. U.S ARMY PRINCIPLES OF LEADERSHIP…………………………………………………………..20

8. QUALITITIES OF LEADERS……………………………………………………………………………….24

9. DIFFERENCE BETWEEN LEADER AND MANAGER…………………………………………….28

10. CONTEMPORARY LEADERSHIP ISSUES …………………………………………………………..29

11. CONCLUSION…………………………………………………………………………………………………31

12. BIBLIOGRAPHY…………………………………………………………………………………………………32

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1.0 INTRODUCTIONThis is Research Project is for the Leadership course which forms part of the Masters in Business Administration programme of the University of Applied Management (UAM). The paper looks at the issue of Leadership and some related matters.

2.0 PROBLEM STATEMENT There is a statement that the central role in any organization is the leader. Without good leadership, the company self-organizes into various conflicts in which internal structural issues vie for the same resource base, authority and control. Do you or don’t you agree with this statement? This project paper will therefore seek to address this issue and succinctly present a viewpoint to reflect the essential need for a leader.

3.0 DEFINITION OF A LEADERThe success or failure of an organization depends to a large extent on a leader. As the Holy Bible notes, in Matthew 15:14, “If the blind lead the blind, both shall fall in the ditch”.To start with, it is important to define who a leader is. The Collins English Dictionary defines a leader as someone who rules, guides or inspires others; A head of an institution.Leadership is also defined as a process by which a person influences others to accomplish an objective and directs the organization in a way that makes it more cohesive and coherent. http://www.nwlink.com/~donclark/leader/leadcon.htmlBernard Montgomery a British Field Marshal has defined Leadership as the capacity and will to rally men and women to a common purpose and the character which inspires confidence.”The U.S Army defines Leadership as influencing people by providing purpose, motivation, and direction while operating to accomplish the mission and improve the organization. Army Leadership, Competent, Confident, Agile. (2006)A leader may also be defined as a person who establishes vision, sets goals, motivates people and obtains their commitment to achieve the goals and realize the vision.Robbins, Judge, Sanghi (2009) pg 419 say “Leaders establish direction by developing a vision of the future; they align people by communicating this vision and inspiring them to overcome hurdles” They continue with a definition of leadership as the ability to influence a group towards the achievement of a vision or set of goals.From the above it is clear that a leader’s role in an organization is seminal. Therefore who is a leader and what makes a leader, what the traits, characteristics, flaws are and who are some of the renowned leaders of our time, both locally and internationally.

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These persons epitomize the view that the central role in any organization is the leader. Without good leadership, the company or entity, nation or organization self-organizes into various conflicts in which internal structural issues vie for the same resource base, authority and control.So what makes a leader or how can one determine who a leader is and what does a leader do to enable us arrive at the conclusion that the leader is central to the attainment of the organization’s goals.There have been various interpretations of who is a leader and how a leader functions as can be seen from the preceding definitions.These interpretations have been hinged on a number of theories. Some of these are enumerated below.

3.1 LEADERSHIP THEORIESVarious theories have been propounded about the types and variations of leaders. Below is a description of the various theories highlighting the various types of leaders known to man.

Great Man Theories Based on the belief that leaders are exceptional people, born with innate qualities, destined to lead. The use of the term “man” was intentional since until the latter part of the twentieth century leadership was thought of as a concept which is primarily male, military and Western. This led to the next school of Trait Theories.

Trait Theories The lists of trait or qualities associated with leadership exist in abundance and continue to be produced. They draw on virtually all the adjectives in the dictionary which describe some positive or virtuous human attribute from ambition to zest for life.

Behaviorist Theories These concentrate on what leaders actually do rather than on their qualities. Different patterns of behavior are observed and categorized as styles of leadership. This area has probably attracted most attention from practicing managers.

Situational Leadership This approach sees leadership as specific to the situation in which it is being exercised. For example, whilst some situations may require and autocratic style, others may need a more participative approach. It also proposes that there may be differences in required leadership styles at different levels in the same organization.

Contingency Theory This is a refinement of the situational viewpoint and focuses on identifying the situational variables which best predict the most appropriate or effective leadership style to fit the particular circumstances.

Transactional Theory This approach emphasizes the importance of the relationship between leader and followers focusing on the mutual benefits derived from a form of contract through which the leader delivers such things as rewards or recognition in return for the commitment or loyalty of the followers.

Transformational Theory The central concept here is change and the role of leadership in envisioning and implementing the transformation of organizational performance.

Bolden, R., Gosling, J., Marturano, A. and Dennison, P A Review of Leadership Theory and Competency Frameworks. Centre for Leadership Studies. 2003

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3.1.2 THE TRAIT APPROACH TO LEADERSHIPFrom a variety of studies, Bolden, R., Gosling, J., Marturano, A. and Dennison, P glean the items in the box below as the most outstanding in the potpourri of material available on what the Traits of a leader are supposed to be.

Leadership Skills and Traits (Stogdill, 1974)

3.1.3 THE BEHAVIOURAL SCHOOL

This is largely premised on Mc Gregor’s Theory X & Theory Y Managers which works on an assumption about human nature.

Theory X managers believe that Theory Y managers believe that

• The average human being has aninherent dislike of work and will avoid it if

The expenditure of physical and mental effort inwork is as natural as play or rest, and the average

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Traits Skills

Adaptable to situations- Alert to social environment- Ambitious and achievement-orientated- Assertive- Cooperative- Decisive- Dependable- Dominant (desire to influence others)- Energetic (high activity level)- Persistent- Self-confident- Tolerant of stress- Willing to assume responsibility

Clever (intelligent)- Conceptually skilled- Creative- Diplomatic and tactful- Fluent in speaking- Knowledgeable about group task- Organized (administrative ability)- Persuasive- Socially skilled

possible.• Because of this human characteristic,most people must be coerced,controlled, directed, or threatened withpunishment to get them to put forthadequate effort to achieve organizationalobjectives.• The average human being prefers to bedirected, wishes to avoid responsibility,has relatively little ambition, and wantssecurity above all else.

human being, under proper conditions, learns notonly to accept but to seek responsibility.• People will exercise self-direction and self-controlto achieve objectives to which they are committed.• The capacity to exercise a relatively high level ofimagination, ingenuity, and creativity in thesolution of organizational problems is widely, notnarrowly, distributed in the population, and theintellectual potentialities of the average humanbeing are only partially utilized under theconditions of modern industrial life.

