Later Achievement Study of Pupils Underachieving in Reading in First Grade

Later Achievement Study of Pupils Underachieving in Reading in First GradeAuthor(s): Anabel P. NewmanSource: Reading Research Quarterly, Vol. 7, No. 3 (Spring, 1972), pp. 477-508Published by: Wiley on behalf of the International Reading AssociationStable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/746995 .

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Later achievement study of pupils

underachieving in reading in first grade

ANABEL P. NEWMAN, Indiana University

PRESENTS a follow-up study on the effect of first grade reading treatments on children who were likely underachievers. Sub- jects were 230 children from the Cedar Rapids, Iowa Reading Research Project, one of the 27 U.S.O.E. First Grade Reading Studies.

The Cedar Rapids project was designed to develop and assess methods and materials especially adapted to low-reading-group pupils. The follow-up study examined the question "How does differentiated instruction for low-group pupils at the first grade level affect later learning abilities?"

Statistical analysis for the longitudinal study included correlational analysis, canonical analysis, multivariate analysis, and covariate analysis.

Results indicated that: (1) there were no significant differences between treatment groups at first or sixth grade level; (2) first grade reading achievement was found to be a significantly strong predictor of sixth grade reading achievement and more reliable than first grade readiness measures; (3) the correlational structure of achievement related variables revealed a striking persistence and intensification of the g-type factor, with the emergence of a strongly sex-linked second factor at sixth grade.

Etude performance ultnrieure dans la lecture chez les eleves a basse performance, premiere annee

PRESENTE UNE ETUDE donnant suite a celle de l'effet de traite- ments de la lecture de premiere ann6e pour des enfants a ten- dance performance peu 6lev6e. Les sujets: 230 enfants de Cedar Rapids, Iowa. Reading Research Project, une des 27 6tudes USOE First Grade Reading Studies. Le projet Cedar Rapids a 6t6 fait pour d6velopper et 6valuer les m6thodes et matieres adapt6es sp6cialement aux 6leves de performance peu 6leves en lecture. L'6tude a port6 sur la question "Comment l'instruction diff6rencide pour 6lves de groupe inf6ri-

477



478 READING RESEARCH QUARTERLY * Spring 1972 VII/3

eur de premiere ann6e touch-t-elle aux aptitudes ulterieures 'a 1'apprentissage?" L'analyse statistique pour cette 6tude a comporte l'analyse de correlation, l'analyse canonique, l'analyse multivariate, et l'analyse covariate. Les resultats ont indique que: (1) il n'y avait aucune difference significative entre les groupes de traitement de premiere ann/e et de sixieme ann6; (2) la performance en lecture premiere an- n&e s'est rev6ele un facteur de prediction important pour la performance en lecture sixikme annie, et plus stir meme les mesures de preparation en lecture premiere annie; (3) la structure de

correlation en variables touchant a la performance a r6vel6 une persistance frappante et une intensification du facteur type g, avec l'mergence en sixieme ann6e d'un deuxieme facteur forte- ment rattach6 au sexe.

Estudio posterior de realizaci6n en la lectura de estudiantes con subrealizaci6n en la lectura durante el primer a io.

PRESENTA UN ESTUDIO adicional sobre el efecto de los tratami- entos en la lectura del primer grado con nifios que posiblemente no eran capacitados. Los sujetos fueron 230 nifios del Proyecto de Investigaciones sobre Lectura de Cedar Rapids, Iowa, uno de 27 estudios del "U.S.O.E. First Grade Reading Studies." El proyecto de Cedar Rapids se disefi6 para desarrollar y evaluar los metodos y materiales especialmente adaptados para un grupo de estudiantes de bajo nivel de aptitud para la lectura. Este estudio adicional examin6 la cuesti6n de "ZC6mo la instrucci6n diferenciada para los estudiantes de bajo nivel en el primer grado afecta su habilidad de aprender posteriormente?". El and"lisis estadistico del estudio longitudinal incluy6 el andlisis can6nico, el andlisis multivariante, y el anilisis covariante. Los resultados mostraron: (1) que no habia diferencia significa- tiva entre los grupos tratados en el nivel del primer grado y en el nivel del sexto grado; (2) que la aptitud para la lectura en el primer grado era un indicio significativo de la aptitud para la lectura en el sexto grado y un indicio mucho mas seguro que la medici6n de la disposici6n para la lectura en el primer grado; (3) la estructura correlacional de las variables relacionadas a la aptitud revel6 una notable persistencia e intensificaci6n del factor tipo g, con el surgimiento de un fuerte segundo factor relacion- ado al sexo en el sexto grado.



