Latour Bruno - Science in Action

8/13/2019 Latour Bruno - Science in Action

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Latour, Bruno (1987): Science in action. Camebridge, Massachusetts: Har ard !ni ersit"#ress.

Innholdsfortegnelse med hyperlinker$nnho%ds&ortegne%se med h"'er%in er..........................................................................................1Mer nad om %a"out.....................................................................................................................*orside.........................................................................................................................................+Ba side........................................................................................................................................+Bo en starter...............................................................................................................................Contents......................................................................................................................................-

c no/%edgements.....................................................................................................................7$0 234!C $30. 3'ening #andora5s B%ac Bo6....................................................................8

(1) Loo ing &or a /a" in.........................................................................................................9( ) hen enough is ne er enough........................................................................................1(+) he &irst ru%e o& method...................................................................................................

#art $. *rom ea er to Stronger 2hetoric................................................................................ 7CH # 2 1. Literature............................................................................................................ 7

#art . Contro ersies............................................................................................................ 8#art B. hen contro ersies &%are u' the %iterature becomes technica%..................................+7#art C. riting te6ts that /ithstand the assau%ts o& a hosti%e en ironment........................... -Conc%usion. 0umbers, more numbers...................................................................................7

CH # 2 . Laboratories.......................................................................................................78#art . *rom te6ts to things: a sho/do/n............................................................................79#art B. Bui%ding u' counter %aboratories..............................................................................9#art C. ''ea%ing (to) 0ature.............................................................................................111

#art $$. *rom ea #oints to Strongho%ds..............................................................................118CH # 2 +. Machines..........................................................................................................118

$ntroduction: he ;uandar" o& the &act bui%der...................................................................118#art . rans%ating interests.............................................................................................................................................1#art B.

CH # 2 . $nsiders 3ut......................................................................................................1-+

#art . $nteresting others in the %aboratories.......................................................................1-#art B. Counting %%ies and 2esources...............................................................................18# 2 $$$. *rom Short to Longer 0et/or s............................................................................199CH # 2 . ribuna%s o& 2eason......................................................................................... >>

#art . he tria%s o& rationa%it"........................................................................................... >1#art B. Socio%ogics.............................................................................................................. 18#art C. ho 0eeds Hard *acts?.......................................................................................... 9

CH # 2 -. Centres o& Ca%cu%ation..................................................................................... +8#ro%ogue. he domestication o& the sa age mind............................................................... +8#art . ction at a distance.................................................................................................#art B. Centres o& ca%cu%ation.............................................................................................. -

#art C. Metro%ogies............................................................................................................. 71## 04$@ 1. 2u%es o& Method............................................................................................. 8


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## 04$@ . #rinci'%es........................................................................................................ 8+ 0otes....................................................................................................................................... 8

$ntroduction......................................................................................................................... 8Cha'ter 1............................................................................................................................. 8Cha'ter ............................................................................................................................. 8

Cha'ter +............................................................................................................................. 87Cha'ter ............................................................................................................................. 88Cha'ter ............................................................................................................................. 91Cha'ter -............................................................................................................................. 9

2e&erences............................................................................................................................... 9$nde6........................................................................................................................................+>

Merknad om layoutSidetall stAr erst 'A sidene. 4e satt i ((dobbe% 'arentes)), og de er s i%t &ra den ti%h rendesiden med to %in es i&t, og &ra den &oregAende siden med &ire %in es i&t.

Noter. e sten har &or det meste s%uttnoter, sam%et i et eget a'itte% ba erst, sortert underheadinger 'A ni A som ti%s arer h er a'itte%o ers ri&t. 4et &ore ommer ogsA en e%te&otnoter. 4isse er uts i%t med sti ordene =&otnote start= og =&otnote s%utt=, med tre 6 er 'Ah er side. S%uttnote hen isningene er ta%%, &otnote hen isningene er st erner D asteris er E.

Headinger : Bo a har headinger 'A &em ni Aer. 4isse er &ormatert digita%t som tre ni Aer.

1.Headinger som angir =#art $= os . og er &ormatert 'A ni A en, er 'A ni A en i bo a.

. Headinger som angir =CH # 2 1= os . og er &ormatert 'A ni A en, er 'A ni A to i bo a.

+. Headinger som angir =#art = os . e%%er =#ro%ogue=, og er &ormatert 'A ni A to, er 'A ni Atre i bo a.

. Headinger som angir =(1)= os . med s ri&t i smA bo sta er og &ormatering 'A ni A tre, er 'Ani A &ire i bo a.

. Headinger som angir =( )= os . med s ri&t i store bo sta er og &ormatering 'A ni A tre, er 'A ni A &em i bo a.

Figurer og tabeller er a%%e sammen ti%rette%agt. 4e er uts i%t med sti ordene =tabe%% n D &igun start= og =tabe%% n D &otnote n s%utt=, med tre 6 er 'A h er side.

HHF +>.11. >>


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ForsideSC$ 0C $0 C $30

Bruno Latour

BaksideBruno Latour 'ro ides a %i e%" and cha%%enging ana%"sis o& science, demonstrating ho/ socia%conte6t and technica% content are both essentia% to a 'ro'er understanding o& scienti&icacti it". m'hasiGing that science can on%" be understood through its 'ractice, the authore6amines science and techno%og"in action: the ro%e o& scienti&ic %iterature, the acti ities o&%aboratories, the institutiona% conte6t o& science in the modern /or%d, and the means b" /hichin entions and disco eries become acce'ted.

=3ne cannot but be im'ressed b" the sco'e o& Latour5s /or .. . his is no merebricolage, buta coherent and 'o/er&u% &rame /or &or research. $ 'redict thatScience in Action /i%% ha e anim'act com'arab%e to homas


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Bruno Latour is ssociate #ro&essor at the Centre de Socio%ogie de %5$nno ation at the co%e 0ationa%e Su' rieure des Mines, #aris.

$SB0 > -7 79 91

Har ard !ni ersit" #ress Cambridge, Massachusetts

Boken starter

((i))

SCIENCE IN AC I!N

((ii))

((iii))

SCIENCE IN AC I!N

Ho/ to &o%%o/ scientists and engineers through societ"

Bruno Latour

Har"ard #ni"ersity $ress


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Cambridge, Massachusetts

((i ))

Copyright %&' ()*+ by Bruno Latour %% rights reser ed

#rinted in the !nited States o& merica

%e enth 'rinting, >>+

,ibrary of Congress Cataloging in $ubli&ation -ata Main entr" under tit%e:

,atour Bruno. Science in action.

Bibliography/ '.

$nc%udes inde6.

1. ScienceJSocia% as'ects. . echno%og"JSocia% as'ects. +. ScienceJHistor". .S&ien&e 0$hilosophy.

L it%e.

N 17 . .L+8 1987 +>-5 . 8- 1-+ -

$SB0 > -7 79 91 ('a'er)

(( ))

To Michel allon, this outcome of a seven!year "iscussion


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(( i))

(( ii))

ContentsA&kno1ledgements iii

$ntroduction!pening $andora 5s Bla&k Bo2 1

# 2 1 *23M < 2 3 S 230O 2 2H 32$C

Cha'ter 1 ,iterature 1

#art : Contro ersies.

#art B: hen contro ersies &%are u' the %iterature becomes technica%.

#art C: riting te6ts that /ithstand the assau%ts o& a hosti%e en ironment.

Conc%usion: 0umbers, more numbers

Cha'ter ,aboratories -+

#art : *rom te6ts to things: sho/do/n. #art B:

Bui%ding u' counter %aboratories. #art C: ''ea%ing(to) nature

# 2 $$ *23M < #3$0 S 3 S 230OH3L4S

Cha'ter + Ma&hines 1>+

$ntroduction: he ;uandar" o& the &act bui%der.

#art : rans%ating interests.

#art B:


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#art C: he mode% o& di&&usion ersus the mode% o& trans%ation

Cha'ter Insiders !ut 1

#art : $nteresting others in the %aboratories.

#art B: Counting a%%ies and resources

$A3 $$$ *23M SH32 3 L30O 2 0 32


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0ot being a nati e ng%ish s'ea er $ had to re%" hea i%" on m" &riends to re ise successi edra&ts o& this manuscri't. Fohn La/ and #ene%o'e 4u%%ing ha e been most 'atient in re isingthe ear%ier dra&ts. Ste en Sha'in, Harr" Co%%ins, 4on Mac


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de%a"ing the machine renamed *clipse M+ -..., since no one /as sure at the time i& thecom'an" manu&acturing the chi's cou%d de%i er them on demand. $n the meantime, their maincom'etitor, 4 C, /as se%%ing man" co'ies o& its+A0 $$ '-., increasing the ga' bet/een thet/o com'anies.

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%(' ,ooking for a 1ay in

here can /e start a stud" o& science and techno%og"? he choice o& a /a" in crucia%%"de'ends on good timing. $n 198 , in #aris, Fohn hitta er obtains 5nice 'ictures5 o& 40 on a5good machine5. $n 19 1 in Cambridge atson and Cric are strugg%ing to de&ine a sha'e &or40 that is com'atib%e /ith the 'ictures the" g%im'sed in i% ins5s o&&ice. $n 198>, in the basement o& a bui%ding, another team o& researchers is &ighting to ma e a ne/ com'uter /orand to catch u' /ith 4 C. hat is the meaning o& these 5&%ashbac s5, to use the cinema term?

he" carr" us bac through s'ace and time.

hen /e use this tra e% machine, 40 ceases to ha e a sha'e so /e%% estab%ished thatcom'uter 'rograms can be /ritten to dis'%a" it on a screen. s to the com'uters, the" don5te6ist at a%%. Hundreds o& nuc%eic acid se;uences are not 'ouring in e er" "ear. 0ot a sing%e oneis no/n and e en the notion o& a se;uence is doubt&u% since it is sti%% unsure, &or man" 'eo'%eat the time, /hether 40 '%a"s an" signi&icant ro%e in 'assing genetic materia% &rom onegeneration to the ne6t. /ice a%read", atson and Cric had 'roud%" announced that the" hadso% ed the ridd%e and both times their mode% had been reduced to ashes. s to the 5goodmachine5 *agle, the &%ashbac ta es us bac to a moment /hen it cannot run an" 'rogram ata%%. $nstead o& a routine 'iece o& e;ui'ment Fohn hitta er can s/itch on, it is a disorder%"arra" o& cab%es and chi's sur e"ed b" t/o other com'uters and surrounded b" doGens o&engineers tr"ing to ma e it /or re%iab%" &or more than a &e/ seconds. 0o one in the team

no/s "et i& this 'ro ect is not going to turn out to be another com'%ete &ai%ure %i e the *12com'uter on /hich the" /or ed &or "ears and /hich /as i%%ed, the" sa", b" themanagement.

