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A Lexicon of Terms Subject: Something being considered A cause A branch of knowledge The main area of interest in a work Person/ animal chosen for an experiment Angle: A way of looking at a subject or writing about it. (Try seeing things from my angle for a change; it may make you think again) Aspect: A part of a difficulty, question, subject that is, may be of should be particularly discussed. (There is another interesting aspect of this matter that needs thinking about) Issue: An urgent matter for discussion (The issue is whether we give them money or not; nothing else matters) Matter: A subject to which one gives attention (It is a matter of great concern to me) Question: A matter for discussion (It is a question of findinq more time to talk.) Slant: A way of presenting, talking or writing about a subject (She did not know whether to give her article a political slant or not) Theme: The subject of a talk, book, passage Topic: Subject for conversation, talk, writing (politics/religion) Common Figures of Speech Alliteration: is the repetition of the same letter or sound, usually at the beginning of a series of words, as in Aeneid 1.124 Interea maqno misceri murmure pontum. . Alliteration is often used in conjunction with onomatopioea as above. Allusion: Speaking of something indirectly. A literary, historical or mythological reference His allusions to our failure were unnecessary. Anaphora: The repetition of words or phrases at the beginning of successive clauses or phrases, the use of a word referring to or replacing a work used earlier in the sentence to avoid repetition. e.g 1. lam cinis incidebat, lam pumices niqrique lapides.. 'J lam ruina montis litora obstantia ... , 2. rectumque cursum recta gubernacula in periculum tenet. Anaphora is often used with Asyndeton, see below. Anastrophe: is a figure of speechinvolving an inversion of the natural order of words; for example, saying "echoed the hills" to mean "the hills echoed." In English, with its settled word order, departure from the expected word order emphasizes the displaced word or phrase: "beautiful" is emphasized in the City Beautifulurbanist movement;

"primeval" comes to the fore in Longfellowsline "This is the forest primeval." Where the emphasis that comes from anastrophe is not an issue, "inversion" is a perfectly suitable synonym. Anastrophe is common in Greekand Latinpoetry. For example, in the first line of the Aeneid:Arma uirumque cano, Troiae qui primus ab onis("I sing of arms and the man, who first from the shores of Troy") the genitive case noun Troiae (" of Troy") has been separated from the noun it governs (oris, "shores") in a way that would be rather unusual in Latin prose. In fact, given the liberty of Latin word order "of Troy" might be taken to modify "arms" or "the man", but it is not the custom to interpret the word that way. (Wikipedia) Apostrophe: The use of direct address to involve the reader directly in the action. A sudden break from the previous narrative for an address, in the second person, of some object or person. Perhaps you may ask what was the fate of Priam? Antithesis: 1. The direct opposite, usually followed by of, to. 2~ The arrangement of contrasting words or ideas. 3. A contrast of ideas expressed by parallellism of strongly contrasting words. e.g properat illuc unde alii fuqiunt. Assonance: The repetition of a vowel, or vowels, to create a particular effect or to draw the reader's attention to the words or ideas involved It may occur at the beginning of words or within words also. si fratrem Pollux alterna morte redemit itque reditque viam totiens (Aeneid VI 121-122) This emphasises Pollux's repeated journeys to the underworld Asyndeton: The omission of a conjunction or conjunctions in a sentence for a reason, perhaps to give an idea of confusion or of things happening in a hurry. e.g complectitur trepidantem, consolatur, hortatur, Brachyology: Condensed expression, overconciseness of expression. Chiasmus: The arrangement of corresponding words in opposite order or inversion in the second of two parallel phrases of the order followed by the first. In rhetoricchiasmus (from the Greekchiazo, "to shape like the letter X") is the figure of speechin which two or more clauses are related to each other through a reversal of structures in order to make a larger point; that is, the clauses display inverted parallelism . Chiasmus was particularly popular both in Greek and in Latin literature, where it was used to articulate balance or order within a text." (Wikipedia) e.g to stop too fearful and too faint to go. ille fuqiunt, veniunt illi. 1.357 celerare(a) fugam(b) patriaeque(b) excedere(a)