Theory X and Y Managers (McGregor, 1960)

3.1.4 THE CONTINGENCY OR SITUATIONAL SCHOOL

These theories hold that no one leadership style fits all situations since certain factors like the situation, the people, the organization and the task all determine the appropriate leadership style required. A number of theories are significant here. These are Fielder’s Contingency Model, the Hersey- Blanchard Model of Leadership, Tannenbaum & Schmidt Leadership Continuum and Aldair’s Action-Centred Leadership Model

Fielder’s Contingency ModelFielder’s theory suggests that there is no single best way for managers to lead their organizations since different situations will require different styles of leadership. The three situations are:Leader member relations: How well do the manager and the employees get along?Task structure: is the job highly structured, fairly unstructured or somewhere in between?Position power: how much authority does the manager possess?

The Hersey- Blanchard Model Of Leadership

The Hersey – Blanchard Model of Leadership suggests that the level of development of a leader’s subordinates determines the style of leadership best suited to them. It looks at the relationship between a leader and their followers in terms of the following:

o Task behaviorThis is the extent to which the leader engages in spelling out duties and responsibilities to an individual or group. This includes telling them what to do, how to do it, when to do it and where to do it. It is a one way communication.

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o Relationship behaviorThis is the extent to which the leader engages in two-way or multi-way communications. This includes listening, facilitating and supportive behaviors. In this context, the leader engages in two-way communication by providing socio-economic support.

o MaturityMaturity is the willingness and ability of a person to take responsibility for directing his or her own behavior. People’s maturity varies depending on the specific task, function or objective that a leader seeks to attempt.

The above can be captured in the box below:

Directive Behavior Supportive BehaviorOne-Way Communication• Followers' Roles Clearly Communicated• Close Supervision of Performance

Two-Way Communication• Listening, providing support andencouragement• Facilitate interaction Involve follower indecision-making

In determining the appropriate leadership style, Blanchard is of the view that the key situational variable for a leader is the readiness or developmental state of the subordinates. There are four leadership styles that are open to a leader:

o DirectingThe leader gives clear and specific instructions and directions. This is ideal for a low follower readiness level.

o CoachingThe leader encourages two way communication and helps build confidence and motivation on the part of the employee though the leader is still responsible for the decisions. Selling style is best for moderate follower readiness.

o SupportingHere the leader and followers share decision making. The participation style is best suited for moderate follower readiness.

o DelegatingThis style is appropriate for leaders whose followers are both competent and motivated to take full responsibility. Delegating best matches high follower readiness.

As the followers’ maturity level increases, a leader should reduce his task behavior and increase relationship behavior until the followers reach a moderate level of maturity.

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The relationship behavior should also be moderated as the level of maturity increases. Leadership style can then be determined as the situation develops.

Tannenbaum & Schmidt Leadership ContinuumTannebaum and Schmidt indicate that there is a continuum of styles with no single leader maintaining a particular style constantly. They also suggest that as a leader moves from an autocratic style to a democratic style, participation by subordinates and their role in decision making increases.In their review of Tannenbaum & Schmidt’s work, Bolden, Marturano and Dennison note four main leadership styles along the continuum. These are:

Autocratic:In this case, the leader takes the decisions and announces them for the subordinates to simply comply. Here the style is a Telling style.The Telling style comes in handy during emergencies, however the level of maturity of the team also plays a role in determining the appropriateness of the style.

Persuasive: The leader still takes all the decisions but he does a lot of persuasion and does not expect the followers to simply comply hence his intense efforts to persuade them that the decision it the best. The style in this case is a Selling style as the leader sells his ideas with enthusiasm.The Salesman approach is for cases where the leader is the sole custodian of the information required for the decision.

Consultative:The leader discusses issues extensively with his team members before taking decisions. He also considers the feelings of team members when taking decisions. Although the leader takes full responsibility for the decisions, the team plays a huge role in arriving at the decision. This is the Consulting style of leadership.This style is most appropriate when there is time and also when team members are the custodians of the information required to take the decision.

Democratic:The leader in this case lays the issues before the team and acts as a moderator in the decision making process. This is the Joining style.The Joining style can apply in circumstances similar to those where the Consulting style could be used. It is usually employed where the group members are willing to share a

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part of the leaders responsibility or the leader is prepared to accept responsibility for the decisions of the team. Highly effective leaders like Bill Gates are noted for their democratic styles of leadership with the wide ranging style of decision making.

Aldair’s Action-Centred Leadership Model

The Aldair Action-Centred Model indicates that the leader achieves his mission through the combination of his team, colleague managers and staff.Under this model, the leader’s role is clear the following regards:Task structuring: showing the team the job to be doneIndividuals: supporting and reviewing the work of the individuals performing the tasksTeam: coordination and facilitating the work of the team as a whole

Action-Centred Leadership Model (Adair, 1973)

The leader has to balance the three items ie Task, Team and Individual depending on the complexity of either the task or situation at hand. In effect, the leader has to do the perform the under listed according to the dictates of the situation or task at hand and the level of maturity of the team.

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Task •define the task• make the plan• allocate work and resources• control quality and rate of work• check performance against plan• adjust the plan

Team • maintain discipline• build team spirit• encourage, motivate, give a sense of purpose• appoint sub-leaders• ensure communication within group• develop the group

Individual • attend to personal problems• praise individuals• give status• recognize and use individual abilities• develop the individual

3.1.5 TRANSACTIONAL AND TRANSFORMATIONAL LEADERSHIP

Burns (1978) describes Transforming Leadership as a “relationship of mutual stimulation and elevation that converts followers into leaders and may convert leaders into moral agents”. He notes that “Transforming leadership occurs when one or more persons engage with others in such a way that leaders and followers raise one another to levels of motivation and morality….”

