This article is about the genus of flowering plants known as lavender. For the most widely cultivated species in that genus, seeLavandula angustifolia."Lavender" redirects here. For the color, seeLavender (color). For other uses, seeLavender (disambiguation).Lavender

Lavender flowers withbracts

Scientific classification

Kingdom:Plantae

(unranked):Angiosperms

(unranked):Eudicots

(unranked):Asterids

Order:Lamiales

Family:Lamiaceae

Subfamily:Nepetoideae

Tribe:Lavanduleae

Genus:Lavandula

Type species

Lavandula spicaL.

Synonyms[1]

StoechasMill. FabriciaAdans. StyphoniaMedik. ChaetostachysBenth. SabaudiaBuscal. & Muschl. IsiniaRech.f.

Lavandula(common namelavender) is agenusof 39 known species offlowering plantsin the mintfamily,Lamiaceae. It isnativeto theOld Worldand is found fromCape Verdeand theCanary Islands, southern Europe across to northern and eastern Africa, the Mediterranean, southwest Asia to southeast India. Many members of the genus are cultivated extensively intemperate climatesasornamental plantsfor garden and landscape use, for use asculinary herbs, and also commercially for the extraction ofessential oils. The most widely cultivated species,Lavandula angustifolia, is often referred to as lavender, and there is acolournamed for the shade of the flowers of this species.Contents[hide] 1Description 2Nomenclature and taxonomy 3Etymology 4Cultivation 5Lavender oil 6Culinary use 7Medical uses 8Health precautions 8.1Gynecomastia 8.2Skin irritant 8.3Photosensitivity 9Other uses 10In history and culture 11Taxonomic table 12Gallery 13See also 14References 15Sources 16External linksDescription[edit]The genus includes annual or short-livedherbaceousperennial plants, and shrub-like perennials,subshrubsor smallshrubs.[2]Leaf shape is diverse across the genus. They aresimplein some commonly cultivated species; in others they are pinnately toothed, orpinnate, sometimes multiple pinnate and dissected. In most species the leaves are covered in fine hairs orindumentum, which normally contain the essential oils.[2]Flowers are borne in whorls, held on spikes rising above the foliage, the spikes being branched in some species. Some species produce coloured bracts at theapices. The flowers may be blue, violet or lilac in the wild species, occasionally blackish purple or yellowish. Thecalyxis tubular. Thecorollais also tubular, usually with five lobes (the upper lip often cleft, and the lower lip has two clefts).[2][3]Nomenclature and taxonomy[edit]L. stoechas,L. pedunculataandL. dentatawere known in Roman times.[4]From the Middle Ages onwards, the European species were considered two separate groups or genera,Stoechas(L. stoechas,L. pedunculata,L. dentata) andLavandula(L. spicaandL. latifolia), untilLinnaeuscombined them. He only recognised five species inSpecies Plantarum(1753),L. multifidaandL. dentata(Spain) andL. stoechasandL. spicafrom Southern Europe.L. pedunculatawas included withinL. stoechas.By 1790L. pinnataandL. carnosawere recognised. The latter was subsequently transferred toAnisochilus. By 1826Frdric Charles Jean Gingins de la Sarrazlisted 12 species in three sections, and by 1848 eighteen species were known.[4]One of the first modern major classifications was that ofDorothy Chaytorin 1937 at Kew. The six sections she proposed for 28 species still left many intermediates that could not easily be assigned. Her sections includedStoechas,Spica,Subnudae,Pterostoechas,ChaetostachysandDentatae. However all the major cultivated and commercial forms resided in theStoechasandSpicasections. There were four species withinStoechas(Lavandula stoechas,L. dentata, L. viridisandL. pedunculata)whileSpicahad three (L. officinalis (nowL. angustifolia),L. latifoliaandL. lanata). She believed that the garden varieties were hybrids between true lavenderL. angustifoliaand spike lavender(L. latifolia).[5]More recently work has been done by Upson and Andrews, and currentlyLavandulais considered to have three subgenera. SubgenusLavandulais mainly of woody shrubs with entire leaves. It contains the principal species grown as ornamental plants and for oils. They are found across the Mediterranean region to northeast Africa and western Arabia. SubgenusFabriciaconsists of shrubs and herbs, and it has a wide distribution from the Atlantic to India. It contains some ornamental plants. SubgenusSabaudiaconstitutes two species in the southwest Arabian peninsula and Eritrea, which are rather distinct from the other species, and are sometimes placed in their own genusSabaudia.In addition there are numerous hybrids and cultivars in commercial and horticultural usage.[2]Etymology[edit]The English word lavender is generally thought to be derived from Old Frenchlavandre, ultimately from the Latinlavare(to wash), referring to the use of infusions of the plants.[6]The botanic nameLavandulaas used byLinnaeusis considered to be derived from this and other European vernacular names for the plants. However it is suggested that this explanation may be apocryphal, and that the name may actually be derived from Latinlivere, "blueish".[7]The names widely used for some of the species, "English lavender", "French lavender" and "Spanish lavender" are all imprecisely applied. "English lavender" is commonly used forL. angustifolia, though some references say the proper term is "Old English Lavender".[8]The name "French lavender" may be used to refer to eitherL. stoechasor toL. dentata. "Spanish lavender" may be used to refer toL. stoechas,L. lanataorL. dentata.Cultivation[edit]