. Enjambment or enjambement is the breaking of a synctactic unit (a Phrase, clause or sentence) by the end of a line or between two verses.Enjambment may also be used to delay the intention of the line until the following line and thus play on the expectation of the reader and surprise them. quas ego te terras et quanta per aequora vectum accipio! A strong pause follows immediately after. Epanalepsis: is the repetition of a word ( often a proper name) in successive clauses or lines of verse for dramatic and/ or emotional effect (It can often occur in combination with Anaphora and Asyndeton. e.g. ad caelum undabat vertex turrimque tenebat, turrim compactis trabibus quam eduxerat ipse (Aeneid 12 673-4) Euphemism: the substitution of a milder expression for a harsher one. e.g. to pass over for die. decedere for mono

Hendiadys: The expression of an idea by the connection of two nouns connected by a conjunction instead of by a noun and modifying adjective, or by one noun modified by another e.g fortunam atque viam ::::: fortunam viae Hyperbole: (Exaggeration) The use of exaggerated terms not meant to be taken literally. To give an impression that something is greater or larger than it is. In epic poetry exaggeration is often used to emphasise the strength or beauty or a character e.g Aen 12 899-900. Imagery: The use of words that involves the senses, word-painting, mental images collectively, metaphors, similes, figures of speech. e.g singing for joy and happiness, darkness for despair, home for family. In the Aeneid, darkness, light and fire are important symbols. Irony: A way of speaking which expresses by its manner the opposite of what the words say/the sort of event or result which is just the opposite of what one would hope for or meant to happen. It says something, but means something else. e.g The irony lay in the fact that he was there all the time, although I did not see him. Juxtaposition: 1. Placing things side by side for effect. 2. (followed by to, with) place (a thing) beside another. illum absens absentem audit Litotes: The way of expressing a thought by its opposite especially with 'not', An understatement, often enhanced by the use of the negative. e.g "It is not all that bad" = it is good. He was no small help to ue."= he was a great help. The overall impression is understatement. Metaphor: (the use of) a phrase which describes one thing by stating another thing with which it can be compared (as in the roses in her cheeks) without using the words Wee or as. A comparison that is implied or suggested but not stated directly. She said he was a fox, planning everything so carefully. The Carthaginians are ardentes. They are not literally on fire, but are feeling emotions that are as intense or powerful as fire. Metonymy: The substitution of the name of an attribute to or adjunct for that of the thing meant. The substitution of one word for another which it suggests. Writing is often called "the pen"; that is metonymy. 'Crown for king', 'Turf for horse racing', 'Mars' Jar 'proelium', 'Volcanus' for 'fire'. See further explanations below. Onomatopoeia: The formation or use of words that are like natural sounds, as when the word 'cuckoo' is used to name the bird that makes that sound. The use of a word whose sound that suggests its meaning. Oxymoron: A paradoxical contradiction. Use of words that appear to contradict one another. The illness was made worse by the healing. Paradox: A statement that seems foolish or impossible but that has some truth in it. More haste, less speed. An improbable combination of opposing qualities etc. It is a paradox that in such a wealthy country there is so much poverty. Pathos: Quality in speech, writing or events that excites pity or sadness. Use of language in order to make a reader feel emotionally involved with the events or characters being described. Personification: Representing an inanimate object or an idea as a living creature. The sky smiled. Pleonasm: Expression of cluttering, fullness to illustrate a stifling effect, overwhelming of the senses, whether through sight, sound or for emotional reasons. Exceptional fullness of language. With a huge crowd all around him ... Some unfriendly power bereft me of my distracted wits" (total mental overload) Prolepsis: Inclusion into the main story of references to events that in fact will occur after the dramatic time of the poem and to people and circumstances involved later. This anticipates an outcome. Some are amazed at the deadly gift. (That will bring death in the future). He straps on the useless sword. (That will be useless in the coming situation) Simile: An expression making a comparison in the imagination between two things or scenarios, using the words like or as. (As white as snow)