In his view, the transforming leader shapes, alters and elevates the motives, values and goals of followers making significant changes in their work.

This notion of transforming leadership has been taken a few steps forward by Bass who opines that transformational leadership occurs when the leader transforms followers.

The Leadership Champions website has the following definitions of Transactional and Transformational leaders:

Transactional Leader:

“approaches followers with an eye to exchanging one thing for another” … Burns

“pursues a cost benefit, economic exchange to meet subordinates current material and psychic needs in return for “contracted” services rendered by the subordinate” …. Bass

Transformational Leader:

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“recognizes and exploits an existing need or demand of a potential follower… (and) looks for potential motives in followers, seeks to satisfy higher needs, and engages the full person of the follower” … Burns

The leader who recognizes the transactional needs in potential followers “but tends to go further, seeking to arouse and satisfy higher needs, to engage the full person of the follower … to a higher level of need according to Maslow’s hierarchy of needs” … Bass

Below is a table by Covey describing the basic differences between the two styles of leadership.

Transactional Leadership Transformational Leadership

• Builds on man’s need to get a job done andmake a living• Is preoccupied with power and position,politics and perks• Is mired in daily affairs• Is short-term and hard data orientated• Focuses on tactical issues• Relies on human relations to lubricate humaninteractions• Follows and fulfils role expectations bystriving to work effectively within currentsystems• Supports structures and systems thatreinforce the bottom line, maximise efficiency,and guarantee short-term profits

• Builds on a man’s need for meaning• Is preoccupied with purposes and values,morals, and ethics• Transcends daily affairs• Is orientated toward long-term goals withoutcompromising human values and principles• Focuses more on missions and strategies• Releases human potential – identifying anddeveloping new talent• Designs and redesigns jobs to make themmeaningful and challenging• Aligns internal structures and systems toreinforce overarching values and goals

Comparison of Transactional and Transformational Leadership (Covey, 1992)

From the above, one can extend the discussion on the highlights of Transformational leadership. Bass and Avolio in the table below enumerate the behaviours of transformational leaders associated with five transformational styles:

Transformational Style Leader Behaviour

1) Idealized Behaviors:living one's ideals

• Talk about their most important values and beliefs• Specify the importance of having a strong sense of purpose• Consider the moral and ethical consequences of decisions• Champion exciting new possibilities• Talk about the importance of trusting each other

2) InspirationalMotivation:

• Talk optimistically about the future• Talk enthusiastically about what needs to be

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inspiring others accomplished• Articulate a compelling vision of the future• Express confidence that goals will be achieved• Provide an exciting image of what is essential to consider• Take a stand on controversial issues

3) IntellectualStimulation:stimulating others

• Re-examine critical assumptions to question whether they areappropriate• Seek differing perspectives when solving problems• Get others to look at problems from many different angles• Suggest new ways of looking at how to complete assignments• Encourage non-traditional thinking to deal with traditional problems• Encourage rethinking those ideas which have never been questionedbefore

4) IndividualizedConsideration:coaching anddevelopment

• Spend time teaching and coaching• Treat others as individuals rather than just as members of the group• Consider individuals as having different needs, abilities, andaspirations from others• Help others to develop their strengths• Listen attentively to others' concerns• Promote self development

5) Idealized Attributes:Respect, trust, and faith

• Instill pride in others for being associated with them• Go beyond their self-interests for the good of the group• Act in ways that build others' respect• Display a sense of power and competence• Make personal sacrifices for others' benefit• Reassure others that obstacles will be overcome

Transformational Leadership Styles and Behaviours (Bass and Avolio, 1994)

Rooke and Torbert (2005) discuss seven types of action logic among leaders noting the least effective for organizational leadership are the Opportunist and Diplomat with the Strategist and Alchemist as the most effective leaders of organizations.

Action Logic Characteristics Strengths

Opportunist Wins any way possible. Self-oriented;manipulative; “might makes right.”

Good in emergencies andin sales opportunities.

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Diplomat Avoids overt conflict. Wants to belong;obeys group norms; rarely rocks theboat.

Good as supportive gluewithin an office; helps bringpeople together.

Expert Rules by logic and expertise. Seeksrational efficiency.

Good as an individualcontributor.

on LogicAchiever

Meets strategic goals. Effectivelyachieves goals through teams; jugglesmanagerial duties and marketdemands.

Well suited to managerialroles; action and goaloriented.

Individualist Interweaves competing personal andcompany action logics. Creates uniquestructures to resolve gaps betweenstrategy and performance.

Effective in venture andconsulting roles.

StrategistGenerates organizational and personaltransformations. Exercises the powerof mutual inquiry, vigilance, andvulnerability for both the short andlong term.

.Effective as a transformationalleader

Alchemist Generates social transformations. Integratesmaterial, spiritual, and societaltransformation.

.Good at leading society-widetransformations.

Rooke D. and Torbert William R., Seven Transformations of Leadership (2005)iIStrengths.

Hooper and Potter (1997) also introduce the concept of “transcendent leaders” as leaders who are able to engage their followers emotionally and make significant impact on the organization as a result. They list the seven key competencies of such transcendent leaders as follows:

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1. Setting direction: leaders should ensure that the vision, mission, objectives and goals of their organizations are unambiguous.

2. Setting an example: leaders should embody the culture, values and ethos of the organization

3. Communication: they should be good communicators who can clearly communicate the organizations agenda both to the internal and external customers

4. Alignment: an effective leader should be able to align the resources of the organization carefully with the goals such that there is no discordance.