A bee on a lavender flowerThe most common form in cultivation is the common or English lavenderLavandula angustifolia(formerly namedL. officinalis). A wide range ofcultivarscan be found. Other commonly grown ornamental species areL. stoechas,L. dentata, andL. multifida(Egyptian lavender).Because the cultivated forms are planted in gardens worldwide, they are occasionally found growing wild as garden escapes, well beyond their natural range. Commonly suchadventitiousestablishment is apparently harmless at best, but in some casesLavandulaspecies have becomeinvasive. For example, in Australia,Lavandula stoechashas become a cause for concern; it occurs widely throughout the continent, and has been declared a noxious weed in Victoria since 1920.[9]It also is regarded as a weed in parts of Spain.[10]Lavenders flourish best in dry, well-drained, sandy or gravelly soils in full sun.[11]All types need little or no fertilizer and good air circulation. In areas of high humidity, root rot due to fungus infection can be a problem. Organic mulches can trap moisture around the plants' bases, encouraging root rot. Gravelly materials such as crushed rocks give better results.[12]Lavender oil[edit]Main article:Lavender oilCommercially the plant is grown mainly for the production ofessential oilof lavender. This hasantiseptic[13][14]andanti-inflammatory[15]properties. These extracts are also used as fragrances for bath products.English lavender (Lavandula angustifolia) yields anessential oilwith sweet overtones, and can be used in balms, salves,perfumes, cosmetics, and topical applications. Lavandin,Lavandula intermedia(also known as Dutch lavender), yields a similar essential oil, but with higher levels ofterpenesincludingcamphor, which add a sharper overtone to the fragrance.The lavandinsLavandula intermediaare a class of hybrids ofL. angustifoliaandL. latifolia.[16]The lavandins are widely cultivated for commercial use, since their flowers tend to be bigger than those of English lavender and the plants tend to be easier to harvest, but lavandin oil is regarded by some to be of a lower quality than that of English lavender, with a perfume less sweet.[17]Culinary use[edit]

Lavender infused cupcakesIt is grown as a condiment and used in salads and dressings.[18]Flowers yield abundantnectarfrom which bees make a high-qualityhoney.Monofloral honeyis produced primarily around theMediterranean, and is marketed worldwide as a premium product. Flowers can be candied and are sometimes used ascake decorations. Lavender flavours baked goods and desserts (it pairs especially well with chocolate), and is also used to make "lavender sugar".[19]Lavender flowers are occasionally blended withblack,green, orherbal teas.Though it has many other traditional uses in southern France, lavender is not used in traditional southern French cooking. It does not appear at all in the best-known compendium of Provenal cooking, J.-B. Reboul'sCuisinire Provenale[20]In the 1970s, a blend of herbs calledherbes de Provencewhich usually includes lavender was invented by spice wholesalers,[21]and lavender has more recently become popular in cooking.Lavender lends a floral and slightly sweet flavour to most dishes, and is sometimes paired with sheep's-milk and goat's-milk cheeses. For most cooking applications the dried buds, which are also referred to as flowers, are used. Some chefs experiment with the leaves but only the buds contain theessential oilof lavender, from which the scent and flavour of lavender are derived. In the United States, both lavender syrup and dried lavender buds are used to make lavendersconesandmarshmallows.

