LAWS300 ADMINISTRATIVE LAW 2016

Emma Berry

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Table of Contents

Introduction to Administrative Law ............................................................................ 7 What is Administrative Law? .................................................................................................... 7

What are the Separation of Powers? ................................................................................................ 8 What is the Rule of Law .......................................................................................................................... 8 Administrative Law: Values ................................................................................................................. 8 Public Office, Public Trust .................................................................................................................. 11 The Framework for Judicial Review (Commonwealth) ........................................................ 11 Framework for Judicial Review: State .......................................................................................... 12 Framework for Administrative Review: Commonwealth .................................................... 12 Framework for Administrative Review: Victoria .................................................................... 13 Conclusion ................................................................................................................................................. 13

Rule-making and Administrative Powers – Grounds for Review .................... 13 Grounds for Review ................................................................................................................... 13 Sources of administrative powers ....................................................................................... 13

Pre-Issues for Judicial Review ..................................................................................... 14 ADJR Act – Is the Decision Reviewable?.................................................................... 14

Administrative Character ........................................................................................................ 15 Under an Enactment .................................................................................................................. 15 Standing ......................................................................................................................................... 15

Natural Justice ................................................................................................................... 16 When natural justice applies ................................................................................................. 16

Express application ............................................................................................................................... 16 Implied application ............................................................................................................................... 16

The Hearing Rule .............................................................................................................. 17 Minimum requirements of the hearing rule .................................................................... 17

Prior notice of hearing ......................................................................................................................... 17 Notice of adverse findings or allegations .................................................................................... 18

The Bias Rule ..................................................................................................................... 22 Rationale ........................................................................................................................................ 22 Categories of Bias ....................................................................................................................... 22

Actual Bias................................................................................................................................................. 22 Apprehended Bias ................................................................................................................................. 22

Form of Bias .................................................................................................................................. 24 Pecuniary interest ................................................................................................................................. 24 Provisional views expressed during a case ................................................................................ 24 Preconceived opinions evidenced by public statements...................................................... 24 Preconceived opinions evidenced by former decisions........................................................ 25 Predisposed attitudes to socio-political issues or groups ................................................... 26 Known attitudes towards witnesses ............................................................................................. 27

Judicial Review .................................................................................................................. 28 Commonwealth Statutory Framework ............................................................................... 28

Judicial review under statutory schemes .................................................................................... 29 Mandamus ................................................................................................................................................. 29 Habeus Corpus ........................................................................................................................................ 29 Certiorari and Prohibition ................................................................................................................. 30 Injunction/Declaration ........................................................................................................................ 31 “Officer of the Commonwealth” ....................................................................................................... 31 Administrative Decisions (Judicial Review) Act ....................................................................... 31

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The State Statutory Framework ............................................................................................ 31 “Tribunal” .................................................................................................................................................. 31 “Person Affected” ................................................................................................................................... 31 “Decision” .................................................................................................................................................. 31 Standing ..................................................................................................................................................... 32

The Judicial Reviewability of Administrative Action .................................................... 32 Ouster Clauses ......................................................................................................................................... 32

Griffith University v Tang (2005) 221 CLR 99 ................................................................. 33 Judicial Review SAMPLE ANSWER PLAN ............................................................................ 33

ADJR Act ............................................................................................................................... 34 The general rule .......................................................................................................................... 34 Criteria for Relevance ............................................................................................................... 34 Failure to Consider Relevant Matters ................................................................................. 35

The principles of Peko in determining whether there has been a failure to take account of a relevant consideration............................................................................................... 36

Judicial Review: Principle of Legality ................................................................................. 37 Jurisdictional Error.................................................................................................................... 37 Grounds of Jurisdictional Error (Craig) ............................................................................. 38 Jurisdictional Error: Courts and Tribunals ....................................................................... 38 Jurisdictional Errors: Acting Outside Jurisdiction ......................................................... 38 Error within Jurisdiction (Craig) .......................................................................................... 38 Jurisdictional Error: Summary .............................................................................................. 38 Jurisdictional Error: New Theory? ....................................................................................... 39 Severity of the Error .................................................................................................................. 39 Kinds of Jurisdictional Error .................................................................................................. 39 Craig v South Australia (1995) .............................................................................................. 39 Kirk v Industrial Court of NSW .............................................................................................. 39 Jurisdictional Facts .................................................................................................................... 39 Minister for Immigration v SZMDS (2010) ....................................................................... 40 ICAC v Cunneen (2015) ............................................................................................................. 40 Saeed v Minister for Immigration and Citizenship (2010) ......................................... 41 Applicant VEAL of 2002 v Minister for Immigration and Multicultural and Indigenous Affairs (2005) ....................................................................................................... 42 Craig v South Australia (1995) – Decisional grounds ................................................... 42 Kirk v Industrial Court of New South Wales (2010) ...................................................... 43