$n hitta er5s research 'ro ect man" things are unsett%ed. He does not no/ ho/ %ong he isgoing to sta", i& his &e%%o/shi' /i%% be rene/ed, i& an" 'rogram o& his o/n can hand%e mi%%ionso& base 'airs and com'are them in a /a" that is bio%ogica%%" signi&icant. But there are at %eastt/o e%ements that raise no 'rob%ems &or him: the doub%e he%i6 sha'e o& 40 and his 4ataOenera% com'uter. hat /as &or atson and Cric the 'rob%ematic &ocus o& a &iercecha%%enge, /hat /on them a 0obe% #riGe, is no/ the basic dogma o& his 'rogram, embeddedin thousand o& %ines o& his %isting. s &or the machine that made est5s team /or da" andnight &or "ears, it is no/ no more 'rob%ematic than a 'iece o& &urniture as it hums ;uiet%"


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a/a" in his o&&ice. o be sure, the maintenance man o& 4ata Oenera% sto's b" e er" /ee to&i6 u' some minor 'rob%emsP but neither the man nor Fohn ha e to o erhau% the com'uter a%%o er again and &orce the com'an" to de e%o' a ne/ %ine o& 'roducts. hitta er is e;ua%%" /e%%a/are o& the man" 'rob%ems '%aguing the Basic 4ogma o& bio%og" Cric , no/ an o%dgent%eman, ga e a %ecture at the $nstitute on this a &e/ /ee s ago but neither Fohn nor his

boss ha e to rethin entire%" the sha'e o& the doub%e he%i6 or to estab%ish a ne/ dogma.he /ord bla&k bo2 is used b" c"berneticians /hene er a 'iece o& machiner" or

((+))

a set o& commands is too com'%e6. $n its '%ace the" dra/ a %itt%e bo6 about /hich the" need tono/ nothing but its in'ut and out'ut. s &ar as Fohn hitta er is concerned the doub%e he%i6

and the machine are t/o b%ac bo6es. hat is, no matter ho/ contro ersia% their histor", ho/com'%e6 their inner /or ings, ho/ %arge the commercia% or academic net/or s that ho%d themin '%ace, on%" their in'ut and out'ut count. hen "ou s/itch on the *clipse it runs the 'rograms "ou %oadP /hen "ou com'are nuc%eic acid se;uences "ou start &rom the doub%e he%i6sha'e.

he &%ashbac &rom 3ctober 198 in #aris to utumn 19 1 in Cambridge or 4ecember 198>in estborough, Massachusetts, 'resents t/o com'%ete%" di&&erent 'ictures o& each o& theset/o ob ects, a scienti&ic &act the doub%e he%i6 and a technica% arte&act the *agleminicom'uter. $n the &irst 'icture Fohn hitta er uses t/o b%ac bo6es because the" areun'rob%ematic and certainP during the &%ashbac the bo6es get reo'ened and a bright co%oured%ight i%%uminates them. $n the &irst 'icture, there is no %onger an" need to decide /here to 'utthe 'hos'hate bac bone o& the doub%e he%i6, it is ust there at the outsideP there is no %ongeran" s;uabb%e to decide i& the *clipse shou%d be a + bit &u%%" com'atib%e machine, as "ou usthoo it u' to the other 03 com'uters. 4uring the &%ashbac s, a %ot o& 'eo'%e areintroduced bac into the 'icture, man" o& them sta ing their career on the"ecisions the" ta e:

2osa%ind *ran %in decides to re ect the mode% bui%ding a''roach Fim and *rancis ha e chosenand to concentrate instead on basic @ ra" cr"sta%%ogra'h" in order to obtain better 'hotogra'hsP est decides to ma e a + bit com'atib%e machine e en though this means bui%ding a tin ered Q %udge5, as the" contem'tuous%" sa", and %osing some o& his bestengineers, /ho /ant to design a neat ne/ one.

$n the #asteur $nstitute Fohn hitta er is ta ing no big ris in be%ie ing the three dimensiona%sha'e o& the doub%e he%i6 or in running his 'rogram on the *clipse) hese are no/ routinechoices. he ris s he and his boss ta e %ie e%se/here, in this gigantic 'rogram o& com'aringa%% the base 'airs generated b" mo%ecu%ar bio%ogists a%% o er the /or%d. But i& /e go bac toCambridge, thirt" "ears ago, /ho shou%d /e be%ie e? 2osa%ind *ran %in /ho sa"s it might bea three strand he%i6? Bragg /ho orders atson and Cric to gi e u' this ho'e%ess /orentire%" and get bac to serious business? #au%ing, the best chemist in the /or%d, /ho un ei%s


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a structure that brea s a%% the no/n %a/s o& chemistr"? he same uncertaint" arises in theestborough o& a &e/ "ears ago. Shou%d est obe" his boss, de Castro, /hen he is e6'%icit%"

as ednot to do a ne/ research 'ro ect there, since a%% the com'an" research has no/ mo edto 0orth Caro%ina? Ho/ %ong shou%d est 'retend he is not /or ing on a ne/ com'uter?Shou%d he be%ie e the mar eting e6'erts /hen the" sa" that a%% their customers /ant a &u%%"

com'atib%e machine (on /hich the" can reuse their o%d so&t/are) instead o& doing as hiscom'etitor 4 C does a Qcu%tura%%" com'atib%e5 one (on /hich the" cannot reuse their so&t/are but on%" the most basic commands)? hat con&idence shou%d he ha e in his o%d team burnedout b" the &ai%ure o& the *12 'ro ect? Shou%d he ris using the ne/ # L chi's instead o& theo%der but sa&er ones?

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666 &igur $.1 start 666

*igure $.1

Bes ri e%se: Bi%det iser en sti%isert s isse a et anti t gres gudebi%de guden Fanus med toansi ter. Begge ansi tene er ist &ra siden. nsi tet som ender mot enstre har s egg, detsom ender mot h "re har i e s egg, e%%ers er de sA og si %i e. 4e to ansi tene har & %gendena n:

nsi tet endt mot enstre: 2ead" Made Science.

nsi tet endt mot h "re: Science in the Ma ing.

666 &igur $.1 s%utt 666

!ncertaint", 'eo'%e at /or , decisions, com'etition, contro ersies are /hat one gets /henma ing a &%ashbac &rom certain, co%d, un'rob%ematic b%ac bo6es to their recent 'ast. $& "outa e t/o 'ictures, one o& the b%ac bo6es and the other o& the o'en contro ersies, the" areutter%" di&&erent. he" are as di&&erent as the t/o sides, one %i e%", the other se ere, o& a t/o&aced Fanus. 5Science in the ma ing5 on the right side, 5a%% made science5 or 5read" madescience5 on the otherP such is Fanusbifrons, the &irst character that greets us at the beginning o&our ourne".

$n Fohn5s o&&ice, the t/o b%ac bo6es cannot and shou%d not be reo'ened. s to the t/ocontro eria% 'ieces o& /or going on in the Ca endish and in estborough, the" are %aid o'en&or us b" the scientists at /or . he im'ossib%e tas o& o'ening the b%ac bo6 is made &easib%e(i& not eas") b" mo ing in time and s'ace unti% one &inds the contro ersia% to'ic on /hich


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scientists and engineers are bus" at /or . his is the &irst decision /e ha e to ma e: our entr"into science and techno%og" /i%% be through the bac door o& science in the ma ing, notthrough the more grandiose entrance o& read" made science.

0o/ that the /a" in has been decided u'on, /ith /hat sort o& 'rior no/%edge shou%d one bee;ui''ed be&ore entering science and techno%og"? $n Fohn hitta er5s o&&ice the doub%e he%i6mode% and the com'uter are c%ear%" distinct &rom the rest o& his /orries. he" do not inter&ere/ith his 's"cho%ogica% mood, the &inancia% 'rob%ems o& the $nstitute, the big grants &or /hichhis boss has a''%ied, or /ith the 'o%itica% strugg%e the" are a%% engaged in to create in *rance a big data ban &or mo%ecu%ar bio%ogists. he" are ust sitting there in the bac ground, theirscienti&ic or technica% contents neat%" distinct &rom the mess that Fohn is immersed in. $& he/ishes to no/ something about the 40 structure or about the *clipse, Fohn o'ens

Molecular 3iology of the 1ene or the 4ser5s Manual, boo s that he can ta e o&& the she%&.Ho/e er, i& /e go bac to estborough or to Cambridge this c%ean distinction bet/een aconte6t and a content disa''ears.

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Scene 6: om est snea s into the basement o& a bui%ding /here a &riend %ets him in at nightto %oo at a+A0 com'uter. est starts 'u%%ing out the 'rinted circuits boards and ana%"ses hiscom'etitor. en his &irst ana%"sis merges technica% and ;uic economic ca%cu%ations /ith thestrategic decisions a%read" ta en. &ter a &e/ hours, he is reassured.

5$5d been %i ing in &ear o& @ &or a "ear,5 est said a&ter/ard. ( . . . ) 5$ thin $ got a high/hen $ %oo ed at it and sa/ ho/ com'%e6 and e6'ensi e it /as. $t made me &ee% good aboutsome o& the decisions /e5 e made5.

hen his e a%uation becomes sti%% more com'%e6, inc%uding socia%, st"%istic and organisationa%&eatures:

Loo ing into the @, est had imagined he sa/ a diagram o& 4 C5s cor'orateorganiGation. He &e%t that @ /as too com'%icated. He did not %i e, &or instance, the s"stem b" /hich arious 'arts o& the machine communicated /ith each other, &or his taste, there /astoo much 'rotoco% in o% ed. He decided that @ embodied &%a/s in 4 C5s cor'orateorganiGation. he machine e6'ressed that 'henomena%%" success&u% com'an"5s cautious, bureaucratic st"%e. as this true? est said it did not matter, it /as a use&u% theor". hen here'hrased his o'inions. 5 ith @, 4 C /as tr"ing to minimiGe the ris 5, he said, as hes/er ed around another car. Orinning, he /ent on: 5 e5re tr"ing to ma6imiGe the /in, andma e


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ag%e go as &ast as a ra'ed a'e.5 ( )

as it Bragg /ho made them miss a ma or disco er", or /as it Linus /ho missed a goodo''ortunit" &or ee'ing his mouth shut? *rancis and Fim hurried%" tr" out the 'a'er and %ooto see i& the sugar 'hos'hate bac bone is so%id enough to ho%d the structure together. o theiramaGement, the three chains described b" #au%ing had

((-))

no h"drogen atoms to tie the three strands together. ithout them, i& the" ne/ theirchemistr", the structure /i%% immediate%" &%" a'art.

Iet someho/ Linus, un;uestionab%" the /or%d5s most astute chemist, had come to theo''osite conc%usion. hen *rancis /as amaGed e;ua%%" b" #au%ing5s unorthodo6 chemistr", $ began to breathe s%o/er. B" then $ ne/ /e /ere sti%% in the game. 0either o& us, ho/e er,had the s%ightest c%ue to the ste's that had %ed Linus to his b%under. $& a student had made asimi%ar mista e, he /ou%d be thought un&it to bene&it &rom Ca% ech5s chemistr" &acu%t". hus,/e cou%d not but initia%%" /orr" /hether Linus5s mode% &o%%o/ed &rom a re o%utionar"


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ree a%uation o& the acid based 'ro'erties o& er" %arge mo%ecu%es. he tone o& the manuscri't,ho/e er, argued against an" such ad ance in chemica% theor".