5. Bringing out the best in people: the leader has an obligation to the organization to ensure that his followers give of their best by motivating and encouraging them through a mix of methods. Narayana Murthy, one of the founders of Infosys Technologies has stepped down as C.E.O of the company to become Chief Mentor. In this role, he is able to use his rich experience and nurture the workforce.

6. The leader as a change agent: change is the only constant and here the leader must be the main change agent for the organization, spearheading change and championing the need for change and driving change. In the political arena, Lee Kuan Yew of Singapore characterizes this aspect. For over three decades, he personally led a crusade for change in Singapore getting people to transform from a feudalistic society to a modern state. Other statesmen who led such change were Haile Selassie of Ethiopia and Kwame Nkrumah of Ghana.

7. Providing decision in a crisis and on the ambiguous: this is one of the biggest items on the agenda of any leader, taking the crunch, make or break, life and death decisions. This is one area where a leader’s decision can affect the fortunes of an organization. President Kuffour displayed this when he decided against the advice of senior cabinet ministers of his government to declare that Ghana was a Highly Indebted Poor Country (HIPC)

3.1.6 SERVANT LEADERSHIP

The Greatest Leader of all time, Jesus Christ in Matthew 20 vs 25 describes the Servant – Leader model when he says: “Ye know that the princes of the Gentiles exercise dominion over them and they that are great exercise authority upon them. But it shall not be so

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among you: but whosoever will be great among you, let him be your minister; and whosoever will be chief among you, let him be your servant: Even as the Son of Man came not to be ministered unto, but to minister and to give his life a ransom for many”. 2,000 years ago, he had illustrated this model in his dealings with his disciples.

The idea of “Servant Leadership” emphasizes the leaders’ duty to serve his/her followers -leadership thus arises out of a desire to serve rather than a desire to lead. Robert Greenleaf, founder of the Center for Servant Leadership describes it as follows:

“The servant-leader is servant first… It begins with the natural feeling that one wants to serve, to serve first. Then conscious choice brings one to aspire to lead. He or she is sharply different from the person who is leader first, perhaps because of the need to assuage an unusual power drive or to acquire material possessions. For such it will be a later choice to serve – after leadership is established. The leader-first and the servant-first are two extreme types. Between them there are shadings and blends that are part of the infinite variety of human nature. The difference manifests itself in the care taken by the servant-first to make sure that other people’s highest priority needs are being served. The best test, and difficult to administer, is: do those served grow as persons; do they, while being served, become healthier, wiser, freer, more autonomous, more likely themselves to become servants? And, what is the effect on the least privileged in society; will they benefit, or, at least, will they not be further deprived?” Greenleaf R (1970), The Servant as Leader.

“Servant-Leadership is a practical philosophy which supports people who choose to serve first, and then lead as a way of expanding service to individuals and institutions. Servant –leaders may or may not hold formal leadership positions. Servant-leadership encourages collaboration, trust, foresight, listening, and the ethical use of power and empowerment.” Center for Servant Leadership web site.

In many religious organizations, this model of leadership is highly favored.

3.2.1 EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCEAnother key quality leaders require is Emotional Intelligence (EI). The subject of Emotional Intelligence was popularized by Daniel Goleman in 1995 in his book bearing the same name,

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Emotional Intelligence. It is basically about how well we manage our emotions and that of our environment of colleagues at work.

Goleman argues that IQ alone cannot guarantee successful leadership, for him, Emotional Quotient or EQ actually counts more. Writing in the Harvard Business Review (1998), Goleman states “To be sure, intellect was a driver of outstanding performance. Cognitive skills such as big-picture thinking and long-term vision were particularly important. But when I calculated the ratio of technical skills, IQ, and emotional intelligence as ingredients of excellent performance, emotional intelligence proved to be twice as important as the others for jobs at all levels.”

Below is a grid by Goleman, Daniel (1998) that looks at the various components of Emotional Intelligence. The components are Awareness, Regulation, Motivation, Empathy, Social Skill.

Components of Emotional Intelligence at Work

Component Definition HallmarksAwareness The ability to recognize and

understand your moods, emotions and drives as well as their effect on others.

Self confidenceRealistic self- assessmentSelf-deprecating sense of humor

Regulation The ability to control or redirect disruptive impulses and moodsThe propensity to suspend judgment – to think before acting

Trustworthiness and integrityComfort with ambiguityOpenness to change

Motivation A passion to work for reasons that go beyond money or statusA propensity to pursue goals with energy and persistence

Strong drive to achieve Optimism, even in the face of failureOrganizational commitment

Empathy The ability to understand the emotional makeup of other peopleSkill in treating people according to their emotional reactions

Expertise in building and retaining talent Cross sensitivityService to clients and customers

Social Skill Proficiency in managing relationships and building networksAn ability to find common ground and build rapport

Effectiveness in leading changePersuasivenessExpertise in building and leading teams

Source: Goleman Daniel, What Makes A Great Leader, 1998, Harvard Business Report

Awareness

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From the foregoing for a leader to succeed in working with his team to achieve organizational objectives, there is the need for the leader to develop a high level of awareness Goleman describes as the ability to recognize and understand your personal moods, emotions and drives as well as their effect on others. As the Delphic Oracle says, Man, Know Thyself. Self-Awareness generates self-confidence which a leader should balance with realistic self- assessment and self-deprecating sense of humor. Otherwise, the self-confidence can be misconstrued as arrogance.

RegulationAnother component of E.I a leader requires is Regulation. This is the ability to control or redirect disruptive impulses and moods. This is characterized in a leader by the propensity to suspend judgment – to virtually think before acting as opposed to the knee jerk reactions of some leaders to gritty situations. Goleman notes that this component in a leader results in the leader displaying trustworthiness and integrity. Such a leader has no challenges with ambiguity and is welcomes change.

MotivationMotivation is described by Goleman as a passion to work for reasons that go beyond money or status. This is marked in leaders by a propensity to pursue goals with energy and persistence which is marked by a strong drive to achieve where optimism prevails even in the face of failure. Such leadership galvanizes the team to achieve its objectives and goals. Underlying such motivation in leaders is a strong sense of organizational commitment.