Grounds for Review: Unreasonableness .................................................................. 44

Introduction ....................................................................................................................... 44 The development of Wednesbury unreasonableness ......................................... 44 Relevant ADJR provisions.............................................................................................. 44

Further limited conception of irrationality ............................................................ 45 Wednesbury: Legality and Merits ............................................................................... 45 An Australian Approach ................................................................................................. 45

High Court Definition ................................................................................................................ 46 Unreasonableness: Conclusions .................................................................................. 46

Classes of Unreasonable Decisions ...................................................................................... 46 Unreasonableness: Capricious Decision ............................................................................ 46 Unreasonableness: No plausible justification ................................................................. 47 Unreasonableness: Discrimination ..................................................................................... 47 Unreasonableness: The weight accorded to evidence.................................................. 48

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Grounds for Review: Bad Faith and Fraud .............................................................. 49 Grounds For Review: Executive Policy and Discretion ....................................... 50

Law v Policy ........................................................................................................................ 50 What is policy? ............................................................................................................................. 51 ADJR Act Provisions re Policy and Direction ................................................................... 51 What is the Relationship between Law and Policy ........................................................ 51

Key Criteria ............................................................................................................................................... 52 Discretion and Policy in Administrative Decision-Making ............................... 56

Law v Policy .................................................................................................................................. 56 What is Policy? ............................................................................................................................. 57 ADJR Act Provisions r.e. Policy and Direction ................................................................. 57 What is the Relationship between Law and Policy? ...................................................... 57 Key Criteria ................................................................................................................................... 57

What weight should a policy be given? ........................................................................................ 58 Minister for Immigration and Ethnic Affairs v Tagle (1983) .............................................. 58 Rendell v Release on Licensing Board (1987)........................................................................... 59 Seiffert v The Prisoners Review Board......................................................................................... 59

Inflexible Application of Policy: Principles ...................................................................... 60 Subordinate Legislation ................................................................................................. 61

Legislative Authority: Example ............................................................................................. 61 Recent Developments ............................................................................................................... 61 Subordinate Legislation: Grounds of Review ................................................................... 61 Parliamentary Oversight ......................................................................................................... 62 Principles and Presumptions................................................................................................. 62 Judicial Review of Subordinate Legislation ...................................................................... 62

Merits Review .................................................................................................................... 64 The nature of merits review ................................................................................................... 64

Recommendatory or determinative decision-making powers .......................................... 64 Appeals ........................................................................................................................................... 64

Merit review and other forms of statutory appeal .................................................................. 64 Role of procedure and evidence in merit review ..................................................................... 65

Merits review tribunals............................................................................................................ 65 Merits review vs. Judicial Review ......................................................................................... 65 Administrative Appeals Tribunal ......................................................................................... 65

Scope ........................................................................................................................................................... 65 Powers ........................................................................................................................................................ 66 Policy ........................................................................................................................................................... 66 Status of Decisions ................................................................................................................................. 66 Procedure .................................................................................................................................................. 66 Objectives .................................................................................................................................................. 67

Victorian Civil and Administrative Tribunal.................................................................... 67 Questions to consider when dealing with merits review problem .......................... 67 Collector of Customs (NSW) v Brian Lawlor Automotive Pty Ltd ............................. 68 Drake v Minister of Immigration and Ethnic Affairs ..................................................... 68 Shi v Migration Agents Registration Authority ............................................................... 68 Re Drake and Minister for Immigration and Ethnic Affairs (No 2) .......................... 69

Definition............................................................................................................................. 70 Independence of the Ombudsman ....................................................................................... 70

Ombudsman contrasted with merits and judicial review ................................. 70 Benefits of Ombudsman ........................................................................................................... 71

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Disadvantages of Ombudsman .............................................................................................. 71 The Commonwealth Ombudsman .............................................................................. 71