(idem: '. 1>+)

o decide /hether the" are sti%% in the game atson and Cric ha e to e a%uatesimu%taneous%" Linus #au%ing5s re'utation, common chemistr", the tone o& the 'a'er, the %e e%o& Ca% ech5s studentsP the" ha e to decide i& a re o%ution is under /a", in /hich case the"ha e been beaten o&&, or i& an enormous b%under has been committed, in /hich case the" ha eto rush sti%% &aster because #au%ing /i%% not be %ong in 'ic ing it u':

hen his mista e became no/n, Linus /ou%d not sto' unti% he had ca'tured the rightstructure. 0o/ our immediate ho'e /as that his chemica% co%%eagues /ou%d be more than e era/ed b" his inte%%ect and not 'robe the detai%s o& his mode%. But since the manuscri't hada%read" been dis'atched to the (rocee"ings of the National Aca"emy, b" mid March at the%atest Linus5s 'a'er /ou%d be s'read around the /or%d. hen it /ou%d be on%" a matter o& da"s be&ore the error /ou%d be disco ered. e had an"/here u' to si6 /ee s be&ore Linus again/as in &u%% time 'ursuit o& 40 .

(idem: '. 1> )

5Sus'ense5, 5game5, 5tone5, 5de%a" o& 'ub%ication5, 5a/e5, 5si6 /ee s de%a"5 are not common /ords&or describing a mo%ecu%e structure. his is the case at %east once the structure is no/n and%earned b" e er" student. Ho/e er, as %ong as the structure is submitted to a com'etitor5s 'robing, these ;ueer /ords are 'art and 'arce% o& the er" chemica% structure underin estigation. Here again conte6t and content &use together.

he e;ui'ment necessar" to tra e% through science and techno%og" is at once %ight andmu%ti'%e. Mu%ti'%e because it means mi6ing h"drogen bonds /ith dead%ines, the 'robing o&one another5s authorit" /ith mone", debugging and bureaucratic st"%eP but the e;ui'ment isa%so %ight because it means sim'%" %ea ing aside a%% the 're udices about /hat distinguishesthe conte6t in /hich no/%edge is embedded and this no/%edge itse%&. t the entrance o&4ante5s $n&erno is1ritten/

B 0430 H3# LL I H3 0 2 H 2 .

t the onset o& this o"age shou%d be /ritten:

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B 0430


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Scene 8: Fim co'ies &rom arious te6tboo s the &orms o& the base 'airs that ma e u' 40 ,and '%a"s /ith them tr"ing to see i& a s"mmetr" can be seen /hen 'airing them. o hisamaGement adenine cou'%ed /ith adenine, c"tosine /ith c"tosine, guanine /ith guanine and

th"mine /ith th"mine ma e er" nice su'erim'osab%e &orms. o be sure this s"mmetr"renders the sugar 'hos'hate bac bone strange%" missha'en but this is not enough to sto' Fim5s 'u%se racing or to sto' him /riting a trium'hant %etter to his boss.

$ no sooner got to the o&&ice and began e6'%aining m" scheme than the mericancr"sta%%ogra'her Ferr" 4onohue 'rotested that the idea /ou%d not /or . he tautomeric &orms$ had co'ied out o& 4a idson5s boo /ere, in Ferr"5s o'inion, incorrect%" assigned. M"immediate retort that se era% other te6ts a%so 'ictured guanine and th"mine in the eno% &ormcut no ice /ith Ferr". Ha''i%" he %et out that &or "ears organic chemists had been arbitrari%"&a oring 'articu%ar tautomeric &orms o er their a%ternati es on on%" the &%imsiest o& grounds. (.. .) hough m" immediate reaction /as to ho'e that Ferr" /as b%o/ing hot air, $ did notdismiss his criticism. 0e6t to Linus himse%&, Ferr" ne/ more about h"drogen bonds thanan"one in the /or%d. Since &or man" "ears he had /or ed at Ca% ech on the cr"sta% structureso& sma%% organic mo%ecu%es, $ cou%dn5t id m"se%& that he did not gras' our 'rob%em. 4uringthe si6 months that he occu'ied a des in our o&&ice, $ had ne er heard him shooting o&& hismouth on sub ects about /hich he ne/ nothing. horough%" /orried, $ /ent bac to m" desho'ing that some gimmic might emerge to sa% age the %i e /ith %i e idea.

( atson: 19-8, ''. 1 1 )

Fim had got the &acts straight out o& te6tboo s /hich, unanimous%", 'ro ided him /ith a nice b%ac bo6: the eno% &orm. $n this case, ho/e er, this is the er" &act that shou%d be dismissedor 'ut into ;uestion. 3r at %east this is /hat 4onohue sa"s. But /hom shou%d Fim be%ie e? heunanimous o'inion o& organic chemists orthis chemist5s o'inion? Fim, /ho tries to sa% agehis mode%, s/itches &rom one ru%e o& method, 5get the &acts straight5, to other more strategicones, 5%oo &or a /ea 'oint5, 5choose /ho to be%ie e5. 4onohue studied /ith #au%ing, he/or ed on sma%% mo%ecu%es, in si6 months he ne er said absurd things. 4isci'%ine, a&&i%iation,curricu%um itae, 's"cho%ogica% a''raisa% are mi6ed together b" Fim to reach a decision.Better sacri&ice them and the nice %i e /ith %i e mode%, than 4onohue5s criticism. he &act, nomatter ho/ 5straight5, has to be dismissed.

he un&oreseen di idend o& ha ing Ferr" share an o&&ice /ith *rancis, #eter, and me, though

ob ious to a%%, /as not s'o en about. $& he had not been /ith us in Cambridge, $ might sti%%ha e been 'um'ing out &or a %i e /ith %i e structure. Maurice, in a %ab de oid o& structura%chemists, did not ha e an"one to te%% him that a%% the te6tboo 'ictures /ere /rong. But &orFerr", on%" #au%ing /ou%d ha e been %i e%" to ma e the right choice and stic b" itsconse;uences.

(idem: '. 1+ )

he ad ice o& Fanus5 %e&t side is eas" to &o%%o/ /hen things are sett%ed, but not as %ong asthings remain unsett%ed. hat is on the %e&t side, uni ersa% /e%% no/n &acts o& chemistr", becomes, &rom the right side 'oint o& ie/, scarce


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((9))

'ronouncements uttered b" t/o 'eo'%e in the /ho%e /or%d. he" ha e a9uality that crucia%%"de'ends on %oca%isation, on chance, on a''raising simu%taneous%" the /orth o& the 'eo'%e ando& /hat the" sa".

666 &igur $.+ start 666

*igure $.+

Fanus5s second dictum:

n s isse a guden Fanus med to ansi ter. nsi tet som ender mot enstre har s egg, detsom ender mot h "re har i e s egg.

nsi tet mot enstre sier: =Fust get the most e&&icient machine=

nsi tet mot h "re sier: =4ecide on /hat e&&icienc" shou%d be=

666 &igur $.+ s%utt 666

Scene ': est and his main co%%aborator, %sing, are discussing ho/ to tac %e the debugging 'rogram:

5$ /ant to bui%d a simu%ator, om.5

5$t5%% ta e too %ong, %sing. he machine5%% be debugged be&ore "ou get "our simu%ator

debugged.5his time, %sing insisted. he" cou%d not bui%d ag%e in an"thing %i e a "ear i& the" had to

debug a%% the microcode on 'rotot"'es. $& the" /ent that /a", moreo er, the"5d need to ha eat %east one and 'robab%" t/o e6tra 'rotot"'es right &rom the start, and that /ou%d mean adoub%ing o& the boring, grue%ing /or o& u'dating boards. %sing /anted a 'rogram that/ou%d beha e %i e a 'er&ected ag%e, so that the" cou%d debug their microcode se'arate%"&rom the hard/are.

est said: 5Oo ahead. But $ betch"a it5%% a%% be o er b" the time "ou get it done.5

(


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he right side5s ad ice is strict%" &o%%o/ed b" the t/o men since the" /ant to bui%d the best 'ossib%e com'uter. his ho/e er does not 're ent a ne/ contro ers" starting bet/een the t/omen on ho/ to mimic in ad ance an e&&icient machine. $& %sing cannot con ince one o& histeam members, #ec , to &inish in si6 /ee s the simu%ator that shou%d ha e ta en a "ear and aha%&, then est /i%% be right: the simu%atoris not an e&&icient /a" to 'roceed because it /i%%

come too %ate. But i& %sing and #ec succeed, then it is est5s de&inition o& e&&icienc" /hich/i%% turn out to be /rong. &&icienc" /i%% be the conse;uence o& /ho succeedsP it does nothe%' deciding, on the s'ot, /ho is right and /rong. he right side5s ad ice is a%% er" /e%%once *agle is sent to manu&acturingP be&ore that, it is the %e&t side5s con&using strategic ad icethat shou%d be &o%%o/ed.

((1>))

666 &igur $. start 666

*igure $.

Fanus5 third dictum:


nsi tet mot enstre sier: =3nce the machine /or s 'eo'%e /i%% be con inced=

nsi tet mot h "re sier: = he machine /i%% /or /hen a%% the re%e ant 'eo'%e are con inced=

666 &igur $ s%utt 666

Scene -: est has insu%ated his team &or t/o "ears &rom the rest o& the com'an". QSome o& theids,5 he sa"s, Qdon5t ha e a notion that there5s a com'an" behind a%% o& this. $t cou%d be the

C$ &unding this. $t cou%d be a 's"cho%ogica% test5 (


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has %obbied so intense%" /ant to see something, and ca%% his b%u&&. he situation becomeses'ecia%%" tric " /hen it is c%ear at %ast that the 0orth Caro%ina grou' /i%% not de%i er amachine, that 4 C is se%%ing+A0 %i e hot ca es and that a%% the customers /ant a su'ermini+ bit &u%%" com'atib%e machine &rom 4ata Oenera%. t this 'oint est has to brea the 'rotecti e she%% he has bui%t around his team. o be sure, he designed the machine so as to &it

it in /ith the other de'artments5 interests, but he is sti%% uncertain o& their reaction and o& thato& his team sudden%" bere&t o& the machine.

s the summer came on, increasing numbers o& intruders /ere being %ed into the %ab diagnostic 'rogrammers and, 'articu%ar%", those 'rogrammers &rom So&t/are. Some Hard"Bo"s had gro/n &ond o& the 'rotot"'es o& ag%e, as "ou might o& a 'et or a '%ant "ou5 e raised&rom a seed%ing. 0o/ 2asa%a /as te%%ing them that the" cou%dn5t /or on their machines atcertain hours, because So&t/are needed to use them. here /as an e6'%anation: the 'ro ect/as at a 'recarious stageP i& So&t/are didn5t get to no/ and %i e the hard/are and did nots'ea enthusiastica%%" about it, the 'ro ect might be ruinedP the Hard" Bo"s /ere %uc " thatSo&t/are /anted to use the 'rotot"'es and the" had to ee' So&t/are ha''".

