LCD720 – 02/04/09

Research on teaching and learning pronunciation

Announcements

• New classroom: RA 202

Reflection

• Exercise 2, p. 32/33: Rank order the ESL learners based on:– Age– Amount of exposure– Sociocultural factors– Affective factors, incl. motivation– Other factors

A short history of L2 and pronunciation research and theories• L2 research (in general)

– Contrastive Analysis– Error Analysis– Interlanguage research

• Pronunciation research– Markedness theory– Language universals– Information processing theory

1. Contrastive analysis

• Where L1 and L2 are the same: easy to learn• Where L1 and L2 are different: difficult• For example:

– L1 has /l/ and /r/, L2 has /l/ and /r/: easy to learn– L1 has /l/ but not /r/, L2 has /l/ and /r/: difficult to

learn /r/

• Negative transfer from L1 plays a role in– general segmental features (like aspiration), and– suprasegmental features (like intonation and rhythm)

• Problem: CA doesn’t always make the correct predictions (e.g., directionality)

2. Error analysis and avoidance

• In addition to contrastive analysis: Error Analysis– Which predictions are borne out? How difficult are

these problems?

• Error analysis looks at:– Interlingual errors (L1 interference)– Intralingual errors (e.g., overgeneralization)– Developmental errors (similar to L1 acquisition)

• Problems:– EA focuses on what is wrong, not what is right– EA ignores avoidance (e.g., difficult words)

3. Interlanguage

• Interlanguage: The rule-governed and systematic second language knowledge of learners

• Development of interlanguage is determined by– L1– L2– Universals– Communication strategies (e.g., better performance in

more formal situations)

4. Markedness theory

• In any pair of sounds, one is more ‘basic’, neutral, frequent, earlier acquired, etc. than the other– One member of the pair is unmarked

• Example– English allows /p, t, k/ and /b, d, g/ in word-final

position– But: German allows only /p, t, k/ in word-final position– So: English is more marked than German (in this

respect)

4. Markedness theory

• Markedness can predict directionality:– Word-final /b, d, g/ in English (marked) are

more difficult to pronounce for L1 German speakers

– Word-final /p, t, k/ in German (unmarked) is easier to pronounce for L1 English speakers

• Contrastive analysis does not make such predictions about directionality

4. Markedness theory

• /ŋ/ can occur in syllable-final position in English (sing)

• /ŋ/ can occur in syllable-final and syllable-initial position in Vietnamese (ngang)

• Which language is more marked (with respect to /ŋ/)?

• Which learner has more difficulty?– English speaker learning Vietnamese, or– Vietnamese speaker learning English

5. Language universals

• Language universals: properties all languages have in common– Principles and parameters (Chomsky)– Implicational universals

• Examples of universals– All languages have consonants and vowels– Consonants contrast in manner, voicing, etc.

5. Language universals• Implicational hierarchies:

stops > nasals > fricatives– Languages that have nasals also have stops– Languages that have fricatives also have nasals and

stops

• Predictions for acquisition– Stops are acquired before nasals; nasals are acquired

before fricatives– Initially, fricatives are replaced by stops

Fricatives are more marked than

nasals. Stops are unmarked.

• Determine whether and how the following universals may affect ESL pronunciation teaching– Stops > fricatives > affricates– If a language has voiced obstruent phonemes

(/b, d, g/), it will also have voiceless obstruent phonemes (/p, t, k/).

– Front vowel phonemes are generally unrounded, while non-low back vowel phonemes are generally rounded.

• What does this imply for rounded front vowels?

5. Language universals

6. Information processing theory: Schemata

• Tendency to interpret new information in terms of existing knowledge structures: schemata– E.g., schema of going to a restaurant– Schemata also influence processing of

phonology:• A L1 Spanish speaker may ‘hear’ eski instead of ski, because that what s/he expects to hear

6. Information processing theoryAutomatic vs. controlled

• Automatic vs. controlled processing– Controlled processing requires attention and

awareness– Automatic processing is not controlled or inhibited by

other processes– Cf. learning to drive a car with manual transmission

• With controlled processing you have to think a lot; it’s easy to make a mistake, like switching the order of steps or forgetting a step (e.g., use the clutch)

• With automatic processing you don’t have to think; however, it’s difficult to change automatic behavior

6. Information processing theory:Modes of learning

• Three modes of learning1.Accretion (or accommodation): adding new

information2.Restructuring: changing the system based on existing

patterns3.Tuning: further modify the system

• Example: L1 Portuguese, L2 English– Portuguese has /i, e, ɛ, a, ɔ, o, u/– Accretion: add /ɪ, æ, ʊ, ʌ/– Restructure: /i, e, u/ may shift position– Fine-tuning: approaching native pronunciation

New directions

• So far: Focus on individual sounds (vowels, consonants)

• More recent research:– Intonation– Rhythm– Connected speech– Voice quality

• We’ll discuss these in more detail later

Intonation

• American English has a three tone system of intonation contours

• Other languages, like Spanish, may have only two– To the ear of a NAE speaker, this sounds

uninterested and bored

NAE speakerThis is a book

Japanese speaker

Rhythm

• Stressed syllables are longer than unstressed syllables– This is a common problem for ESL learners

• It is possible to learn to produce the appropriate rhythm, but it may take extensive practice– E.g., scaffolding from single items, to phrases,

to longer stretches of speech

Connected speech

• Sounds are affected by other sounds that come before or after them, e.g.,– Flapping rule (e.g., water)– Vowel reduction in unstressed syllables– Consonant cluster simplification (e.g., sixth)

Voice quality

• Pitch and loudness– Spanish and Japanese speakers tend to

speak with higher pitch and lower volume than Americans

– Language specific and sociocultural factors

Derwing & Munro (2005)

• Questions?

• Issues in research on pronunciation teaching that interest you

• How would they affect your teaching practices?– …?

Next week

• Read Chapter 3 (The consonant system)

• Exercises 2 (p. 30), 1 (p. 31)

• Bring a hand mirror