EmpathyThe ability to understand the emotional makeup of other people is what characterizes empathy in a leader. Goleman describes it as the skill in treating people according to their emotional reactions. The attributes of an empathetic leader include expertise in building and retaining talent, cross sensitivity coupled with service to clients and customers.

Social SkillThe last item is Goleman’s grid is social skill which he describes as a proficiency in managing relationships and building networks as well as an ability to find common ground and build rapport. The hallmarks of this component include effectiveness in leading changePersuasiveness as well as expertise in building and leading teams

Goleman further notes that in all his research on Emotional Intellingence in companies, “my analysis showed that emotional intelligence played an increasingly important role at the highest levels of the company, where differences in technical skills are of negligible

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importance. In other words, the higher the rank of a person considered to be a star performer, the more emotional intelligence capabilities showed up as the reason for his or her effectiveness. When I compared star performers with average ones in senior leadership positions, nearly 90% of the difference in their profiles was attributable to emotional intelligence factors rather than cognitive abilities.”

A further breakdown of the components of Emotional Intelligence is detailed below.

Self Awareness Self-Management Social Awareness Social Skill Emotional Self

Awareness: the ability to read and understand your emotions as well as recognize their impact on work performance, relationships and the likes

Self control: the ability to keep disruptive emotions and impulses under control

Empathy: skill in sensing other people’s emotions, understanding their perspective and taking an active interest in their concerns

Visionary leadership: the ability to take charge and inspire with a compelling vision.

Accurate self assessment: a realistic evaluation of your strengths and limitations

Trustworthiness: a consistent display of honesty and integrity

Organizational awareness: the ability to read the currents of the organizational life, build decision networks and navigate politics

Influence: the ability to wield a range of persuasive tactics

• Self-confidence: a strong and polite sense of self worth

Conscientiousness: the ability to manage yourself and your responsibilities

Self orientation: the ability to recognize and meet customers needs.

Developing others: the propensity to bolster the abilities of others through feedback and guidance

Adaptability: skill at adjusting to changing situations and obstacles.

Communication: skill at listening and at sending clear, convincing and well tuned messages

Achievement orientation: the drive to meet an international standard of excellence.

Change catalyst: proficiency in initiating new ideas and leading people in a new direction

Initiative: a readiness to seize opportunities

Conflict management: the ability to de-escalate

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disagreements and orchestrate resolutions

Building bonds: proficiency at cultivating and maintaining a web of relationships

Teamwork and collaboration: competence at promoting cooperation and building teams.

3.3.1 AUTHENTIC LEADERSHIPA recent school of thought on leadership, post the Situational-Contingency era is Authentic Leadership. Robbins, Judge and Sanghi (2009) define authentic leaders as leaders who knows who they are, what they believe in, their values and act on those values and beliefs openly and candidly. Their followers would consider them to be ethical people. The primary quality, therefore, produced by authentic leaders is trust.Robbins et al note that authentic leaders build this trust by encouraging open communication, sharing information and remaining true to their ideals. pg 461.

3.3.2 TRUST AND LEADERSHIPEffective leadership can be said to hinge on trust. The relationship between the two is such that when the trust is broken, it can have serious implications on the relationship between the leader and the group and ultimately, the group’s performance.There are various definitions of trust however Robbins et al distill it to a positive expectation that another will not act opportunistically, basing it on familiarity and risk.They suggest five key dimensions that underpin the concept of trust. These are:

o Integrity – honesty and truthfulnesso Competence – does the person know what they talking abouto Consistency – is the person reliable and predictable, with a good sense of judgemento Loyalty – is the person prepared to save a colleague’s faceo Openness – is the person going to tell you the full truth

They identify three types of trust in organizational settings: Deterrence – based trust, Knowledge based and Identification based.

Deterrence – based trust

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They define Deterrence – based trust as trust based on fear of reprisal if the trust is violated. The fear of the consequences of breaking the trust maintains the relationship. Sanctions, contracts and penalties prevail in these circumstances. Robbins et al indicate that most fragile relationships are based on this sort of trust.

Knowledge – basedRobbin et al also define Knowledge based trust as trust based on behavioral predictability that comes from a history of interaction. They note that most organizational relationships are Knowledge – based. A history of interactions provides predictability which informs one of how a colleague will perform or behave so much so that there are hardly any disappointments when they behave a certain way.

Identification basedThey also define Identification - based trust as trust based on a mutual understanding of each other’s intentions and appreciation of each other’s wants and desires. Robbins et al describe Identification – based trust as the highest level of trust which happens when there is an emotional connection between the parties. In an organizational setting, this can happen where colleagues have worked together for a long time and know each other well enough to anticipate each other’s actions and intentions.

3.4.1 ARMY’S 11 PRINCIPLES OF LEADERSHIP

The United States Army has established a set of principles for its leaders to provide a framework for them. Some of these principles are captured in some of the leadership traits and competences etc indicated earlier in this paper. The principles are as follows:

Principle #1 – Know Yourself and Seek Self Improvement

Develop a plan to keep your strengths and improve on your weaknesses.

Principle #2 – Be Technically Proficient

Not only do we know our duties and responsibilities, we know all those of our team members, and we look to our leaders and concern ourselves with learning their duties and responsibilities.

Principle #3 – Seek Responsibility and Take Responsibility for Your Actions

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We are not satisfied with performing just our duties to the best of our abilities, we look to grow and seek further challenges, and always, when in charge, accept the consequences of our decisions, absorb the negative and pass on the praises.

Principle #4 – Make Sound and Timely Decisions

Leaders must be able to reason under the most critical condition and decide quickly what action to take.

Principle #5 – Set the Example

No aspect of leadership is more powerful. Our personal example affects people more than any amount of instruction or form of discipline. We are the role model.