(idem: '. >1)

0ot on%" the So&t/are 'eo'%e ha e to be e't ha''", but a%so the manu&acturing 'eo'%e, those&rom mar eting, those /ho /rite the technica% documentation, the designers /ho ha e to '%ace the /ho%e machine in a nice %oo ing bo6 (not a b%ac one this time ), not mentioning thestoc ho%ders and the customers. %though the

((11))

machine has been concei ed b" est, through man" com'romises, to ee' a%% these 'eo'%eha''" and bus", he cannot be sure it is going to ho%d them together. ach o& the interestgrou's has to tr" their o/n di&&erent sort o& tests on the machine and see ho/ it /ithstands

them. he /orst, &or om est, is that the com'an" manu&acturing the ne/ # L chi's isgoing ban ru't, that the team is su&&ering a postpartum de'ression, and that the machine is not"et debugged. 53ur credibi%it", $ thin , is running out,5 est te%%s his assistants. *agle sti%%does not run more than a &e/ seconds /ithout &%ashing error messages on the screen. er"time the" 'ainsta ing%" 'in'oint the bug, the" &i6 it and then tr" a ne/ and more di&&icu%tdebugging 'rogram.

ag%e /as &ai%ing its Mu%ti'rogramming 2e%iabi%it" est m"sterious%". $t /as b%o/ing a/a",crashing, going out to ne er ne er %and, and &a%%ing o&& the end o& the /or%d a&ter e er" &ourhours or so o& smooth running.

5Machines some/here in the agon" o& the %ast &e/ bugs are er" u%nerab%e,5 sa"s %sing. 5 heshouting starts about it. $t5%% ne er /or , and so on. Managers and su''ort grou's start sa"ing


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this. Hangers on sa", =Oee, $ thought "ou5d get it done a %ot sooner.= hat5s /hen 'eo'%e startta% ing about redesigning the /ho%e thing.5

%sing added, 5 atch out &or om no/.5

est sat in his o&&ice. 5$5m thin ing o& thro/ing the ids out o& the %ab and going in there /ith2asa%a and &i6 it. $t5s true. $ don5t understand a%% the detai%s o& that suc er, but $ /i%%, and $5%get it to /or .5

5Oimme a &e/ more da"s,5 said 2asa%a.

(idem: '. +1)

&e/ /ee s %ater, a&ter *agle has success&u%%" run a com'uter game ca%%ed d enture, the/ho%e team &e%t the" had reached one a''ro6imate end: Q$t5s a com'uter,5 2asa%a said (idem: '.

++). 3n Monda" 8 3ctober, a maintenance cre/ comes to /hee% do/n the ha%% /hat /as;uic %" becoming a b%ac bo6. h" has it become such? Because it is a good machine, sa"sthe %e&t side o& our Fanus &riend. But it /as not a good machine be&ore it /or ed. hus /hi%e itis being made it cannot con ince an"onebecause o& its good /or ing order. $t is on%" a&terend%ess %itt%e bugs ha e been ta en out, each bug being re ea%ed b" a ne/ tria% im'osed b" ane/ interested grou', that the machine /i%%eventually and progressively be made to /or . %%the reasons &or /h" it /i%% /or once it is &inished do not he%' the engineers /hi%e the" arema ing it.

Scene : Ho/ does the doub%e he%i6 stor" end? $n a series o& tria%s im'osed on the ne/ mode% b" each o& the successi e 'eo'%e Fim atson and *rancis Cric ha e /or ed /ith (oragainst). Fim is '%a"ing /ith cardboard mode%s o& the base 'airs, no/ in the eto &ormsuggested b" Ferr" 4onohue. o his amaGement he rea%ises that the sha'e dra/n b" 'airingadenine /ith th"mine and guanine /ith c"tosine are su'erim'osab%e. he ste's o& the doub%ehe%i6 ha e the same sha'e. Contrar" to his ear%ier mode%, the structure might becom'%ementar" instead o& being %i e /ith%i e. He hesitates a /hi%e, because he sees no reasonat &irst &or this com'%ementarit". hen he remembers /hat /as ca%%ed 5Charga&& %a/s5, one o&these man" em'irica% &acts the" had e't in the bac ground. hese 5%a/s5 stated that there

((1 ))

666 &igur $. start666


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Fanus5s &ourth dictum:


nsi tet mot enstre sier: = hen things are true the" ho%d=

nsi tet mot h "re sier: = hen things ho%d the" start becoming true=

666 &igur $. s%utt 666

/as a%/a"s as much adenine as th"mine and as much guanine as c"tosine, no matter /hich40 one chose to ana%"se. his iso%ated &act, de oid o& an" meaning in his ear%ier %i e /ith%i e mode%, sudden%" brings a ne/ strength to his emerging ne/ mode%. 0ot on%" are the 'airssu'erim'osab%e, but Charga&& %a/s can be made a conse;uence o& his mode%. nother &eaturecame to strengthen the mode%: it suggests a /a" &or a gene to s'%it into t/o 'arts and then &oreach strand to create an e6act com'%ementar" co'" o& itse%&. 3ne he%i6 cou%d gi e birth to t/oidentica% he%ices. hus bio%ogica% meaning cou%d su''ort the mode%.

Sti%% Fim5s cardboard mode% cou%d be destro"ed in s'ite o& these three ad antages. Ma"be4onohue /i%% burn it to ashes as he did the attem't a &e/ da"s ear%ier. So Fim ca%%ed him tochec i& he had an" ob ection. 5 hen he said no, m" mora%e s "roc eted5 ( atson: 19-8, '.1 ). hen it is *rancis /ho rushes into the %ab and 5'ushes the bases together in a number o&/a"s5. he mode%, this time,resists *rancis5s sce'ticism. here are no/ man" decisi ee%ements tied together /ith and b" the ne/ structure.

Sti%%, a%% the con inced 'eo'%e are in the same o&&ice and a%though the" thin the" are right,the" cou%d sti%% be de%uding themse% es. hat /i%% Bragg and a%% the other cr"sta%%ogra'herssa"? hat ob ections /i%% Maurice i% ins and 2osa%ind *ran %in, the on%" ones /ith @ ra"s 'ictures o& the 40 , ha e? i%% the" see the mode% asthe on%" &orm ab%e to gi e, b" 'ro ection, the sha'e isib%e on 2osa%ind5s 'hotogra'hs? he"5d %i e to no/ &ast but dreadthe danger o& the &ina% sho/do/n /ith 'eo'%e /ho, se era% times a%read", ha e ruined theire&&orts. Besides, another a%%" is missing to set u' the tria%, a humb%e a%%" &or sure but necessar"a%% the same: 5 hat night, ho/e er, /e cou%d not &irm%" estab%ish the doub%e he%i6. !nti% themeta% bases /ere on hand, an" mode% bui%ding /ou%d be too s%o''" to be con incing5 (idem:

'. 1 7). en /ith Charga&& %a/s, /ith bio%ogica% signi&icance, /ith 4onohue5s a''ro a%, /iththeir e6citement, /ith the base 'airing a%% on their side, the he%i6 is sti%% s%o''". Meta% isnecessar" to rein&orce the structure %ong enough to /ithstand the tria%s that thecom'etitorsDco%%eagues are going to im'ose on it.

he remainder o& the doub%e he%i6 stor" %oo s %i e the &ina% rounds o& a 'residentia%nomination. er" one o& the other contenders is introduced into the o&&ice /here the mode% isno/ set u', &ights /ith it &or a /hi%e be&ore being ;uic %"


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((1+))

o er/he%med and then '%edging com'%ete su''ort to it. Bragg is con inced a%though sti%%/orried that no one more serious than Fim and *rancis had chec ed the he%i6. 0o/ &or the biggame, the encounter bet/een the mode% and those /ho &or "ears had ca'tured its 'ro ectedimage. 5Maurice needed but a minute5s %oo at the mode% to %i e it.=He /as bac in Londonon%" t/o da"s be&ore he rang u' to sa" that both he and 2os" &ound that their @ ra" datastrong%" su''orted the doub%e he%i65 ('. 1+1). Soon #au%ing ra%%ies himse%& to the structure,then it is the turn o& the re&erees o& Nature)

53& course,5 sa"s the %e&t side o& Fanus, 5e er"one is con inced because Fim and *rancisstumb%ed on the right structure. he 40 sha'e itse%& is enough to ra%%" e er"one.5 50o, sa"sthe right side, e er" time someone e%se is con inced it 'rogressi e%" becomes a more rightstructure.5 nough is ne er enough: "ears %ater in $ndia and 0e/ Rea%and other researchers/ere /or ing on a so ca%%ed 5/ar'ed Gi''er5 + mode% that did e er"thing the doub%e he%i6 does J'%us a bit moreP #au%ing strong%" su''orted his o/n structure that had turned out to beentire%" /rongP Fim &ound bio%ogica% signi&icance in a %i e /ith %i e structure that sur i edon%" a &e/ hoursP 2osa%ind *ran %in had been stubborn%" con inced ear%ier that it /as a threestrand he%i6P i% ins ignored the eto &orms re ea%ed b" Ferr" 4onohueP Charga&&5s %a/s /erean insigni&icant &act the" e't in the bac ground &or a %ong timeP as to the meta% atom to"s,the" ha e %ent strong su''ort to count%ess mode%s that turned out to be /rong. %% these a%%iesa''ear strong once the structure is b%ac bo6ed. s %ong as it is not, Fim and *rancis are sti%%strugg%ing to recruit them, modi&"ing the 40 structure unti% e er"one is satis&ied. henthe" are through, the" /i%% &o%%o/ the ad ice o& Fanus5s right side. s %ong as the" are sti%%searching &or the right 40 sha'e, the" /ou%d be better o&& &o%%o/ing the right side5scon&using ad ices.

e cou%d re ie/ a%% the o'inions o&&ered to e6'%ain /h" an o'en contro ers" c%oses, but /e/i%% a%/a"s stumb%e on a ne/ contro ers" dea%ing /ith ho/ and /h" it c%osed. e /i%% ha eto %earn to %i e /ith t/o contradictor" oices ta% ing at once, one about science in the ma ing,the other about read" made science. he %atter 'roduces sentences %i e 5 ust do this . . . ust dothat . . .5P the &ormer sa"s 5enough is ne er enough5. he %e&t side considers that &acts andmachines are /e%% determined enough. he right side considers that &acts and machines in the

ma ing are a%/a"sunder7determined. Some %itt%e thing is a%/a"s missing to c%ose the b%ac bo6 once and &or a%%. !nti% the %ast minute *agle can &ai% i& est is not care&u% enough toee' the So&t/are 'eo'%e interested, to maintain the 'ressure on the debugging cre/, to

ad ertise the machine to the mar eting de'artment.

%8' he first rule of method

e /i%% enter &acts and machines /hi%e the" are in the ma ingP /e /i%% carr" /ith us no 'reconce'tions o& /hat constitutes no/%edgeP /e /i%% /atch the c%osure o&


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((1 ))

666 &igur $.- start 666

*igure $.-

1. rute inneho%der en 'Astand uten an& rse%stegn: he 40 mo%ecu%e has the sha'e o& adoub%e he%i6.

. rute inneho%der samme 'Astand med an& rse%stegn: = he 40 mo%ecu%e has the sha'e o& adoub%e he%i6.=

+. rute: 0Trbi%de a ansi tet ti% en mann, med sna ebob%e som sier: he 40 mo%ecu%e hasthe sha'e o& a doub%e he%i6.