Medical uses[edit]

Bunches of lavender for sale, intended to repel insectsSee also:Therapeutic uses section of lavender oil articleThe essential oil was used in hospitals during World War I.[11]Lavender is used extensively withherbssuch aschamomileandaromatherapy. Infusions are believed to soothe insect bites, burns, and headaches.[citation needed]Bunches of lavender repel insects. In pillows, lavender seeds and flowers aid sleep and relaxation.[11][medical citation needed]Aninfusionof flowerheads added to a cup of boiling water is used to soothe and relax at bedtime[citation needed].Lavender oil(or extract of lavender) is used to treatacnewhen diluted 1:10 with water,rosewater, orwitch hazel; it also treats skin burns and inflammatory conditions.[citation needed]A study published in 2010 investigatedanxiolyticeffects and influence on sleep quality. Lavender oil with a high percentage oflinaloolandlinalyl acetate, in the form of capsules, was generally well tolerated. It showed meaningful efficacy in alleviating anxiety and relatedsleep disturbances.[22][non-primary source needed]Lavender oil is approved for use as an anxiolytic in Germany under the nameLasea.[23][24]A survey paper on lavender and the nervous system published in 2013 states that, "there is growing evidence suggesting that lavender oil may be an effective medicament in treatment of several neurological disorders."[25]Lavender may be very effective with wounds;[medical citation needed]however, lavender honey (created from bees feeding on lavender plants), instead of lavender essential oil has the best effects of uninfected wounds.[26]Health precautions[edit]The U.S.National Institutes of Health(NIH) states that lavender is considered likely safe in food amounts and possibly safe in medicinal amounts. NIH does not recommend the use of lavender while pregnant or breast-feeding because of lack of knowledge of its effects. It recommends caution if young boys use lavender oil because of possible hormonal effects leading togynecomastia, and states that lavender can cause skin irritation.[27][28]Gynecomastia[edit]See also:Contraindications section of lavender oil articleA study was published in 2007 on the use of lavender andgynecomastiain prepubescent boys.[29]Three young boys developed gynecomastia while using products containing lavender.[30]The boys stopped using the products, and the gynecomastia went away. The researchers found that lavender and tea tree oil can cause estrogenic and antiandrogenic activities in cell cultures, and the paper states that "repeated topical exposure to lavender and tea tree oils probably caused prepubertal gynecomastia in these boys." After the study was publishedThe New England Journal of Medicinereceived letters disputing the paper's findings, and the authors were allowed to respond.[31]The Aromatherapy Trade Council of the UK and the Australian Tea Tree Association have published rebuttals.[32][33]The Aromatherapy Trade Council's rebuttal states among other things that: It isn't likely that there would be sufficient lavender in the personal care products used in the three cases to cause an endocrine effect. The gyncomastia might have come from another source. The rebuttal states that although endocrine disruptors such as medications, oral contraceptives, marijuana and soy products were considered other disruptors such as organochloride pesticides, PCBs, polychlorinated dioxins, alkyl phenols, pthalates, and parabens were not. The paper states that it is not clear that the lavender and/or tea tree oil caused the gynecomastia but say that, "other components in these products may also possess endocrine-disrupting activity that contributed to the gynecomastia, but those components were not tested because we chose to evaluate only the component that was found in all the products used by the patients (lavender oil) and a chemically similar component that was found in some of the products (tea tree oil)."[30] The rebuttal points out that lavender is in widespread use saying, "considering that some 200 tonnes per annum are produced of both lavender and tea tree oil, that most of this goes into personal care products, and that very little of the evidence presented for these 3 cases is convincing, the press reports of caution are premature."The Australian Tea Tree Industry Association rebuttal states that various other plants have estrogen inducing effects in essential oil form, including, "soy, hops, garbanzo beans, red clover, lentils, flaxseed, sunflower seeds, alfalfa sprouts, liquorice, and ginseng."[33]A study published in 2010 from the Research Institute for Fragrance Materials did not find estrogenic activity from lavender oil in laboratory animals.[34]A newer version of the paper became available in 2013.Skin irritant[edit]In 2004 a study was published which found that, "lavender oil iscytotoxicto human skin cells in vitro".[35]On the other hand, aromatherapist Robert Tisserand points out in a blog post that: "Any type of in vitro test is only suggestive of a possible effect. You can never assume that the same effect will take place in the living body."[36]A review published in 2005 on lavender essential oil states that, "Lavender is traditionally regarded as a 'safe' oil and, although it was recently reported that lavender oil, and its major constituent linalyl acetate, are toxic to human skin cells in vitro, contact dermatitis to lavender oil appears to occur at only a very low frequency."[37]Photosensitivity[edit]A study was published in 2007 which looked a the relationship between various fragrances andphotosensitivity. The study stated that lavender is known "to elicit cutaneous phototoxic reactions". However, the research did not find that lavender inducedphotohaemolysis.[38]Other uses[edit]