Follow-up of underachievers NEWMAN 479

Introduction Great emphasis is currently placed on the right of every

child, who is potentially capable, to learn to read. In 1964-65 independent studies sponsored by the cooperative Research Branch of the United States Office of Education (U.S.O.E.) investigated questions relating to first grade reading instruction (Bond and Dykstra, Summer, 1967a). One of these 27 studies (Reid and Beltramo, 1965) examined possible solutions to the reading problems of the so-called low-group pupil. The investigation reported below presents the results of a follow-up study of children who participated in the Reid and Beltramo study, and suggests considerations which need to be made in order to achieve national literacy. Unless the low-group pupils in primary classes can be taught to read, there seems little hope of achieving this national goal in the 70's.

Background The first grade studies

An excellent description of the First Grade Studies is present- ed by the investigators, Drs. Guy L. Bond and Robert Dykstra, in the Summer, 1967 issue of the Reading Research Quarterly. In this issue the authors summarized their longer final report submitted to the United States Office of Education (Bond & Dykstra, 1967b). Three basic questions were investigated in these projects:

1] To what extent are various pupil, teacher, class, school, and community characteristics related to pupil achievement in first grade reading and spelling?

2] Which of the many approaches to initial reading instruction produces superior reading and spelling achievement at the end of first grade?

3] Is any program uniquely effective or ineffective for pupils with high or low readiness for reading? (Bond and Dykstra, 1967a, p. 9). Originally it was hoped that, from a large design, each project

would pursue one aspect that could speak authoritatively to the issues of beginning reading instruction. Understandably the independent pursuits, commitments, and sometimes biases of the individual project directors prohibited the complete fulfillment of this hope. Still, bene- ficial results did accrue. Dr. William Eller, speaking in 1968 to the




International Reading Association, discussed some of these. As an organizational gain he noted U.S.O.E. support for this type of project through its establishment of a coordinating center which has made available to the profession the research from these projects. Particu- larly he noted certain generalizations that could be drawn from these studies suggesting ways to improve the teaching and supervising of reading in the first grade. As examples he cited increased teacher efficiency through outside stimulation, growth in teacher understand- ing of the fundamentals of evaluation and appraisal, the broadening of teacher awareness of supplementary methods and materials and how to use them, and an increased appreciation of the role of research in educational practice and curricular modification (Eller, 1969).

In addition to the benefits noted by Eller, the general findings of the Cooperative Studies indicated that:

1] None of the characteristics reported (class size, teacher absence, teacher total experience, teacher first grade experience, teacher rating, child age, or pupil absence) was highly related to achievement on any of the Stanford measures (Bond and Dykstra, 1967a, p. 117).

2] ". .. There was less difference in variability among treatments than in mean achievement among treatments" (ibid., p. 121).

3] Little evidence was found of differential treatment effects for levels of intelligence, auditory discrimination, or letter knowledge (ibid., p. 126).

The Cedar Rapids study The Cedar Rapids, Iowa, Public Schools in conjunction with

the University of Iowa were one of the 27 participants in the cooperative research described above (Reid and Beltramo, 1965). From Sep- tember, 1964 to June, 1965 the Cedar Rapids study examined possible solutions to the reading problems of the so-called low-group pupil; that is, the child whose kindergarten and early first grade reading performance has earmarked him as a poor reader in later years. This 25. to 30 per cent of the average first grade classroom represents those pupils who, as they move from one grade to the next, often stagnate in reading.

The directors of the Cedar Rapids study, Hale C. Reid and Louise Beltramo, accepted as their commitment the designing of sev-




eral methodologies which would take into consideration the needs of the low-group pupil. Their belief was that if the low-group child could be taught with appropriate materials and methodologies in the beginning stages of reading, much of the frustration which attends such a child's reading experience in subsequent grades would be alleviated. Specifically, the aim of the directors was to answer the following questions:

1] What is the function of language in the beginning reading experience?

2] How does concentrated letter-sound association effect beginning reading achievement?

3] What is the effect of planned functional involvement in the act of reading prior to systematic reading instruction?

4] What are the possibilities of identifying children with perceptual difficulties and evolving appropriate training procedures?

5] What kind of effect might writing have in the beginning reading experience? With these questions in mind a study was designed using

four major approaches to teaching reading to young children, with each approach intended to answer one of the first four questions. These approaches, or methods, were: Language (Method I), Letter sounds (Method II), Literature (Method III), Skills Development (Method IV). The fifth question was to be answered by three combination methods, each combining Language (Method I) with aspects of one of the other three methods.

The following is a brief description of these methods.