. rute: 3 ersi tsbi%de a mange mennes e&igurer som be eger seg rundt og on erserer:

.1 o &iguer stAr sammen og e s%er & %gende re'%i er:

Ma" be it is a tri'%e he%i6.

$t is not a he%i6 at a%%.

. o andre &iguerer m tes og begge sier i or:

$& it had the sha'e o& a doub%e he%i6.

.+ n 'erson stAr a%ene i ba grunnen og sier:

h" don5t "ou gu"s do something serious?

. rute:


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666 &igur $.- s%utt 666

((1 ))

the b%ac bo6es and be care&u% to distinguish bet/een t/o contradictor" e6'%anations o& thisc%osure, one uttered /hen it is &inished, the other /hi%e it is being attem'ted. his /i%%constitute our &irstrule of method and /i%% ma e our o"age 'ossib%e.

o s etch the genera% sha'e o& this boo , it is best to 'icture the &o%%o/ing comic stri': /estart /ith a te6tboo sentence /hich is de oid o& an" trace o& &abrication, construction oro/nershi'P /e then 'ut it in ;uotation mar s, surround it /ith a bubb%e, '%ace it in the moutho& someone /ho s'ea sP then /e add to this s'ea ing character another characterto ;hom itis s'ea ingP then /e '%ace a%% o& them in a s'eci&ic situation, some/here in time and s'ace,surrounded b" e;ui'ment, machines, co%%eaguesP then /hen the contro ers" heats u' a bit /e%oo at;here the dis'uting 'eo'%e go and ;hat sort o& ne/ e%ements the" &etch, recruit orseduce in order to con ince their co%%eaguesP then, /e see ho/ the 'eo'%e being con incedsto' discussing /ith one anotherP situations, %oca%isations, e en 'eo'%e start being s%o/%"erasedP on the %ast 'icture /e see a ne/ sentence, /ithout an" ;uotation mar s, /ritten in ate6t boo simi%ar to the one /e started /ith in the &irst 'icture. his is the genera% mo emento& /hat /e /i%% stud" o er and o er again in the course o& this boo , 'enetrating science &romthe outside, &o%%o/ing contro ersies and accom'an"ing scientists u' to the end, being s%o/%"%ed out o& science in the ma ing.

$n s'ite o& the rich, con&using, ambiguous and &ascinating 'icture that is thus re ea%ed,sur'rising%" &e/ 'eo'%e ha e 'enetrated &rom the outside the inner /or ings o& science andtechno%og", and then got out o& it to e6'%ain to the outsider ho/ it a%% /or s. *or sure, man""oung 'eo'%e ha e entered science, but the" ha e become scientists and engineersP /hat the"ha e done is isib%e in the machines /e use, the te6tboo s /e %earn, the 'i%%s /e ta e, the%andsca'e /e %oo at, the b%in ing sate%%ites in the night s " abo e our head. Ho/ the" did it,

/e don5t no/. Some scientists ta% about science, its /a"s and means, but &e/ o& themacce't the disci'%ine o& becoming a%so an outsiderP /hat the" sa" about their trade is hard todoub%e chec in the absence o& inde'endent scrutin". 3ther 'eo'%e ta% about science, itsso%idit", its &oundation, its de e%o'ment or its dangersP un&ortunate%", a%most none o& them areinterested in science in the ma ing. he" sh" a/a" &rom the disorder%" mi6ture re ea%ed b"science in action and 're&er the order%" 'attern o& scienti&ic method and rationa%it". 4e&endingscience and reason against 'seudo sciences, against &raud, against irrationa%it", ee's most o&these 'eo'%e too bus" to stud" it. s to the mi%%ions, or bi%%ions, o& outsiders, the" no/ aboutscience and techno%og" through 'o'u%arisation on%". he &acts and the arte&acts the" 'roduce&a%% on their head %i e an e6terna% &ate as &oreign, as inhuman, as un'redictab%e as the o%den


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'art &rom those /ho ma e science, /ho stud" it, /ho de&end it or /ho submit to it, theree6ist, &ortunate%", a &e/ 'eo'%e, either trained as scientists or not, /ho o'en the b%ac bo6esso that outsiders ma" ha e a g%im'se at it. he" go b" man" di&&erent names (historians o&science and techno%og", economists, socio%ogists, science teachers, science 'o%ic" ana%"sts, ourna%ists, 'hi%oso'hers, concerned

((1-))

scientists and citiGens, cogniti e anthro'o%ogists or cogniti e 's"cho%ogists), and are mosto&ten &i%ed under the genera% %abe% o& 5science, techno%og" and societ"5. $t is on their /or thatthis boo is bui%t. summar" o& their man"results and achie ements /ou%d be /orth doing, but is be"ond the sco'e o& m" no/%edge. $ sim'%" /ish to summarise theirmetho" and tos etch the ground that, sometimes un/itting%", the" a%% ha e in common. $n doing so $ /ish tohe%' o ercome t/o o& the %imitations o& Qscience, techno%og" and societ"5 studies that a''earto me to th/art their im'act, that is their organisationby "iscipline and by ob=ect)

conomists o& inno ation ignore socio%ogists o& techno%og"P cogniti e scientists ne er usesocia% studies o& scienceP ethnoscience is &ar remote &rom 'edagog"P historians o& science 'a"%itt%e attention to %iterar" studies or to rhetoricP socio%ogists o& science o&ten see no re%ation bet/een their academic /or and the in vivo e6'eriments 'er&ormed b" concerned scientistsor citiGensP ourna%ists rare%" ;uote scho%ar%" /or on socia% studies o& scienceP and so on.

his Babe% o& disci'%ines /ou%d not matter much i& it /as not /orsened b" another di isionmade according to the ob ects each o& them stud". here e6ist historians o& eighteenth centur"chemistr" or o& Oerman turn o& the centur" 'h"sicsP e en citiGens5 associations ares'ecia%ised, some in &ighting atomic energ", others in strugg%ing against drug com'anies, sti%%others against ne/ math teachingP some cogniti e scientists stud" "oung chi%dren ine6'erimenta% settings /hi%e others are interested in adu%t dai%" reasoningP e en amongsocio%ogists o& science, some &ocus on micro studies o& science /hi%e others tac %e %arge sca%e

engineering 'ro ectsP historians o& techno%og" are o&ten a%igned a%ong the technica% s'ecia%itieso& the engineers, some stud"ing aircra&t industries /hite others 're&er te%ecommunications orthe de e%o'ment o& steam enginesP as to the anthro'o%ogists stud"ing 5sa age5 reasoning, er"&e/ get to dea% /ith modern no/%edge. his scattering o& disci'%ines and ob ects /ou%d not be a 'rob%em i& it /as the ha%%mar o& a necessar" and &ecund specialisation, gro/ing &rom acore o& common 'rob%ems and methods. his is ho/e er &ar &rom the case. he sciences andthe techno%ogies to be studied are the main &actors in determining this ha'haGard gro/th o&interests and methods. $ ha e ne er met t/o 'eo'%e /ho cou%d agree on /hat the domainca%%ed 5science, techno%og" and societ"5 meantJin &act, $ ha e rare%" seen an"one agree on thename or indeed that the domain e6ists

$ c%aim that the domain e6ists, that there is a core o& common 'rob%ems and methods, that it isim'ortant and that a%% the disci'%ines and ob ects o& 5science, techno%og" and societ"5 studies


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can be em'%o"ed as so much s'ecia%ised materia% /ith /hich to stud" it. o de&ine /hat is atsta e in this domain, the on%" thing /e need is a &e/ sets o& conce'ts sturd" enough to standthe tri' through a%% these man" disci'%ines, 'eriods and ob ects.

$ am /e%% a/are that there e6ist man" more so'histicated, subt%e, &ast or 'o/er&u% notions than

the ones $ ha e chosen. re the" not going to brea do/n? re the" going to %ast thedistance? i%% the" be ab%e to tie together enough em'irica% &acts? re the" hand" enough &ordoing 'ractica% e6ercisesE? hese are

((17))

the ;uestions that guided me in se%ecting &rom the %iteraturerules of method and prin&iplesand to dedicate one cha'ter to each 'airEE. he status o& these ru%es and that o& the 'rinci'%esis rather distinct and $ do not e6'ect them to be e a%uated in the same /a". B" Qru%es o&method5 $ mean /hat a 'riori decisions shou%d be made in order to consider a%% o& theem'irica% &acts 'ro ided b" the s'ecia%ised disci'%ines as being 'art o& the domain o& Qscience,techno%og" and societ"5. B" Q'rinci'%es5 $ mean /hat ismy 'ersona% summar" o& the em'irica%&acts at hand a&ter a decade o& /or in this area. hus, $ e6'ect these 'rinci'%es to be debated,&a%si&ied, re'%aced b" other summaries. 3n the other hand, the ru%es o& method are a 'ac agethat do not seem to be easi%" negotiab%e /ithout %osing sight o& the common ground $ /ant tos etch. ith them it is more a ;uestion o& a%% or nothing, and $ thin the" shou%d be udgedon%" on this ground: do the" %in more e%ements than others? 4o the" a%%o/ outsiders to&o%%o/ science and techno%og" &urther, %onger and more inde'endent%"? his /i%% be the on%"ru%e o& the game, that is, the on%" Qmeta5 ru%e that /e /i%% need to get on /ith our /or .

666 &otnoter start 666

E he 'resent boo /as origina%%" '%anned /ith e6ercises at the end o& each cha'ter. *or %aco& s'ace, these 'ractica% tas s /i%% be the ob ect o& a second o%ume.

EE 6ce't &or the &irst ru%e o& method de&ined abo e. summar" o& these ru%es and 'rinci'%esis gi en at the end o& the boo .

666 &otnoter s%utt 666


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((18))

((19))

$art I. From 6eaker to Stronger 3hetori&

(( >))

(( 1))

CHA$ E3 (. ,iteraturehere are man" methods &or stud"ing the &abrication o& scienti&ic &acts and technica% arte&acts.

Ho/e er, the &irst ru%e o& method /e decided u'on in the 'receding $ntroduction is thesim'%est o& a%%. e /i%% not tr" to ana%"se the &ina% 'roducts, a com'uter, a nuc%ear '%ant, a

cosmo%ogica% theor", the sha'e o& a doub%e he%i6, a bo6 o& contrace'ti e 'i%%s, a mode% o& theeconom"P instead /e /i%% &o%%o/ scientists and engineers at the times and at the '%aces /herethe" '%an a nuc%ear '%ant, undo a cosmo%ogica% theor", modi&" the structure o& a hormone &orcontrace'tion, or disaggregate &igures used in a ne/ mode% o& the econom". e go &rom &ina% 'roducts to 'roduction, &rom 5co%d5 stab%e ob ects to 5/armer5 and unstab%e ones. $nstead o& b%ac bo6ing the technica% as'ects o& science andthen %oo ing &or socia% in&%uences and biases, /e rea%ised in the $ntroduction ho/ much sim'%er it /as to be therebefore the bo6c%oses and becomes b%ac . ith this sim'%e method /e mere%" ha e to &o%%o/ the best o& a%%guides, scientists themse% es, in their e&&orts to c%ose one b%ac bo6 and to o'en another. hisre%ati ist and critica% stand is not im'osed b" us on the scientists /e stud"P it is /hat thescientists themse% es do, at %east &or the tin" 'art o& technoscience the" are /or ing on.