Establishment of office of Ombudsman ............................................................................. 71 Appointment of Ombudsman ................................................................................................. 71

State ............................................................................................................................................................. 71 Commonwealth ....................................................................................................................................... 71

Role of the Ombudsman ........................................................................................................... 72 Jurisdiction ................................................................................................................................... 72

Agencies subject to investigation.................................................................................................... 72 Agencies not subject to investigation............................................................................................ 72 Action that relates to a matter of administration .................................................................... 72 Action excluded from jurisdiction .................................................................................................. 73 Discretion not to investigate ............................................................................................................. 73

Procedure ...................................................................................................................................... 74 Initiating investigation ........................................................................................................................ 74 Making complaints ................................................................................................................................ 74 Access .......................................................................................................................................................... 74 Investigations .......................................................................................................................................... 75 Confidentiality ......................................................................................................................................... 76 Powers of the Ombudsman ............................................................................................................... 76

Remedies ....................................................................................................................................... 76 Outline of the Commonwealth FOI Act ...................................................................... 77

Scope of application................................................................................................................... 77 Government agencies subject to the FOI Act .................................................................... 77 Ministers ........................................................................................................................................ 78 Government contractors.......................................................................................................... 78 Documents .................................................................................................................................... 78 Requests under the FOI Act .................................................................................................... 78 Who can make an FOI request? ............................................................................................. 79 How to make a request ............................................................................................................. 79 Timeframes for dealing with requests ............................................................................... 79 Transferring a Request ............................................................................................................ 80 Granting a request for access ................................................................................................. 80 Deferring access .......................................................................................................................... 81 Refusing a request for access ................................................................................................. 81 Charges ........................................................................................................................................... 81 Protections when access to documents is given ............................................................. 82 Exemptions ................................................................................................................................... 82 Amendment or annotation of personal information .................................................... 82 Review ............................................................................................................................................ 82 Information Publication Scheme .......................................................................................... 82

Privacy Law......................................................................................................................... 83 The Meaning of Privacy ............................................................................................................ 83 Universal Declaration of Human Rights 1948 ................................................................. 83 Commonwealth Privacy Act 1988 ........................................................................................ 84 Privacy Act: Objectives ............................................................................................................. 84 Key definitions............................................................................................................................. 84 Privacy Act: Three Key Features ........................................................................................... 84 Australian Privacy Principles ................................................................................................ 85 Personal Privacy Exemption .................................................................................................. 87 Complaints to the Privacy Commissioner ......................................................................... 87 Privacy Commissioner .............................................................................................................. 87

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Rationale.............................................................................................................................. 89 Statutory duty to provide reasons for decisions ............................................................ 90 Common law position ............................................................................................................... 90 Content of a reasons statement ............................................................................................. 91 Statutory duty to provide reasons ....................................................................................... 92

What are material facts? ..................................................................................................................... 93 Administrative Decisions (Judicial Review) Act 1977 (Cth) ...................................... 93

Administrative Appeals Tribunal Act 1975 (Cth) .................................................................... 94

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LAWS300 Administrative Law

Week 1

Introduction to Administrative Law

What is Administrative Law? x Concerns the legal rules and institutions directed at keeping the ‘governors’

(principally, decision-makers in the executive arm of government) ‘accountable’ x Exists to safeguard the rights and interests of people in their dealings with

government agencies x About law and government x What government can and can’t do, legally speaking x How ordinary people who feel aggrieved by something the government has

done, can challenge a government decision on its legality or on its merits x Provides a mechanism through which government decision making can be

reviewed x Provides a number of means through which ordinary citizens can find out about

government policy and what the government has to say about them o Freedom of information legislation o Privacy legislation o Archives legislation o Statements of reason – the new legislation for why a government

decision maker has made a decision � For example an ARO for social security benefits

o Whistleblower protection legislation � Provide a means for people who make public the actions of

government or government documents, in the public interest, can bring these to light

� Where government has been secretive x Public accountability of government processes

o Offices established to ensure the government have been acting properly

� Ombudsman � Auditor-General

x Reviews the way government manages its money � Human Rights Commissions

x Whether government is living up to its role to protect the ordinary rights of all humans

� Parliamentary committees

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x Regulations must not trespass on the rights and freedoms of individuals

x The principle of legality – government agencies/departments must always act within the law – strictly in accordance with statutes pursuant to which they have been created

x Review of Government decision making o Challenging government decisions whether it be on legality or its merits.