Principle #6 – Know Your Personnel and Look Out for Their Well Being

Leaders must know and understand those being led. When individuals trust you, they will willingly work to help accomplish any mission.

Principle #7 – Keep Your Followers Informed

Our team members expect us to keep them informed, and where and when possible, to explain the reasons behind requirements and decisions. Information encourages initiative, improves teamwork and enhances morale.

Principle #8 – Develop A Sense of Responsibility In Your Followers

The members of a team will feel a sense of pride and responsibility when they successfully accomplish a new task given them. When we delegate responsibility to our followers, we are indicating that we trust them.

Principle #9 – Ensure Each Task is Understood, Supervised and Accomplished

Team members must know the standard. Supervising lets us know the task is understood and lets our team members know we care about mission accomplishment and about them.

Principle #10 – Build A Team

Leaders develop a team spirit that motivates team members to work with confidence and competence. Because mission accomplishment is based on teamwork, it is evident the better the team, the better the team will perform the task.

Principle #11 – Employ Your Team In Accordance With Its Capabilities

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A leader must use sound judgment when employing the team. Failure is not an option. By employing the team properly, we insure mission accomplishment.

Presented by Plano ISD JROTC Cadets at Plano ISD’s Martin Luther King, Jr.

These principles are not limited to the military and can be applied to the world of civilians.

The Army Leadership (2006), discusses the military model of leadership. It says a leader must apply the Be-Know-Do model of leadership.

This model starts with what the leader must Be ie the values and attributes that shape character

What he must Know ie the knowledge necessary to lead, competencies, technical and soft skills etc

What he must Do ie the actions they must take in various circumstances.

To be able to lead an organization successfully a leader must be cast in a certain mold. In the words of General Edward C. Meyer Chief of Staff, U.S Army (1979-1983) “Just as the diamond requires three properties for its formation—carbon, heat, and pressure—successful leaders require the interaction of three properties—character, knowledge, and application. Like carbon to the diamond, character is the basic quality of the leader.… But as carbon alone does not create a diamond, neither can character alone create a leader. The diamond needs heat. Man needs knowledge, study and preparation.… The third property, pressure—acting in conjunction with carbon and heat—forms the diamond. Similarly, one’s character attended by knowledge, blooms through application to produce a leader.”

Gen George C Marshall of the US Army notes “When you are commanding, leading [Soldiers] under conditions where physical exhaustion and privations must be ignored; where the lives of [Soldiers] may be sacrificed, then, the efficiency of your leadership will depend only to a minor degree on your tactical or technical ability. It will primarily be determined by your character, your reputation, not so much for courage—which will be accepted as a matter of course—but by the previous reputation you have established for fairness, for that high-minded patriotic purpose, that quality of unswerving determination to carry through any military task assigned you.”

Below is the U.S Army’s Core Leadership Competencies. This covers all areas in which a leaders actions define the fact of his organization. These are:

Leading the organization Developing the team Achieving the objectives and goals of the organization

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Core Leader Competencies 

 

 

Leads

Leads Others Extends Influence Beyond the Chain of Command

Leads By Example Communicates

Provide purpose, motivation, inspiration

Enforce Standards

Balance mission and welfare of soldiers

Build trust outside lines of authority

Understand sphere, means and limits of influence

Negotiate, build consensus, resolve conflict

Display character

Lead with confidence in adverse conditions

Demonstrate confidence

Listen actively

state goals for action

Ensure shared understanding

  

 

Develops

Creates a positive environment

Prepares self Develops leaders

Set the conditions for positive climate

Build teamwork and cohesion

Encourage initiative

Demonstrate care for people

Be prepared for expected and unexpected challenges

Expand knowledge

Maintain self awareness

Assess developmental needs.  Develop on the job

Support professional and personal growth.

Help people learn Counsel, coach and mentor Build team skills and processes

Achieves

Get Results

Provide direction, guidance and priorities Develop and execute plans Accomplish tasks consistently

 Source: FM 6-22, Army Leadership (Competent, Confident and Agile) October 2006

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4.0 QUALITITIES OF LEADERSTo be a successful leader of an organization requires more than just the title leader. What are the qualities of a leader, what do leaders do?Leadership expert John C Maxwell lists the following as the qualities a leader requires in the 21 Indispensable Qualities of a Leader:

CharacterHe says strong character is the foundation to success a leader where you choose your character and how you portray yourself as a leader.

Charisma Leaders like Jerry Rawlings, John F. Kennedy, Martin Luther King Jnr, Barack Obama and Steve Jobs are some of the leaders described as charismatic. Robert House’s Charismatic Leadership theory says followers make attributions of heroic or extraordinary leadership abilities when they observe certain behaviors. Prior to House’s work, Weber had defined charisma as a certain quality of an individual personality by virtue of which he or she is set apart from ordinary people and treated as endowed with supernatural, superhuman, or at least specifically exceptional powers or qualities. Weber suggests that these are not accessible to the ordinary person but are considered to be of divine origin or as exemplary and on the basis of that, the individual is treated as a leader.

CommitmentThe leader should be prepared to go the extra mile even when the team is prepared to give up. As the rallying person in the organization, the commitment a leader demonstrates towards an objective galvanizes the entire organization.

CommunicationMaxwell quotes Gilbert Amelio’s statement to drive home the essence of communication to a leader – “Developing excellent communication skills is absolutely essential to effectiveleadership. The leader must be able to share knowledge and ideas to transmit a sense of urgency and enthusiasm to others. If a leader can’t get a message across clearlyto motivate others to act on it, then having a message doesn’t even matter.”

CompetenceMaxwell notes that competence goes beyond words to the leader’s ability to say it, plan it and do it such that others will acknowledge and hence want to follow you. In this regard, continuous professional development is crucial.

CourageThis quality is acts as the spearhead in the leader’s arsenal and it is described as doing what you fear.

DiscernmentMaxwell says smart leaders believe half of what they hear while discerning leaders know which half to believe.