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o start our en;uir", /e are going to begin &rom the sim'%est o& a%% 'ossib%e situations: /hensomeone utters a statement, /hat ha''ens /hen the others be%ie e it or don5t be%ie e it.Starting &rom this most genera% situation, /e /i%% be gradua%%" %ed to more 'articu%ar settings.$n this cha'ter, as in the &o%%o/ing, /e /i%% &o%%o/ a character, /hom /e /i%% &or the momentdub 5the dissenter5. $n this &irst 'art o& the boo /e /i%% obser e to /hat e6tremes a nai e

outsider /ho /ishes to disbe%ie e a sentence is %ed.

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$art A. Contro"ersies

%(' $ositi"e and negati"e modalities

hat ha''ens /hen someone disbe%ie es a sentence? Let me e6'eriment /ith three sim'%ecases:

(1)0e/ So iet missi%es aimed against Minutemen si%os are accurate to 1>> metres. 1

( )Since Kne/ So iet missi%es are accurate /ithin 1>> metres this means that Minutemen arenot sa&e an" more, and this is the main reason /h" the M@ /ea'on s"stem is necessar".

(+) d ocates o& the M@ in the #entagon c%e er%" %ea in&ormation contending that Kne/So iet missi%es are accurate /ithin 1>> metres .

$n statements ( ) and (+) /e &ind the same sentence (1) but inserted. e ca%% these sentencesmodalities because the" modi&" (or ;ua%i&") another one. he e&&ects o& the moda%ities in ( )and (+) are com'%ete%" di&&erent. $n ( ) the sentence (1) is su''osed to be so%id enough toma e the bui%ding o& the M@ necessar", /hereas in (+) the er" same statement is /ea enedsince its a%idit" is in ;uestion. 3ne moda%it" is %eading us, so to s'ea , 5do/nstream5 &rom thee6istence o& accurate So iet missi%es to the necessit" o& bui%ding the M@P the other moda%it"%eads us 5u'stream5 &rom a be%ie& in the same sentence (1) to the uncertainties o& our

no/%edge about the accurac" o& So iet missi%es. $& /e insist /e ma" be %ed e en &urtheru'stream, as in the ne6t sentence:

( ) he underco er agent >>9 in 0o osibirs /his'ered to the housemaid be&ore d"ing that hehad heard in bars that some o&&icers thought that some o& their Kmissi%es in idea% testconditions might Kha e an accurac" some/here bet/een K1>> and 1>>> Kmetres or this is at%east ho/ the re'ort came to ashington.

$n this e6am'%e, statement (1) is not inserted in another 'hrase an" more, it is bro en a'artand each &ragment /hich $ ha e 'ut in brac ets is brought bac into a com'%e6 'rocess o&


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construction &rom /hich it a''ears to ha e been e6tracted. he directions to/ards /hich thereaders o& sentences ( ) and ( ) are in ited to go are stri ing%" di&&erent. $n the &irst case, the"are %ed into the 0e ada desert o& the !nited States to %oo &or a suitab%e site &or the M@P in thesecond case the" are %ed to/ards the #entagon si&ting through the C$ net/or o& s'ies anddisin&ormation. $n both cases the" are induced to as di&&erent sets o& ;uestions. *o%%o/ing

statement (1), the" /i%% as i& the M@ is /e%% designed, ho/ much it /i%% cost and /here to%ocate itP be%ie ing statements ( ) or ( ), the" /i%% as ho/ the C$ is organised, /h" thein&ormation has been %ea ed, /ho i%%ed agent >>9, ho/ the test conditions o& missi%es in2ussia are set u', and so on. reader /ho does not no/ /hich sentence to be%ie e /i%%hesitate bet/een t/o attitudesP either demonstrating against the 2ussians &or the M@ oragainst the

(( +))

C$ &or a Congressiona% hearing on the inte%%igence estab%ishment. $t is c%ear that an"one /ho/ishes the reader o& these sentences to demonstrate against the 2ussians or against the C$must ma e one o& the statements more credib%e than the other.

e /i%% ca%%positi"e modalities those sentences that %ead a statement a/a" &rom itsconditions o& 'roduction, ma ing it so%id enough to render some other conse;uencesnecessar". e /i%% ca%%negati"e modalities those sentences that %ead a statement in the otherdirection to/ards its conditions o& 'roduction and that e6'%ain in detai% /h" it is so%id or /eainstead o& using it to render some other conse;uences more necessar".

0egati e and 'ositi e moda%ities are in no /a" 'articu%ar to 'o%itics. he second, and moreserious, e6am'%e /i%% ma e this 'oint c%ear:

( ) he 'rimar" structure o& Oro/th Hormone 2e%easing Hormone (OH2H) is a% HisLeu S er %a O %u O%u L"s O %u %a.

(-) 0o/ that 4r Scha%%" has disco ered Kthe 'rimar" structure o& OH2H , it is 'ossib%e to startc%inica% studies in hos'ita% to treat certain cases o& d/ar&ism since OH2H shou%d trigger theOro/th Hormone the" %ac .

(7) 4r . Scha%%" has c%aimed &or se era% "ears in his 0e/ 3r%eans %aborator" that Kthestructure o& OH2H /as a% His Leu Ser %a O%u O%u L"s O%u %a . Ho/ e er, b" troub%coincidence this structure is a%so that o& haemog%obin, a common com'onent o& b%ood and a&re;uent contaminant o& 'uri&ied brain e6tract i& hand%ed b" incom'etent in estigators.

Sentence ( ) is de oid o& an" trace o& o/nershi', construction, time and '%ace. $t cou%d ha e been no/n &or centuries or handed do/n b" Ood Himse%& together /ith the enCommandments. $t is, as /e sa", a &act. *u%% sto'. Li e sentence (1) on the accurac" o& So iet


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missi%es, it is inserted into other statements /ithout &urther modi&ication: no more is saidabout OH2HP inside this ne/ sentence, sentence ( ) becomes a c%osed &i%e, an indis'utab%eassertion, a b%ac bo6. $t isbecause no more has to be said about it that it can be used to %eadthe reader some/here e%se do/nstream, &or instance to a hos'ita% /ard, he%'ing d/ar es togro/. $n sentence (7) the origina% &act undergoes a di&&erent trans&ormation simi%ar to /hat

ha''ened to the accurac" o& So iet missi%es in statements (+) and ( ). he origina% statement( ) is uttered b" someone situated in time and s'aceP more im'ortant%", it is seen as somethinge6tracted &rom a com'%icated /or situation, not as a gi&t &rom Ood but as a man made 'roduct. he hormone is iso%ated out o& a sou' made o& man" ingredientsP it might be that 4rScha%%" has mista en a contaminant &or a genuine ne/ substance. he 'roo& o& that is the5troub%ing coincidence5 bet/een the OH2H se;uence and that o& the beta chain o&haemog%obin. he" might be homon"ms, but can "ou imagine an"bod" that /ou%d con&usethe order to 5re%ease gro/th hormone 5 /ith the command 5gi e me "our carbon dio6ide 5?

4e'ending on /hich sentence /e be%ie e, /e, the readers, are again induced to go in o''ositedirections. $& /e &o%%o/ statement (-) that ta es OH2H as a &act, then /e no/ %oo into 'ossib%e cures &or d/ar&ism, /e e6'%ore /a"s o&

(( ))

industria%%" 'roducing masses o& OH2H, /e go into hos'ita%s to b%ind test the drug, etc. $& /e be%ie e (7) /e are %ed bac into 4r Scha%%"5s %aborator" in 0e/ 3r%eans, %earning ho/ to 'uri&" brain e6tracts, as ing technicians i& some hitch has esca'ed their attention, and so on.

ccording to /hich direction /e go, the origina% sentence ( ) /i%% change status: it /i%% beeither a b%ac bo6 or a &ierce contro ers"P either a so%id time%ess certaint" or one o& theseshort %i ed arte&acts that a''ear in %aborator" /or . $nserted inside statement (-), ( ) /i%% 'ro ide the &irm ground to do something e%seP but the same sentence bro en do/n inside (7)/i%% be one more em't" c%aim &rom /hich nothing can be conc%uded.

third e6am'%e /i%% sho/ that these same t/o &undamenta% directions ma" be recognised inengineers5 /or as /e%%:

(8) he on%" /a" to ;uic %" 'roduce e&&icient &ue% ce%%s + is to &ocus on the beha iour o&e%ectrodes.

(9) Since Kthe on%" /a" &or our com'an" to end u' /ith e&&icient &ue% ce%%s is to stud" the beha iour o& e%ectrodes and since this beha iour is too com'%icated, $ 'ro'ose to concentratein our %aborator" ne6t "ear on the one 'ore mode%.


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(1>) Iou ha e to be a meta%%urgist b" training to be%ie e "ou can tac %e K&ue% ce%%s throughthe Ke%ectrode 'rob%em. here are man" other /a"s the" cannot e en dream o& because the"don5t no/ so%id state 'h"sics. 3ne ob ious /a" &or instance is to stud" e%ectrocata%"sis. $&the" get bogged do/n /ith their e%ectrode, the" /on5t mo e an inch.

Sentence (8) gi es as a matter o& &act the on%" research direction that /i%% %ead the com'an" tothe &ue% ce%%s, and thence to the &uture e%ectric engine that, in the e"es o& the com'an", /i%%e entua%%" re'%ace most J i& not a%% J interna% combustion engines. $t is then ta en u' b"statement (9) and &rom it a research 'rogramme is bui%t: that o& the one 'ore mode%. Ho/e er,in sentence (1>) the matter o& &act tone o& (8) is not borro/ed. More e6act%", it sho/s that (8)has not a%/a"s been a matter o& &act but is the resu%t o& a"ecision ta en b" s'eci&ic 'eo'%e/hose training in meta%%urg" and /hose ignorance are out%ined. he same sentence then 'ro'oses another %ine o& research using another disci'%ine and other %aboratories in the samecom'an".

$t is im'ortant to understand that statement (1>) does not in an" /a" dis'ute that the com'an"shou%d get at &ast and e&&icient &ue% ce%%sP it e6tracts this 'art o& sentence (8) /hich it ta es as a&act, and contests on%" the idea o& stud"ing the e%ectrode as the best /a" o& reaching thatundis'uted goa%. $& the reader be%ie es in c%aim (9), then the be%ie& in (8) is rein&orcedP the/ho%e is ta en as a 'ac age and goes /here it %eads the research 'rogramme, dee' inside themeta%%urg" section o& the com'an", %oo ing at one 'ore mode%s o& e%ectrodes and s'ending"ears there e6'ecting the brea through. $& the reader be%ie es in c%aim (1>), then it is rea%isedthat the origina% sentence (8) /as notone b%ac bo6 but at %eastt;o> the &irst is e't c%osed J&ue% ce%%s are the right goa%P the other is o'ened J the one 'ore mode% is an absurdit"P inorder to maintain the &irst, then the com'an" shou%d get into ;uantum 'h"sics and recruit ne/ 'eo'%e. 4e'ending on /ho is be%ie ed, the

(( ))

com'an" ma" go bro e or notP the consumer, in the "ear >>>, ma" dri e a &ue% ce%% e%ectriccar or not.