x Protection of rights to information x Public accountability of Government processes

o Human rights commissions – determining if government legislation adequately protects the rights of Australian citizens

o Ensures regulations don’t trespass on rights and freedoms of individuals

x Underlying all this is the principle of legality x Means simply that government agencies must act strictly in line with statutes

pursuant to which they have been created x Administrative law covers:

o Tribunals charged with the review of administrative behaviour; o The general rules which govern the scope of, and limits to, the exercise

of administrative powers and discretions; o Laws bearing on the right to have access to information about

government activity; and o Ombudsmen

What are the Separation of Powers? x 3 arms of government

o legislature (makes laws) o executive (administers laws); and o judiciary (Court and judges – interpret and apply the law)

x Why keep them separate? o Prevent concentration of power o An external check on power

What is the Rule of Law x The law binds both governments and citizens x No ruler is above the law x Laws should be written and public, enforced with due process x Its core principles are:

o Clear separation of powers and independence of the courts and judiciary

o Legal certainty o Principle of legitimate expectation o Equality before the law

x The rule of law requires a fair and equal application of power

Administrative Law: Values x Administrative justice

o Rights and interests of a party affected by a government decision should be safeguarded and fall within the law.

o Doctrine of ultra vires o Rules of natural justice o Decision makers must not be affected by considering anything

irrelevant

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o Judicial and Tribunal review: Independent and Impartial Review of disputes between the government and the governed

� Courts and Tribunals should be constituted to ensure they provide impartial dispute resolution between government and other parties (the governed)

o Closely linked to human rights law – operate in very similar way and legislation is drafted differently

x Good administration o means the law should conform to international standards – i.e. legality,

accessibility. x Executive accountability

o mechanisms through which government decision makers can be called upon to explain and justify their actions

x Administrative law addresses the ideals of good government according to law. We take those ideals to include openness, fairness, participation, accountability, consistency, rationality, accessibility of judicial and non-judicial grievance procedures, legality and impartiality (Aronson and Dyer, Judicial Review of Administrative Action 2001)

Administrative Law – Greek Analogy x Overarching objective: national integrity in government x Three ancient columns: legislature, executive and judiciary x Eight modern additions:

o Administrative tribunals o Auditor-General o Ombudsman o Anti-corruption agencies o Human rights agencies o Public service o Civil society o Free media.

Administrative Justice x Judicial and Tribunal Review: Independent and Impartial Review of disputes

between the government and the governed. x Human Rights conception of administrative law.

“Independent determination of a citizens rights against the government is the hallmark of a modern democracy and a feature of the Chapter III of the Constitution… The new system has contributed to a greater measure of administrative justice in its insistence on compliance with the rules of natural justice, its careful scrutiny of reasons for decision, its emphasis on the justice of the case and in making the principles and procedures of review more uniform. These are the enduring benefits of independent review.” (Mason CJ).

The Constitutional Framework x Parliamentary sovereignty and the Rule of Law

o Parliamentary sovereignty – as long as it is within the terms of the Constitution, the government can introduce any law, legislation that it wishes to produce, with no constraint on parliamentary power except constitutional constraint. It is the mechanism through which the companion doctrine of the Rule of Law is made real. The Rule of Law means in the administrative law context that any person in the government has to act in accordance with the law

o Accessibility to the law and equality before the law

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o The rule of law in admin law context – every government department or agency must act in accordance with the law

o Parliament has made law, government cannot go beyond the law – ultra vires (beyond jurisdiction)

x Responsible government o Every level of government must be accountable for its actions. o Executive gov. accountable to parliament; within parliament’s power to

endorse or remove a government. Parliament in turn responsible to the people. Parliament similarly can be endorsed or removed by the people.

x Representative democracy o Works in exactly the opposite direction. People elect the parliament and

the parliament elects the executive. o Transparency and participation are two key values here

x Separation of Powers o Self-evident. Representative government cannot act for itself in its own

court. The task would then fall to the judiciary to decide on a matter regarding the government. Impartial judiciary is vital to the entire system of administrative law.

o By the Constitution, governmental powers are to be divided between the several polities in the Commonwealth … Moreover within each jurisdiction, most especially the federal sphere of government, there is an express or implied division of powers, to a greater or lesser extent, between the legislatures, executive governments and courts of the nation. (Per Kirby J. in NSW v Commonwealth (Work Choices Case) 2006).