Focus

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A leader’s key to focus is his prioritization and concentration. One without the other in Maxwell’s view is worthless. He suggests that a leader focuses 70% on his strengths, 25% on new things and 5% on their weaknesses.

GenerosityAmerican President Calvin Coolidge once said no person was ever honored for what he received, noting that honor has always been the reward for what the person gives.

InitiativeYou cannot succeed without action. Effective leaders constantly are on the move doing something.

ListeningTo harness the emotional components of leadership, leaders have to connect with the hearts of their followers according to Maxwell and the best way to do that is by listening to them and acting upon that.

PassionThis is what separates talent from achievement of maximum potential. All the leaders in their various disciplines have achieved that through sheer passion. The Abedi Ayews, Stephen Appiahs, Steve Jobs, Jerry Rawlings’ Obamas and others have not only been talented but also passionate in their dedication to their lines of duty.

Positive Attitude In the face of all odds, true leaders, maintain positive attitudes epitomized by Barack Obama’s famous Yes We Can slogan during his 2008 campaign for the American Presidency.In the face of all odds, Martin Luther King Jnr maintained a positive attitude which galvanized the entire American nation during the Civil Rights Movement. Edison is on record as saying that genius is 99% perspiration and 1% inspiration adding on another instance that “Many of life’s failures are people who did not realize how close they were to success when they gave up”.

Problem SolvingSince leaders preside over organizations with members who display human tendencies conflicts are bound to occur. Conflicts are defined by Robbins et al as processes that begin when one party perceives that another party has negatively affected or is about to negatively affect something that the first party cares about.The way leaders handle these conflicts determine how well they lead their organizations to success. Other challenges that occur in the organization involve decisions as to how to best address those challenges and this quality is of great significance in a leader’s arsenal.

RelationshipFor a leader to succeed, he should be able to build and maintain relationships. One of President Kuffour’s enduring qualities is his loyalty to his people. He is said to have a photographic memory which makes him recall the names of all persons he is introduced by name to.

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ResponsibilityA leader without a sense of responsibility is a default. All great leaders accept responsibility for their personal actions as well as the actions of their teams. When Jerry Rawlings was arrested for his May 18 Uprising in 1979 his acceptance of responsibility for the actions of his men galvanized the junior ranks of the army to mutiny resulting in the June 4 Revolution.

SecurityA sense of security is crucial for success as a leader. Insecure leaders are prone to wrong analysis and decisions which affects the organizations. Leaders who suffer from paranoia likes the leaders of Burma, Yahya Jammeh and Mugabe take decisions based on their paranoia resulting in sanctions and other consequences on their nations.

Self-DisciplineThat usually proves to be the Achilles heel of many a leader. The highway of history is littered by leaders whose lack of self-discipline marred otherwise unblemished records. Bill Clinton, Enron’s leaders who could not practice self-restraint, Charles Taylor and Jacob Zuma.

Servant hoodThis refers to the previously discussed Servant-Leader model epitomized by Jesus and other leaders like Ghandi and Mother Theresa. These qualities enabled those leaders to single handedly change the course of history.

TeachabilityAce Hall of Fame Basketball Coach John Wooden is quoted by Maxwell as saying that “It’s what you learn after you know it all that counts”. In the face of a rapidly changing world with technological advancements, a leader needs to stay ahead of the curve by constantly updating themselves. As indicated by the Balanced Scorecard, a learning organization is an organization that has a high potential of success.

VisionLegendary entertainment entrepreneur Walt Disney once said, “If you can dream it, you can do it”. This quality hinges on a leader’s ability to visualize where he wants his organization to reach. Martin Luther King Jnr delivered his famous “I have a Dream Speech”, Dr Nkrumah had a clear vision of the sort of state he wanted to create in Ghana with industry driving the agenda hence his construction of the Akosombo and all the industries he established. Steve Jobs was clear in his vision of simplifying the complexity of computers in his smartphones and ipads after his ground breaking work with the the Mac. Vision is without a doubt what ignites the whole leadership process and acts as the light house in the march to the attainment of the leader’s vision.

In addition to these qualities of leaders, in his book Good to Great, Jim Collins places leadership on various levels with the Level 5 Leaders as “leaders who channel their egos away from themselves into the goal of building a great company. It’s not that Level 5 leaders have no ego or self-interest. Indeed, they are incredibly ambitious – but their ambition is first and foremost for the institution not themselves”.

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Collins indicates that the Level 5 leader sits on top of a hierarchy of capabilities and is, a necessary requirement for transforming an organization from good to great. He acknowledges that each one of the preceding four layers are appropriate in their own right but none with the power of Level 5. He opines that individuals do not need to proceed sequentially through each level of the hierarchy to reach the top. However, he stresses that to be a full-fledged Level 5 leader requires the capabilities of all the lower levels, plus the special characteristics of Level 5.

LEVEL HIERARCHY

LEVEL 5 LEVEL 5 EXECUTIVEBuilds enduring greatness through a paradoxical blend of personal humility and professional will.

LEVEL 4 EFFECTIVE LEADERCatalyzes commitment to and vigorous pursuit of a clear and compelling vision, stimulating higher performance and standards.

LEVEL 3 COMPETENT MANAGEROrganizes people and resources toward the effective and efficient pursuit of predetermined objectives.

LEVEL 2 CONTRIBUTING TEAM MEMBERContributes individual capabilities to the achievement of group objectives and works effectively with others in a group setting

LEVEL 1 HIGHLY CAPABLE INDIVIDUALMakes productive contributions through talent, knowledge, skills and good work habits.

Good to Great, Collins Jim ( 2001) pg 20

Just like the oriental philosophy of Yin and Yang, Level 5 leadership has a dual personality.The Yin and Yang of Level 5

Personal Humility Professional Will

Demonstrates a compelling modesty,shunning public adulation; neverboastful.Acts with quiet, calm determination;relies principally on inspired standards,not inspiring charisma, to motivate.Channels ambition into the company,not the self; sets up successorsfor even more greatness in the nextgeneration.Looks in the mirror, not out the window,to apportion responsibility for poorresults, never blaming other people, externalfactors, or bad luck.