Lavender products for sale at theSan FranciscoFarmers Market.Flower spikes are used for dried flower arrangements. The fragrant, pale purple flowers and flower buds are used inpotpourris. Lavender is also used extensively as herbal filler inside sachets used to freshen linens. Dried and sealed in pouches, lavender flowers are placed among stored items of clothing to give a fresh fragrance and to determoths. Dried lavender flowers have become recently popular for wedding confetti. Lavender is also popular inscented watersandsachets.In history and culture[edit]Theancient Greekscalled the lavender herbnardus, after theSyriancity of Naarda (possibly the modern town ofDohuk, Iraq). It was also commonly callednard.[39]The species originally grown wasL. stoechas.[2]Lavender was one of the holy herbs used in the biblicalTempleto prepare the holy essence, andnard('nerd' in Hebrew) is mentioned in theSong of Solomon(4,14)nard and saffron,[40]calamus and cinnamon,with every kind of incense tree,with myrrh and aloes,and all the finest spices.[41]DuringRomantimes, flowers were sold for 100denariiperpound, which was about the same as a month's wages for a farm laborer, or fifty haircuts from the local barber. Itslate Latinname waslavandrius, fromlavanda(things to be washed), from the verblavre(to wash).[42]The Greeks discovered early on that lavender if crushed and treated correctly would release a relaxing fume when burned.[citation needed]In medieval times powdered lavender was used as a condiment.[43]Taxonomic table[edit]

Different lavendercultivarsgrown atSnowshill,Cotswolds.This is based on the classification of Upson and Andrews, 2004.