Good Administration x Law should conform to international standards – legality, rationality,

accessibility, transparency. x Five principles of good administration

o The right to be heard (prior to decision being made about their rights); this would include arguments and evidence, to ensure that the decision is fair and reasonable in all the circumstances.

� Any person who has a problem with the actions of a government has the right to be heard

o Access to information – to exercise the above right, the person should be given access to the material regarding the making of the government decision, and access to the material on the basis of which an administrative decision is made.

� Access to the criteria of the making of the government decision making

� Materials by which the decision was made � Materials on how the government body was formed

o Assistance and representation – people not capable of representing themselves should be able to seek legal assistance to represent them.

� Not easy to just turn up and talk for yourself – especially for a lay person

� Where significant adverse effects may operate, generally accepted that as part of good admin, people who are not capable of representing themselves must have access to someone to assist them in their case.

o Statement of reasons – can’t challenge a government decision if you don’t know why or how it has been made. Entitled to a written statement of the reasons explaining and justifying the decision a government agency has taken.

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o Indication of remedies – comprehensive set of remedies that should return the person affected to the position they were in prior to the decision having been made.

Executive Accountability x Political (to do with parliament), Legal, Administrative Law Accountability (as

embodied in the values and mechanics of administrative law) x Mechanisms through which government decision makers can be called upon

to explain and justify their actions. x Definitions:

o Political: Political accountability refers to the responsibility or obligation of government officials to act in the best interests of society or face consequences. Public officials should be held responsible for their actions.

o Legal: “Accountability can be taken to refer to the need for the executive government and administrative agencies to comply with the law and to observe relevant limitations on the exercise of their powers” (per Gaudron J)

o Administrative: “Accountability is about requiring a person to explain and justify their decisions or acts and then to make amends for any fault or error, whether by reversing the decision, the payment of compensation or in some other way.” (Professor Dawn Oliver)

Public Office, Public Trust x Embodies the idea that both branches of parliament and those that work in

government exercise their powers ultimately on behalf and for the people with whom they’re dealing. These officers are officers of public trust.

x Persons entrusted with that power owe a ‘fiduciary duty of loyalty’ to the public. Acting purely for the interests of Australians.

x Therefore, public office may be regarded as a public trust and public officials are trustees.

x Public officials should be expected to serve the public honestly, impartially and disinterestedly.

x Public trust: Sir Gerard Brennan: o “It has long been an established legal principle that a member of

Parliament holds a fiduciary relationship to the public and undertakes and has imposed upon him a public duty and public trust… This limitation demands that all decisions and exercises of power be taken in the interests of the beneficiaries and that duty cannot be subordinated to, or qualified by, the interests of the trustee.”

o Power whether legislative or executive, is reposed in members of the Parliament, and public servants, by the public for the exercise in the interests of the public, and not primarily for the interests of MPs or public servants for the parties or agencies to which they belong. The cry “Whatever it takes”, is not consistent with the performance of fiduciary duty.

x Public trust examples: o East-West Link contract conclusion, three weeks prior to Victoria

election o Bronwyn Bishop’s helicopter ride o Stuart Robert’s networking journey

The Framework for Judicial Review (Commonwealth) x Administrative Decisions (Judicial Review) Act 1977.

o Could review the legality of a decision on the terms it deems appropriate

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o Listed and codified the common law grounds for review – the Act put these into an order making them relatively simple to understand.

� Common law was very ad-hoc and not clear o Granted a statutory right to the reasons for a decision (first Act in

Australia to do so) – gave individuals the opportunity if questioning the legality of a decision to request a statement explaining and justifying their decision.

o Overrode existing privative clauses – inserted in legislation, saying that legislation is not reviewable by any court or tribunal (attempting to oust review on the law or merits). This is particularly so in migration legislation

� Attempt to oust any attempt at review on law or merit. o Applies only ‘decisions of an administrative character made under an

enactment’ or to ‘conduct for the purpose of making a decision’. x Judiciary Act 1903: Federal Court Jurisdiction

o Jurisdiction in relation to any matter in which a writ of mandamus, certiorari, an injunction is sought against an officer of the Commonwealth –certiorari is designed to quash administrative decision; designed to deprive the government of a decision to have any legal effect. Return person who was denied the benefit to the position they would have been in had they not been denied something. Mandamus is an enforcement writ. It induces something. Imposes on a government agency or department, and the duty is not performed then a writ of mandamus would force to person to complete that duty.

o Jurisdiction in any matter arising under the Constitution or involving its interpretation

x Australian Constitution: s 75(v). o This gives the power to the High Court to adjudicate in any matter

between the government or official and the person challenging that decision.