Creates superb results, a clear catalyst inthe transition from good to great.Demonstrates an unwavering resolveto do whatever must be done to producethe best long-term results, no matterhow difficult.Sets the standard of building an enduringgreat company; will settle fornothing less.Looks out the window, not in the mirror,to apportion credit for the success ofthe company—to other people, external

factors, and good luck.

Jim Collins, Level 5 Leadership, The Triumph of Humility and Fierce Resolve (2001)

5.0 DIFFERENCE BETWEEN LEADER AND MANAGER

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“Leadership is different from management, but not for the reasons most people think. Leadership isn’t mystical and mysterious. It has nothing to do with having “charisma” or other exotic personality traits. It is not the province of a chosen few. Nor is leadership necessarily better than management or a replacement for it. Rather, leadership and management are two distinctive and complementary systems of action. Each has its own function and characteristic activities. Both are necessary for success in an increasingly complex and volatile business environment.” Kotter J, 1997.From the above, it is obvious that there is a difference between leaders and managers in terms of what they do, however, they are complimentary and organizations cannot succeed without either of them.According to Drucker’s Theory of Management, managers should;

Identify and agree targets for achievement with sub-ordinates Negotiate the support that will be required to achieve these targets Evaluate over time the extent to which these objectives are met

Maccoby (2000) distills the debate by stating that Management is a function that must be exercised in any business while leadership is a relationship between leader and led that can energize an organization.

He acknowledges that ideally, the manager should be a leader people would like to follow adding that: “companies need good management and great leaders, and efficient function and energizing relationships. Bureaucracies are typically over managed and under led, resulting in bored, unmotivated employees. Start-ups are often intensely led and undermanaged, so that enthusiasm leads to unplanned problems, overspending and missed deadlines. There are many different ways to exercise the management function and people are willing to follow different leadership styles. Although there are many good examples of management and leadership, there is no one best way”…..

6.0 CONTEMPORARY LEADERSHIP ISSUES

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For a leader in these times to be able to ride the wave of challenges confronting contemporary organizations, the leader must engage in certain activities. These range from one on one engagements to cyber engagements.Robbins et al mention three items – Mentoring, Self – leadership and Virtual leadership as three important pillars of leadership. Mentoring

A mentor is a senior employee who sponsors and supports a less – experienced employee (a protégé). Mentoring relationships can also be outside organizational confines where a mentor and his protégé or mentee are not in the same organization. Robbins et al group mentoring relationships under two headings - Career Functions and Psychosocial Functions.

Career Functions Psychosocial Functions Lobbying to get the protégé

challenging and visible assignments Coaching the protégé by providing

exposure to influential individuals within the organization

Assisting the protégé by providing exposure to influential individuals within the organization

Protecting the protégé from possible risks to her reputation

Sponsoring the protégé by nominating her for potential advances or promotions

Acting as a sounding board for ideas that the protégé might be hesitant to share with her direct supervisor

Counseling the protégé about anxieties and uncertainty to help bolster her self-confidence

Sharing personal experiences with the protégé

Providing friendship and acceptance Acting as a role model

Self – Leadership

Robbins et al define Self-Leadership as a set of processes through which individuals control their own behavior.They note that the underlying assumptions behind self-leadership are that people are responsible, capable and able to exercise initiative without the external constraints of bosses, rules or regulations. They argue that given the proper support, individuals can monitor and control their own behavior. Another factor in developing self-leadership skills in followers is training.To engage in effective leadership, Robbins et al recommend that the leader should:

o Have a mental horizontal organizational chart instead of a vertical one.

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o Focus on influence and not controlo Create opportunities instead of waiting for them

Virtual LeadershipIn the present electronic or e-age, the business environment has changed significantly with leaders responsible for globally dispersed followers. This makes it imperative for leaders to develop an anytime – anywhere workspace with a 24/7 work and play mode laced by constant learning. In the view of Robbins et al, this is the leadership path going forward. In their view, multitasking is essential now for leaders to succeed. In the past where face to face communication was largely the mode of transferring information, body language played a role in communication and one could deduce a lot from the unspoken word. However with the reliance on digital communication, leaders will have to develop the skill of reading between the lines which Robbins et al. They add that leaders have to add to their interpersonal skills, the abilities to communicates support and leadership through written words on computer screens and how to read emotions in the writings of others.

7.0 CONCLUSION

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From the preceding issues discussed, one can conclude that leadership is the sine qua non of organizations. The progress or otherwise of organizations is hinged on the performance of leaders.It is also clear that leadership cannot be either formulaic or one size fits all. Leaders need to change to fit the different situations and environment in which they find themselves.As indicated earlier, certain types of leadership augurs well for certain circumstances and leaders have to adapt to the conditions and environments in which they find themselves to achieve success in their work. Another point worthy of note is the fact that leadership occurs at all levels of the organizational with some of the outstanding leaders being untitled leaders eg Sgt Ala Adjetey who led the veterans in their march on the Castle in 1948. These are leaders who assume leadership because of the circumstances and they rise to the occasion.Political, religious, social and military leaders all lead their organizations using the same principles listed above and the success or otherwise of the leader are personal although the environment as well as circumstances also plays a major role.On the other hand, leaders can also be dangerous, especially charismatic Pied Pipers who seduce people into disastrous adventures. Sometimes it can be hard to tell the difference between a Steve Jobs who promises that the team can be “insanely great” and a demagogue who turns out to be greatly insane. Some leaders who come to mind in this category include Hitler, Stalin and Jim Jones in Jonestown, Guyana.Some of the exemplary leaders of all time include Nelson Mandela whose altruistic Servant-Leader style was remarkable, other leaders include

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