Sound Effects: Words can be used to create sounds.Synchisis: Interlocked word order, typically of nouns with adjectives Book 1 259 ignotum argenti pondus et auriSynecdoche: The use of a phrase which describes one thing by referring to only a part of it, which suggests the whole of it.. Synecdoche is often called (the part for the whole', as in a worker being called a 'hand', new faces at the meeting. England lost by 6 wickets .. See further explanations below. Tmesis: Separation/ splitting of parts of a compound word by an intervening word or words. qui te cumque. Transferred Epithet: Use of a descriptive phrase or expression which has been transferred from a word it describes to another word connected with it in thought. The tacitum pectus Latonae in which the heart cannot speak, of course, and the tacitum really refers to Latona. (1.75)

Tricolon: Use of three parallel words or phrases building to a climax, each of which is at least one syllable longer that that preceding it. It is often found in combination with Asyndeton and Anaphora. What is Metonymy?

Metonymy definition entails using the name of one particular thing being replaced by the name of something that is closely associated with it. Metonymy in Greek literally means 'a change of name'. Thus, it actually stands for a transmutation or a misnomer. This figure of speech helps to indirectly refer to something. Like, in Julius Caesar, when Mark Antony, after the death of Caesar addresses the people of Rome as "Friends, Romans, countrymen, lend me your ears", he means he wants people to listen to what he has to say. Given below are a few more which

will help clear your doubts regarding metonymy vs synecdoche.

Word Actual Meaning Metonymic Usage To work hard towards

An avenue running the length of Manhattan Island in New York

The American advertising industry An avenue running the length of The live theater in New York Manhattan Island in New York city Heroic Couplet: A pair of rhyming iambic pentameters

Rhythm: The flow of sound resulting from various arrangements of accented and unaccented syllables Scansion: The analysis of the form of verse in which the line of verse is marked into feet

Building in London which is the headquarters of the Metropolitan Police

What is Synecdoche? Synecdoche is a figure of speech in which a word or term is used to refer to a whole thing or effect, a part of it, or a specific class of things related to that word. Synecdoche in Greek originally means accepting a part as responsible for whole or vice versa. This figure of speech is closely related to synecdoche, in fact, synecdoche is sometimes considered to be a subclass of metonymy. Given below are a few examples of synecdoche that will help you understand how to compare metonymy vs synecdoche better:

Referring to a characteristic of a person for the person itself, like 'the gray beard' for an old person.

Describing a vehicle as 'wheels'.

He has many mouths to feed.

There are so many pairs of hands working there.

All eyes were on him.

Using the term 'bug' for any kind of insect or small creature.

Using 'John Hancock' for the signature of any person.

Using a well known generic term for a certain related thing, like calling any kind of cola 'Coke'.

Saying 'lead' for bullets, 'rubber' for condoms, 'plastic' for credit cards, 'willow'

for cricket bat, etc. What's the Difference Between Metonymy and Synecdoche? Now we come to the pressing question of metonymy vs synecdoche. As has been stated above, synecdoche can be said to be a sub-class or a special case of metonymy. They both are similar to each other but metonymy is generally used to refer to a concept that is loosely associated with the main word. Any linked term that has a wider reference than usual can be said to be a metonymy. However, this is not that case with synecdoche. In synecdoche you speak a part of a thing or subject, indirectly implying the entire thing itself. You do not use it to refer to related subjects or objects. Thus, metonymy is actually a special case of synecdoche and not the other way round.

Choice of wordsWords are used to create the atmosphere of a place, the mood of a person or the tone of voice, such as anger, despair, humour, indignation,pathos, serenity.

Word Order: The position of words used to create an effect.

Narrative techniquesspeechescouncilsdebates/argumentsjourneysstormsbattles/duelsgodsghosts/dreamspropheciesecphrasis (a descriptive passage, setting a scene or describing an item, which breaks the narrative)