Framework for Judicial Review: State x Victoria – Administrative Law Act (1978)

o Established a reformed and simplified method for seeking an ‘order for review’ of the ‘decision’ of a ‘tribunal’

� Does not codify the grounds for review � Still uses the old process of writs – mandamus, certiorari or

injunction. o Provided relief o Established a right to a statement of reasons for a decision

challengeable under the Act o Unlike the ADJR, the Act does not codify the grounds of review.

Framework for Administrative Review: Commonwealth x The Administrative Appeals Tribunal

o Strong emphasis on informal and expeditious decision making o Pre-hearing dispute resolution o Hears disputes brought under over 400 different statutes o Does not hear citizen v citizen dispute, only those between government

and the governed x Specialist Tribunals

o Migration Tribunal o Refugee Tribunal o Social Security Appeals Tribunal – now known as the SSCS. o Veterans Review Board

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Framework for Administrative Review: Victoria x Victorian Civil and Administrative Tribunal (VCAT)

o Civil Jurisdiction o Administrative Jurisdiction o Human Rights Jurisdiction

x Can hear disputes between citizen and citizen – unlike the AAT x Specialist Tribunals

o Mental Health Tribunal Focus on Independence from Government Influence.

Conclusion x Both AAT and VCAT are both guardians of the public trust principle x Ensure that administrative decisions are made fairly and effectively. x Lord Bingham: x “Statutory power conferred for public purpose is conferred…upon trust

completely – that is to say, it can validly be used on in the right and proper way which Parliament when conferring it is presumed to have intended … It follows from the proposition that public powers are conferred on trust, that those who exercise powers in a matter inconsistent with the public purpose for which the powers conferred, betray that trust and so misconduct themselves.”

Rule-making and Administrative Powers – Grounds for Review

Grounds for Review x The Administrative Decisions (Judicial Review) Act 1977 (Cth) (ADJR Act) lists

about 20 grounds for attacking the validity of an administrative decision. x Most administrative law applications rely on a relatively small number of these

grounds: o Error of law o Taking irrelevant considerations into account, or not taking account of

relevant ones o Denial of procedural fairness o Unreasonableness o Acting on the basis of inadequate evidence.

Sources of administrative powers x Administrators possess both legal and non-legal powers x Can be political – e.g. non-legal powers can be policies/policy-making

o Policies can be required consideration by an administrator under statute.

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Administrative Law Pre-Issues for Judicial Review

Pre-Issues for Judicial Review

ADJR Act – Is the Decision Reviewable? x S 3(1) definition of ‘a decision’

o “A decision to which this Act applies means a decision of an administrative character made… (whether in the exercise of a discretion or not) under an enactment”

� Administrative character: within government or government agency

� An enactment: under a statute which provides criteria for making a decision which the decision maker has followed (or most likely not followed)

x S 3(2) o “a reference to the making of a decision includes: making,

suspending, revoking or refusing to make… a determination.” x S 3(5) Conduct

o “Conduct refers to action taken, rather than a decision made, for the purpose of making a decision and include the doing of any act preparatory to a decision”

� conduct taken in the pursuit of making a decision � somewhere along the line something goes wrong with the

process of making a decision � procedurally unfair under this section

x Making a decision refers to an administrative activity that is final, operative and substantive: ABT v Bond (see below)

x An interim decision is not a decision for the purposes of the ADJR act – as these are not capable of being made operative

x Conduct refers to an administrative activity, preceding a decision that reveals a flawed administrative process

Australian Broadcasting Tribunal v Bond (1990)

o Facts: Mr Bond and the companies challenging an inquiry into fitness to hold a broadcasting licence, attempted to stall the administrative process by challenging every step of the process as a ‘decision’ or ‘conduct’.

o Issue: Restrictive interpretation. o Held: The High Court held that the actions were not reviewable as

decisions or conduct. The terms ‘decision’ and ‘conduct’ should be read restrictively. ‘Decision’ refers to administrative activity that is substantive and final or operative and ‘conduct’ refers to