*rom these three much sim'%er and much %ess 'restigious e6am'%es than the ones /e sa/ inthe $ntroduction, /e ma" dra/ the &o%%o/ing conc%usions. sentence ma" be made more o& a&act or more o& an arte&act de'ending on ho/ it is inserted into other sentences. 3y itself a

given sentence is neither a fact nor a fiction> it is ma"e so by others, later on) Iou ma e itmore o& a &act i& "ou insert it as a c%osed, ob ious, &irm and 'ac aged 'remise %eading to someother %ess c%osed, %ess ob ious, %ess &irm and %ess united conse;uence. he &ina% sha'e o& theM@ is %ess determined in sentence ( ) than is the accurac" o& So iet missi%esP the cure &ord/ar&ism is not "et as /e%% sett%ed in sentence (-) as is the OH2H structureP a%though in


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sentence (9) it is certain that the right 'ath to/ards &ue% ce%%s is to %oo at e%ectrodes, the one 'ore mode% is %ess certain than this indis'utab%e &act. s a conse;uence, %isteners ma esentences %ess o& a &act i& the" ta e them bac /here the" came &rom, to the mouths and handso& /hoe er made them, or more o& a &act i& the" use it to reach another, more uncertain goa%.

he di&&erence is as great as going u' or do/n a ri er. Ooing do/nstream, %isteners are %ed to

a demonstration against the 2ussians J see ( ), to c%inica% studies o& d/ar&ism J see (-), tometa%%urg" J see (9). !'stream, the" are directed to 'robe the C$ J see (+), to do researchin 4r Scha%%"5s %aborator"J see (7), or to in estigations on /hat ;uantum 'h"sics can te%% usabout &ue% ce%%sJsee (1>).

e understand no/ /h" %oo ing at ear%ier stages in the construction o& &acts and machines ismore re/arding than remaining /ith the &ina% stages. 4e'ending on the t"'e o& moda%ities, 'eo'%e /i%% bema"e to go a%ong com'%ete%" di&&erent 'aths. $& /e imagine someone /ho has%istened to c%aims ( ), (-) and (9), and be%ie ed them, his beha iour /ou%d ha e been the&o%%o/ing: he /ou%d ha e oted &or 'ro M@ congressmen, bought shares in OH2H 'roducingcom'anies, and recruited meta%%urgists. he %istener /ho be%ie ed c%aims (+), ( ), (7) and(1>)/ou%d ha e studied the C$ , contested the 'uri&ication o& brain e6tracts, and /ou%d ha erecruited ;uantum 'h"sicists. Considering such ast%" di&&erent outcomes, /e can easi%" guessthat it is around moda%ities that /e /i%% &ind the &iercest dis'utes since this is /here the beha iour o& other 'eo'%e /i%% be sha'ed.

here are t/o added bonuses &or us in &o%%o/ing the ear%ier 'eriods o& &act construction. *irst,scientists, engineers and 'o%iticians constant%" o&&er us rich materia% b" trans&orming oneanother5s statements in the direction o& &act or o& &iction. he" brea the ground &or ourana%"sis. e, %a"men, outsiders and citiGens, /ou%d be unab%e to discuss sentences (1) on theaccurac" o& So iet missi%es, ( ) on the amino acid structure o& gro/th hormone re%easing&actor, and (8) on the right /a" o& ma ing &ue% ce%%s. But since others dis'ute them and 'ushthem bac into their conditions o& 'roduction, /e are e&&ort%ess%" %ed to the 'rocesses o& /orthat e6tract in&ormation &rom s'ies, brain sou' or e%ectrodesJ 'rocesses o& /or /e /ou%dne er ha e sus'ected be&ore. Second%", in the heat o& the contro ers", s'ecia%ists ma"themse% es e6'%ain /h" their o''onents thin other/ise: sentence (+) c%aims that the M@ 'artisans are

(( -))

intereste" in be%ie ing the accurac" o& So iet missi%esP in sentence (1>) the be%ie& o& the othersin one absurd research 'ro ect is im'uted to their training as meta%%urgists. $n other /ords,/hen /e a''roach a contro ers" more c%ose%", ha%& o& the ob o& inter'reting the reasons behind the be%ie&s is a%read" done

%5' he &olle&ti"e fate of fa&t7making


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$& the t/o directions $ out%ined /ere so c%ear%" isib%e to the e"es o& someone a''roaching theconstruction o& &acts, there /ou%d be a ;uic end to most debates. he 'rob%em is that /e arene er con&ronted /ith such c%ear intersections. he three e6am'%es $ chose ha e beenarbitrari%" interru'ted to re ea% on%" t/o neat%" distinct 'aths. $& "ou %et the ta'e go on a bit%onger the '%ot thic ens and the inter'retation becomes much more com'%icated.

Sentences (+) and ( ) denied the re'orts about the accurac" o& the So iet missi%es. But ( ) didso b" using a 'o%ice stor" that e6'osed the inner /or ings o& the C$ . re'%" to thise6'osition can easi%" be imagined:

(11) he C$ 5s certaint" concerning the 1>> metre accurac" o& 2ussian missi%es is not basedon the agent >>95s re'ort, but on &i e inde'endent sources. Let me suggest that on%" grou'ssubsidised b" So iets cou%d ha e an interest in casting doubts on this incontro ertib%e &act.

0o/ the readers are not sure an" more /here the" shou%d go &rom here. $& sentence ( ),den"ing the truth o& sentence (1), is itse%& denied b" (11), /hat shou%d the" do? Shou%d the" 'rotest against the disin&ormation s'ecia%ists 'aid b" the


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com'etitor5s disco er" out o& sheer ea%ous"? $& "ou be%ie e so, then (7) is cance%%ed, /hich&rees the origina% sentence ( ) &rom doubts. $&, on the contrar", "ou be%ie e in Oui%%emin5shonest", then it is sentence (1 ) /hich is in eo'ard", and then the origina% c%aim ( ) is againin danger ..

$n this e6am'%e the on%" thing that stands &irm is this 'oint about homon"m". t this 'oint, toma e u' "our mind "ou ha e to dig much &urther into 'h"sio%og": is it 'ossib%e &or the b%oodto carr" t/o homon"mous messages to the ce%%s /ithout /rea ing ha oc in the bod"?

s ing these t/o ;uestions about Oui%%emin5s integrit" and about a 'rinci'%e o& 'h"sio%og""ou might hear the retort (to the retort o& the retort):

(1+) $m'ossib%e $t cannot be an homon"m". $t is ust a '%ain mista e made b" Scha%%".n"/a", Oui%%emin has a%/a"s been more credib%e than him. $ /ou%dn5t trust this OH2H an

inch, e en i& it is a%read" manu&actured, ad ertised in medica% ourna%s, and e en so%d to 'h"sicians

ith such a sentence the reader is no/ /atching a game o& bi%%iards: i& (1+) is true, then (1 )/as bad%" /rong, /ith the conse;uence that (7), that dis'uted the er" e6istence o& Scha%%"5ssubstance, /as right, /hich means that ( ) the origina% c%aim is disa%%o/ed. 0atura%%", the;uestion /ou%d no/ be to assess the credibi%it" o& sentence (1+) abo e. $& it is uttered b" anuncritica% admirer o& Oui%%emin or b" someone /ho no/s nothing o& 'h"sio%og", then (1 )might turn out to be ;uite credib%e, /hich /ou%d noc (7) o&& the tab%e and /ou%d thusestab%ish ( ) as an ascertained &act

o s'are the reader5s 'atience $ /i%% sto' the stor" here, but it is no/ ob ious that the debatecou%d go on. he &irst im'ortant %esson, here, is this: /ere the debate to continue, /e /ou%dde% e &urther into 'h"sio%og", &urther into Scha%%"5s and Oui%%emin5s 'ersona%ities, and much&urther into the detai%s through /hich hormone structures are obtained. he number o& ne/conditions o& 'roduction to tac %e /i%% ta e us &urther and &urther &rom d/ar es and hos'ita%/ards. he second %esson is that /ith e er" ne/ retort added to the debate, the status o& theorigina% disco er" made b" Scha%%" in c%aim ( );ill be mo"ifie") $nserted in (-) it becomesmore o& a &actP %ess /hen it is dis%ocated in (7)P more /ith (1 ) that destro"s (7)P %ess again/ith (1+)P and so on. he &ate o& the statement, that is the decision about /hether it is a &act ora &iction, de'ends on a se;uence o& debates %ater on. he same thing ha''ens not on%" &or ( ),/hich $ arti&icia%%" chose as the origin o& the debate, but a%so /ith each o& the other sentencesthat ;ua%i&ies or modi&ies it. *or instance (7), /hich dis'uted Scha%%"5s abi%it", is itse%& made

more o& a &act /ith (1+) that estab%ished Oui%%emin5s honest", but %ess /ith (1 ) that doubtedhis udgment. hese t/o %essons are so im'ortant that this boo is sim'%", $ cou%d argue, ade e%o'ment o& this essentia% 'oint:the status of a statement "epen"s on later statements) $t ismade more o& a certaint" or %ess o& a certaint" de'ending on the ne6t sentence that ta es it u'Pthis retros'ecti e

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attribution is re'eated &or this ne6t ne/ sentence, /hich in turn might be made more o& a &actor more o& a &iction b" a third, and so on .. .

he same essentia% 'henomenon is isib%e in the third e6am'%e. Be&ore a machine is bui%tman" debates ta e '%ace to determine its sha'e, &unction, or cost. he debate about the &ue%ce%%s ma" be easi%" re ind%ed. Sentence (1>) /as dis'uting that the right a enue to &ue% ce%%s/as the one 'ore e%ectrode mode, but not that &ue% ce%%s /ere the right 'ath to/ards the &utureo& e%ectric cars. retort ma" come:

(1 ) nd /h" get into ;uantum mechanics an"/a"? o s'end mi%%ions he%'ing 'h"sicists /iththeir 'et 'ro ects? hat5s boot%egging, not techno%ogica% inno ation, that5s /hat it is. hee%ectric automobi%e5s on%" &uture is a%% er" sim'%e: batteriesP the" are re%iab%e, chea' anda%read" there. he on%" 'rob%em is /eight, but i& research /ere done into that instead o& into 'h"sics, the" /ou%d be %ighter 'rett" soon.

ne/ 'ath/a" is 'ro'osed to the com'an". #h"sics, /hich &or sentence (1>) /as the 'ath tothe brea through, is no/ the archit"'ica% dead end. he &uture o& &ue% ce%%s, /hich instatements (8), (9) and (1>) /ere 'ac aged together /ith the e%ectric car in one b%ac bo6,no/ %ies o'en to doubt. *ue% ce%%s are re'%aced b" batteries. But in sentence (1 ) e%ectric carsare sti%% acce'ted as an undis'utab%e 'remise. his 'osition is denied b" the ne6t c%aim:

(1 )Listen, 'eo'%e /i%% a%/a"s use interna% combustion engines, no matter /hat the cost o& 'etro%. nd "ou no/ /h"? Because it has got go. %ectric cars are s%uggishP 'eo'%e /i%%ne er bu" them. he" 're&er igorous acce%eration to e er"thing e%se.