Lavender field inCarshalton,London Borough of Sutton.I. SubgenusLavandulaUpson & S.Andrews subgen. nov.i. SectionLavandula(3 species) Lavandula angustifoliaMill.subsp.angustifoliafromCataloniaand thePyrenees.subsp.pyrenaicafrom southeast France and adjacent areas of Italy. Lavandula latifoliaMedik native to central and eastern Spain, southern France, northern Italy. Lavandula lanataBoiss. native to southern Spain.Hybrids Lavandula chaytoraeUpson & S. Andrews nothosp. nov.(L. angustifolia subsp. angustifoliaL. lanata) Lavandula intermediaEmeric ex Loisel.(L. angustifolia subsp. angustifoliaL. latifolia)ii. SectionDentataeSuarez-Cerv. & Seoane-Camba(1 species) Lavandula dentataL.from eastern Spain, northern Algeria and Morocco, southwestern Morocco.var. dentata (rosea, albiflora), candicans (persicina)[Batt.]iii. Section StoechasGing.(3 species) Lavandula stoechasL.subsp.stoechasfrom mostly coastal regions of eastern Spain, southern France, western Italy, Greece, Mediterranean Turkey, Levantine coast, and most Mediterranean islands.subspp.luisierinative to coastal and inland Portugal and adjacent Spain. Lavandula pedunculataMill.(Cav.)subsp.pedunculata Spain and Portugal.subsp.cariensis from western Turkey.subsp.atlantica from montane Morocco.subsp.lusitanica southern Portugal and southwestern Spain.subsp.sampaiana from Portugal and southwest Spain. Lavandula viridisL'Her. native to southwest Spain, southern Portugal, and possibly also to Madeira.Intersectional hybrids (Dentatae and Lavendula) Lavandula heterophyllaViv.(L. dentataL. latifolia) Lavandula allardii Lavandula ginginsiiUpson & S. Andrews nothosp. nov.(L. dentataL. lanata)II. SubgenusFabricia(Adams.) Upson & S. Andrews, comb.nov.iv. Section PterostoechasGing.(16 species) Lavandula multifidaL. is native to a wide range including Morocco, southern Portugal and Spain, norther Algeria, Tunisia, Tripolitania, Calabria and Sicily, with isolated populations in the Nile valley. Lavandula canariensisMill., from the Canaries.subsp.palmensis from La Palma.subsp.hierrensis from El Hierro.subsp.canariensis from Tenerife.subsp.canariae from Gran Canaria.subsp.fuerteventurae from Fuerteventura.subsp.gomerensis from La Gomera.subsp.lancerottensis from Lanzarote. Lavandula minutoliiBolle Canary Isles.subsp.minutoliisubsp.tenuipinna Lavandula bramwelliiUpson & S. Andrews from Gran Canaria. Lavandula pinnataL. from the Canaries and also Madeira. Lavandula buchiiWebb & Berthel. Tenerife. Lavandula rotundifoliaBenth. Cape Verde Islands. Lavandula maroccanaMurb. Atlas mountains of Morocco. Lavandula tenuisectaCoss. ex Ball Atlas mountains in Morocco. Lavandula rejdaliiUpson & Jury Morocco. Lavandula maireiHumbert Morocco. Lavandula coronopifoliaPoir. This has a wide distribution, from Cape Verde across North Africa, the northeast of tropical Africa, Arabia to eastern Iran. Lavandula saharicaUpson & Jury southern Algeria and nearby regions. Lavandula antineaeMaire central Sahara region.subsp.antinaesubsp.marranasubsp.tibestica Lavandula pubescensDecne. from Egypt and Eritrea, Sinai, Israel and Palestine, Jordan, western Arabian peninsula to Yemen. Lavandula citriodoraA.G. Mill. southwestern Arabian peninsula.Hybrids Lavandula christianaGattef. & Maire(L. pinnata L. canariensis)v. SectionSubnudaeChaytor(10 species) Lavandula subnudaBenth. from the mountains of Oman and the United Arab Emirates. Lavandula macraBaker southern Arabian peninsula and northern Somalia. Lavandula dhofarensisA.G. Mill. from Dhofar in southern Oman.subsp.dhofarensissubsp.ayunensis Lavandula samhanensisUpson & S. Andrews sp. nov. Dhofar, Oman. Lavandula setiferaT. Anderson from coastal regions of Yemen and Somalia. Lavandula qishnensisUpson & S. Andrews sp. nov. southern Yemen. Lavandula nimmoiBenth. from Socotra. Lavandula galgalloensisA.G. Mill. northern Somalia. Lavandula aristibracteataA.G. Mill. northern Somalia. Lavandula somaliensisChaytor northern Somalia.vi. SectionChaetostachysBenth.(2 species) Lavandula bipinnata(Roth) Kuntze from the Deccan peninsula and central north India. Lavandula gibsoniiJ. Graham Western Ghats, India.vii. SectionHasikensesUpson & S. Andrews, sect. nov.(2 species) Lavandula hasikensisA.G. Mill. Oman. Lavandula sublepidotaRech. f. Far, in southern Iran.III. SubgenusSabaudia(Buscal. & Muschl.) Upson & S. Andrews, comb. et stat. nov.viii. SectionSabaudia(Buscal. & Muschl.) Upson & S. Andrews, comb. et stat. nov.(2 species) Lavandula atriplicifoliaBenth. western Arabian peninsula, Egypt. Lavandula erythraeae(Chiov.) Cufod. from Eritrea.

Gallery[edit] Lavender flower Flower of cultivated lavender;Lavandula stoechas Lavander garden, India A field of lavender in France A field of lavender on the edge of theLondon Borough of Sutton, England Lavender and honeybees outside Aix-en-Provence, FranceSee also[edit] Lavender oil Lavender (color)References[edit]1. Jump up^Kew World Checklist of Selected Plant Families2. ^Jump up to:abcdeUpson T, Andrews S (2004).The Genus Lavandula. Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew 2004.ISBN9780881926422. Retrieved2012-03-30.3. Jump up^L. H. Bailey.Manual of Cultivated Plants. MacMillan Publishing Company.4. ^Jump up to:abLis-Balchin M, ed. (2002).Lavender: The genusLavandula. Taylor and Francis.ISBN9780203216521.5. Jump up^Chaytor D A. A taxonomic study of the genus Lavandula. 19376. Jump up^Concise Oxford Dictionary7. Jump up^The alternative derivation of the name lavender from Latinlivereand medieval Latinlavindulais given in Upson and Andrews, where it is presented as a conjecture. The problems with the standard derivation are also described; such as that there is no knowledge of the common use of lavender for washing by Greeks and Romans.8. Jump up^Hillier9. Jump up^Carr, G.W, Yugovic, J.V and Robinson, K.E.. `Environmental Weed Invasions in Victoria conservation and management implications' 1992 Pub: Department of Conservation and Environment and Ecological Horticulture, Victoria, Australia10. Jump up^Csurches S., Edwards R.; National Weeds Program, Potential Environmental Weeds in Australia, Candidate Species for Preventative Control; Queensland Department of Natural Resources. January 1998ISBN 0-642-21409-3Also[1]11. ^Jump up to:abcGrieve, Mrs. M.A Modern Herbal, Vol. II, New York: Dover Publications, Inc., 1971.ISBN 0-486-22799-5)12. Jump up^Kathleen Norris Brenzel, Editor,The Sunset Western Garden Book, 7th Edition13. Jump up^Moon, T; Wilkinson, JM; Cavanagh, HM (2006). "Antiparasitic activity of two Lavandula essential oils against Giardia duodenalis, Trichomonas vaginalis and Hexamita inflata".Parasitology research99(6): 7228.doi:10.1007/s00436-006-0234-8.PMID16741725.14. Jump up^Inouye, S.; Takizawa, T.; Yamaguchi, H. (2001). "Antibacterial activity of essential oils and their major constituents against respiratory tract pathogens by gaseous contact".Journal of Antimicrobial Chemotherapy47(5): 56573.doi:10.1093/jac/47.5.565.PMID11328766.15. Jump up^Hajhashemi, V; Ghannadi, A; Sharif, B (2003). "Anti-inflammatory and analgesic properties of the leaf extracts and essential oil of Lavandula angustifolia Mill".Journal of Ethnopharmacology89(1): 6771.doi:10.1016/S0378-8741(03)00234-4.PMID14522434.16. Jump up^Mark Griffiths,Index of Garden Plants(Portland, Oregon: Timber Press, 1994.ISBN 0-333-59149-6.)17. Jump up^National Non-Food Crops Centre."Lavender". Retrieved on 2009-04-23.18. Jump up^M. G. Kains (1912). American Agriculturist, ed.Culinary Herbs: Their Cultivation Harvesting Curing and Uses(ENGLISH). Orange Judd Company.19. Jump up^[2]Purple Haze Lavender Farm Cooking with Lavender20. Jump up^J.-B. Reboul;Cuisinire Provenale(1910)21. Jump up^Laget, F. (2005). "From its Birthplace in Egypt to Marseilles, an Ancient Trade: Drugs and Spices".Diogenes52(3): 131139.doi:10.1177/0392192105055941.22. Jump up^Kasper, S; Gastpar, M; Mller, WE; Volz, HP; Mller, HJ; Dienel, A; Schlfke, S (2010). "Silexan, an orally administered Lavandula oil preparation, is effective in the treatment of 'subsyndromal' anxiety disorder: a randomized, double-blind, placebo controlled trial".International clinical psychopharmacology25(5): 27787.doi:10.1097/YIC.0b013e32833b3242.PMID20512042.23. Jump up^"LASEA SILEXAN Lavender Oil Pills For Anxiety". Retrieved2013-11-06.24. Jump up^Tisserand, Robert (11 November 2010)."No suspension of disbelief required Robert Tisserand". Retrieved2013-11-06.25. Jump up^Koulivand, PH; Khaleghi, Ghadiri M; Gorji, A (2013). "Lavender and the nervous system".Evidence-based complementary and alternative medicine: eCAM.2013: 681304.doi:10.1155/2013/681304.PMID23573142.26. Jump up^Catriona Jones (November 2011). "The efficacy of lavender oil on perineal trauma: A review of the evidence___".Complementary Therapies in Clinical Practice17(4): 215220.doi:10.1016/j.ctcp.2011.01.003.27. Jump up^"Lavender: MedlinePlus Supplements". National Institutes of Health. 