Su''ose that "ou ha e a '%ace on the com'an" board that has to decide /hether or not toin est in &ue% ce%%s. Iou /ou%d be rather 'uGG%ed b" no/. hen "ou be%ie ed (9) "ou /ereread" to in est in the one 'ore e%ectrode mode% as it /as con incing%" de&ined b"meta%%urgists. hen "ou shi&ted "our %o"a%ties /hen %istening to (1>) that criticisedmeta%%urgists and /ished to in est in ;uantum 'h"sics, recruiting ne/ 'h"sicists. But a&ter%istening to (1 ), "ou decided to bu" shares in com'anies manu&acturing traditiona% batteries.

&ter %istening to (1 ), though, i& "ou be%ie e it, "ou /ou%d be better not se%%ing an" o& "ourOenera% Motors shares. ho is right? hom shou%d "ou be%ie e? he ans/er to this ;uestionis not in an" one o& the statements, but in /hat e er"one is going to do /ith them %ater on. $&"ou /ish to bu" a car, /i%% "ou be sto''ed b" the high 'rice o& 'etro%? i%% "ou shi&t to

e%ectric cars, more s%uggish but chea'er? $& "ou do so, then sentence (1 ) is /rong, and (8),(9) or (1>) /as right, since the" a%% /anted e%ectric cars. $& the consumer bu"s an interna%combustion engine car /ithout an" hesitation and doubts, then c%aim (1 ) is right and a%% theothers /ere /rong to in est mi%%ions in use%ess techno%ogies /ithout a &uture.

his retros'ecti e trans&ormation o& the truth a%ue o& ear%ier sentences does not ha''en on%"/hen the a erage consumer at the end o& the %ine gets into the 'icture, but a%so /hen theBoard o& 4irectors decides on a research strateg". Su''ose that "ou 5bought the argument5 'resented in statement (1>). Iou go &or e%ectric cars, "ou be%ie e in &ue% ce%%s, and in ;uantum 'h"sics as the on%" /a" to


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(( 9))

get at them. %% the other statements arema"e more ;rong b" this decision. he %in ages bet/een the &uture o& the automobi%e, the e%ectric engine, the &ue% ce%%s, and e%ectro'h"sics area%% con&%ated in one sing%e b%ac bo6 /hich no one in the com'an" is going to dis'ute.

er"one in the com'an" /i%% start &rom there: 5Since sentence (1>) is right then %et5s in est soman" mi%%ions.5 s /e /i%% see in Cha'ter +, this does not mean that "our com'an" /i%% /in.$t means that, as &ar as "ou cou%d, "ou sha'ed the other machines and &acts o& the 'ast so as to/in: the interna% combustion engine is /ea ened b" "our decision and made more o& anobso%ete techno%og"P b" the same to en e%ectro'h"sics is strengthened, /hi%e the meta%%urg"section o& the com'an" is gent%" e6c%uded &rom the 'icture. *ue% ce%%s no/ ha e one more 'o/er&u% a%%": the Board o& 4irectors.

gain $ interru't the contro ers" abru't%" &or 'ractica% reasonsP the com'an" ma" go bro e, become the $BM o& the t/ent" &irst centur" or %inger &or "ears in %imbo. he 'oint o& the threee6am'%es is thatthe fate of ;hat ;e say an" make is in later users5 han"s) Bu"ing a machine/ithout ;uestion or be%ie ing a &act /ithout ;uestion has the same conse;uence: it strengthensthe case o& /hate er is bought or be%ie ed, it ma es it more o& a b%ac bo6. o disbe%ie e or,so to s'ea , 5dis bu"5 either a machine or a &act is to /ea en its case, interru't its s'read,trans&orm it into a dead end, reo'en the b%ac bo6, brea it a'art and rea%%ocate its com'onentse%se/here. B" themse% es, a statement, a 'iece o& machiner", a 'rocess are %ost. B" %oo ingon%" at them and at their interna% 'ro'erties, "ou cannot decide i& the" are true or &a%se,e&&icient or /aste&u%, cost%" or chea', strong or &rai%. hese characteristics are on%" gainedthroughincorporation into other statements, 'rocesses and 'ieces o& machiner". heseincor'orations are decided b" each o& us, constant%". Con&ronted /ith a b%ac bo6, /e ta e aseries o& decisions. 4o /e ta e it u'? 4o /e re ect it? 4o /e reo'en it? 4o /e %et it dro'through %ac o& interest? 4o /e ma e it more so%id b" gras'ing it /ithout an" &urtherdiscussion? 4o /e trans&orm it be"ond recognition? his is /hat ha''ens to others5statements, in our hands, and /hat ha''ens to our statements in others5 hands. o sum u', theconstruction o& &acts and machines isa collective 'rocess. ( his is the statement $ e6'ect youto be%ie eP its &ate is in "our hands %i e that o& an" other statements.) his is so essentia% &or

the continuation o& our tra e% through technoscience E that $ /i%% ca%% it ourfirst prin&iple/ theremainder o& this boo /i%% more than usti&" this rather 'ortentous name.

666 &otnote start 666

E$n order to a oid end%ess 5science and techno%og"5 $ &orged this /ord, /hich /i%% be &u%%"de&ined in Cha'ter on%".

666 &otnote s%utt 666


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((+>))

$art B. 6hen &ontro"ersies flare up the literature be&omeste&hni&al

hen /e a''roach the '%aces /here &acts and machines are made, /e get into the midst o&contro ersies. he c%oser /e are, the more contro ersia% the" become. hen /e go &rom5dai%" %i&e5 to scienti&ic acti it", &rom the man in the street to the men in the %aborator", &rom 'o%itics to e6'ert o'inion, /e do not go &rom noise to ;uiet, &rom 'assion to reason, &rom heatto co%d. e go &rom contro ersies to &iercer contro ersies. $t is %i e reading a %a/ boo andthen going to court to /atch a ur" /a ering under the im'act o& contradictor" e idence. Sti%% better, it is %i e mo ing &rom a %a/ boo to #ar%iament /hen the %a/ is sti%% a bi%%. More noise,indeed, not %ess.

$n the 're ious section $ sto''ed the contro ersies be&ore the" cou%d 'ro%i&erate. $n rea% %i&e"ou cannot sto' them or %et them go as "ou /ish. Iou ha e to decide /hether to bui%d the M@or notP "ou ha e to no/ i& OH2H is /orth in esting inP "ou ha e to ma e u' "our mind as tothe &uture o& &ue% ce%%s. here are man" /a"s to /in o er a ur", to end a contro ers", tocross e6amine a /itness or a brain e6tract.3hetori& is the name o& the disci'%ine that has, &ormi%%ennia, studied ho/ 'eo'%e are made to be%ie e and beha e and taught 'eo'%e ho/ to 'ersuade others. 2hetoric is a &ascinating a%beit des'ised disci'%ine, but it becomes sti%% moreim'ortant /hen debates are so e6acerbated that the" become scienti&ic and technica%.

%though this statement is s%ight%" counter intuiti e, it &o%%o/s &rom /hat $ said abo e. Iounoticed in the three e6am'%es that the more $ %et the contro ersies go on, the more /e /ere %edinto /hat are ca%%ed Qtechnica%ities5. his is understandab%e since 'eo'%e in disagreement o'enmore and more b%ac bo6es and are %ed &urther and &urther u'stream, so to s'ea , into theconditions that 'roduced the statements. here is a%/a"s a 'oint in a discussion /hen the%oca% resources o& those in o% ed are not enough to o'en or c%ose a b%ac bo6. $t is necessar"to &etch &urther resources coming &rom other '%aces and times. #eo'%e start using te6ts, &i%es,documents, artic%es to &orce others to trans&orm /hat /as at &irst an o'inion into a &act. $& the

discussion continues then the contenders in anoral dis'ute become the rea"ers o& technica%te6ts or re'orts. he more the" dissent, the more the %iterature that is read /i%% becomescienti&ic and technica%. *or instance, i&, a&ter reading sentence (1 ), /hich 'uts theaccusations against the C$ into doubt, the M@ is sti%% dis'uted, the dissenter /i%% no/ becon&ronted /ith bo6es o& re'orts, hearings, transcri'ts and studies. he same thing ha''ens i&"ou are obstinate enough not to be%ie e in Scha%%"5s disco er". housands o&neuroendocrino%og" artic%es are no/ /aiting &or "ou. ither "ou gi e u' or "ou read them. s&or &ue% ce%%s, the" ha e their o/n research %ibrar" /hose inde6 %ists o er +>,>>> items, notcounting the 'atents. his is /hat "ou ha e to go through in order to disagree. Scienti&ic ortechnica% te6tsJ$ /i%% use the terms interchangeab%"J are not /ritten di&&erent%" b" di&&erent breeds o& /riters. hen "ou reach them, this does not mean that "ou ;uit


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his a''ea% to higher and more numerous a%%ies is o&ten ca%%ed theargument from authority.$t is derided b" 'hi%oso'hers and b" scientists a%i e because it creates a ma orit" to im'ressthe dissenter e en though the dissenter 5might be right5. Science is seen as the o''osite o& theargument &rom authorit". &e/ /in o er the man" because truth is on their side. hec%assica% &orm o& this derision is 'ro ided b" Oa%i%eo /hen he o&&ers a contrast bet/een

rhetoric and rea% science. &ter ha ing moc ed the &%orid rhetoric o& the 'ast, Oa%i%eo o''osedit to /hat ha''ens in 'h"sics :

((+ ))

But in the 'h"sica% sciences /hen conc%usions are sure and necessar" and ha e nothing to do/ith human 're&erence, one must ta e care not to '%ace onese%& in the de&ence o& errorP &orhere, a thousand 4emosthenes and a thousand ristot%es /ou%d be %e&t in the %urch b" an"a erage man /ho ha''ened to hit on the truth &or himse%&.

his argument a''ears so ob ious at &irst that it seems there is nothing to add. Ho/e er, acare&u% %oo at the sentence re ea%s t/o com'%ete%" di&&erent arguments mi6ed together. Hereagain the t/o &aces o& Fanus /e ha e encountered in the introduction shou%d not be con&usede en /hen the" s'ea at once. 3ne mouth sa"s: 5science is truth that authorit" sha%% noto ercome5P the other as s: 5ho/ can "ou be stronger than one thousand 'o%iticians and onethousand 'hi%oso'hers?5 3n the %e&t side rhetoric is o''osed to science ust as authorit" iso''osed to reasonP but on the right, science is a rhetoric 'o/er&u% enough, i& /e ma e thecount, to a%%o/ one man to /in o er >>> 'restigious authorities

666 &igur 1.1. start 666

*igure 1.1


nsi tet mot

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Latour Bruno - Science in Action