9 November 2012. Retrieved2013-11-05.28. Jump up^"Lavender: Science and Safety". National Center for Complementary and Alternative Medicine. March 2007. Retrieved2013-11-05.29. Jump up^Miranda Hitti; Reviewer Louise Chang MD (31 January 2007)."Lavender Oil May Spur Breasts in Boys". WebMD, LLC. Retrieved2013-11-06.30. ^Jump up to:abHenley, Derek V.; Lipson, Natasha; Korach, Kenneth S.; Bloch, Clifford A. (2007)."Prepubertal Gynecomastia Linked to Lavender and Tea Tree Oils".New England Journal of Medicine356(5): 479 85.doi:10.1056/NEJMoa064725.PMID17267908.31. Jump up^"Prepubertal Gynecomastia Linked to Lavender and Tea Tree Oils|Letters".The New England Journal of Medicine,. 14 June 2007. Retrieved2013-11-05.32. Jump up^"Neither Lavender Oil Nor Tea Tree Oil Can Be Linked To Breast Growth In Young Boys". Aromatherapy Trade Council. 3 April 2007. Retrieved2013-11-06.33. ^Jump up to:ab"ATTIA refutes gynecomastia link". Australian Tea Tree Industry Association. 21 February 2007. Retrieved2013-11-05.34. Jump up^Politano, VT.; McGinty, D.; Lewis, EM.; Hoberman, EM; Christian; Diener, RM; Api, AM (MarApr 2013)."Uterotrophic assay of percutaneous lavender oil in immature female rats.".International journal of toxicology32(2): 1239.doi:10.1177/1091581812472209.PMID23358464.|first6=missing|last6=in Authors list (help)35. Jump up^Prashar, A.; Locke, IC.; Evans, CS. (Jun 2004). "Cytotoxicity of lavender oil and its major components to human skin cells.".Cell Prolif37(3): 2219.doi:10.1111/j.1365-2184.2004.00307.x.PMID15144499.36. Jump up^Tisserand, Robert (25 August 2011)."Lavender oil skin savior or skin irritant? Robert Tisserand". Retrieved2013-11-06.37. Jump up^Cavanagh, Heather MA; Wilkinson, Jenny M (March 2005)."Lavender essential oil: a review"(PDF).Australian Infection Control(CSIRO Publishing). Retrieved2013-11-06.38. Jump up^Placzek, M.; Frmel, W.; Eberlein, B.; Gilbertz, KP.; Przybilla, B. (2007). "Evaluation of phototoxic properties of fragrances.".Acta Derm Venereol87(4): 3126.doi:10.2340/00015555-0251 (inactive 2015-01-01).PMID17598033.Also, oils of lemon, lavender, lime, sandalwood and cedar are known to elicit cutaneous phototoxic reactions, but lavender, sandalwood and cedar oil did not induce photohaemolysis in our assay...Lavender oil and sandalwood oil did not induce photohaemolysis in our test system. However, a few reports on photosensitivity reactions due to these substances have been published, e.g. one patient with persistent light reaction and a positive photo-patch test to sandalwood oil (20).39. Jump up^The origin of most of these quotes comes from Dr. William Thomas Fernie, in his book "Herbal Simples" (Bristol Pub., 1895. ASIN: B0014W4WNE). Adigital copy of the bookcan be read online via google books. 'By the Greeks the name Nardus is given to Lavender, from Naarda, a city of Syria near the Euphrates, and many persons call the plant "Nard." St. Mark mentions this as Spikenard, a thing of great value. In Pliny's time, blossoms of the Nardus sold for a hundred Roman denarii (or L.3 2s. 6d.) the pound. This Lavender or Nardus was called Asarum by the Romans, because it was not used in garlands or chaplets. It was formerly believed that the asp, a dangerous kind of viper, made Lavender its habitual place of abode, so that the plant had to be approached with great caution.'40. Jump up^"Song of Solomon". Bible Gateway.41. Jump up^The assumption of the history of Lavender, originating from Naarda, along with the facts about the price in Roman time, are quoted widely throuout the web (over 350 entries in a google search) calling the city Naarda, Nerdus or Nardus. TheBiblehas many mentions of a fragrant plant called "Nerd" and theMishnarecited daily inJewishprayers, refers to "Shibolet Nerd" (Hebrewfor "Nard Spike") as one of the herbs used for making the holy essence at the biblical Temple. Dr. Fernie is the first known to link "Nard" with the city of Nerdus Naarda, one of the major cities of Jewish study and origin of theTalmud, during the years A.D. 1501100. Since Naarda or Neharde'a river of 'A was on a canal between theEuphratesandTigrisrivers, it could never have been a Syrian city, but rather in present dayIraq, somewhere in theBaghdadarea. Dr Fernie refers widely to Jewish studies, probably quoted from a former botanist Robert Turner.42. Jump up^"Oxford English Dictionary" (second ed.). 1989.|chapter=ignored (help)Note however that Upson and Andrews refer to research on bathing in the Roman Empire, and state that there is no mention of the use of lavender in works on this subject.43. Jump up^GrieveSources[edit]