Language (Method I). The Ginn English series (Reid and Crane, 1963), with its emphasis on the combination of the four language arts skills (listening, speaking, reading, and writing), was chosen as the core material in the first of the four research methodologies.

Letter Sounds (Method II). The directors of the Cedar Rapids study chose, for their second experimental method, a direct approach to determining the effectiveness of concentrating the total beginning reading instruction on the association of letter sounds and letter forms for the single consonants, mainly as they appeared at the beginnings of words. The study book Getting Ready to Read (McKee and Harri- son, 1962) determined the order of development of sound-letter asso-




ciations, but 139 lessons were written by Dr. Beltramo specially for the low-group pupil.

Literature (Method III). Cedar Rapids' third or Literature Method was planned to develop within pupils, through meaningful experiences with good literature, an appreciation of the written word as well as an awareness of the reading process. Because of its high literary and artistic quality, the Little Owl series published by Holt, Rinehart and Winston (1963) was selected as the core reading for the method. In addition to being well written and delightfully illus- trated, these books are small enough to be handled easily by children.

Skills Development (Method IV.) In the fourth experimental method, designated Skills Development, pupils were given specialized treatment early in their school experience in an effort to remedy or at least alleviate perceptual difficulties. In 1964 commercial materials addressed to this need were scarce. Because some of the Continental Press materials (Maney, n.d.) had been recommended by the psychologists for perceptually handicapped children, the investigators asked this writer to develop these materials into a cohesive readiness program available for use in the Fall of 1964.

Combination methods. Three combination methods examining the question "What effect might writing have in the beginning reading experience?" were developed using various combinations of Methods I through IV. In each instance selections from Language (Method I) were used as the morning directed-reading activity for the children, while portions of Letter Sounds (Method II), Literature (Method III), or Skills Development (Method IV) were adapted for use as the afternoon instructional materials.

Research design. Fifty-one classrooms were randomly assigned to the seven treatment groups with an average of seven classrooms per treatment. Students were assigned to classrooms on a heterogeneous basis. That is, each classroom contained pupils of varying degrees of readiness for reading (as measured by reading readiness tests administered the first week of school in September). Each teacher then organized her classroom into high, middle, and low reading groups. The low group comprised those children with Metro- politan Test, Form A (Hildreth, 1964) scores below the 60th percentile (raw score 64 ).' Usually this group contained about one-third

I The raw scores of the pupils included in the study ranged from 2 to 60, with a mean of 29, and a median of 35. It should be noted that the designation "low- group" as applied to children in the Cedar Rapids study is therefore a relative designation not necessarily applicable to other areas in the country.



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of the classroom. (A schema of the research design, including criterion tests for inclusion, is shown in Figure 1).

Second semester

During the second semester, after a two-week transitional period, all research groups began to receive instruction in the same first grade Basal reading program (Ginn), with instruction following specially prepared lessons (Reid and Beltramo, 1965, p. 27).

As specified in the First Grade Studies design, instruction was terminated after a 140-day instructional period. The Stanford Achievement Test, Primary 1 Battery, Form X (Kelley, 1963) was administered to all pupils by members of the research staff or trained personnel other than the classroom teacher.

Results were analyzed in three phases by methods of analysis of covariance. Only one of these analyses is pertinent to this study, that of the end-of-year group means from the final criterion test

(SAT) with controls for teacher quality (TQI), the Wechsler Intelli- gence Scale for Children-Verbal (Wechsler, 1949), and the initial total Metropolitan (Hildreth, 1949) readiness September raw score.

Results of the Cedar Rapids study At the end of the Cedar Rapids First Grade Study (June,

1965), when both group and individual reading achievement measures were administered, only one significant difference between the methods was found. Covariance-analysis utilizing three control variables-total raw score of the Metropolitan Readiness Tests (Form A), Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC) Verbal, and Teacher Quality Index-revealed that Language (Method I) was significantly superior to Language/Literature (Method VI) in the Word Study Skills subtests of the Stanford Achievement Test.

Subjectively, the reactions of teachers and students seemed to indicate a breakthrough in handling low-group pupils at the first grade level. Teachers said they had not realized low-group pupils could be so responsive. They expressed genuine pleasure, although admitting it was more work, in participating in the experimental approaches. Several have used part or all the materials in subsequent years. They recognized that their own attitudes toward the low-group child had improved. A majority of the teachers strongly recommended that, whatever the approach, different materials continue to be pro- vided the low-group pupil.




Children were overwhelmingly responsive to the experimental program. Visitors often remarked that they had never seen low-group children in the first grade so enthusiastic about reading. Because the children had had attractive materials with which they were consistently successful, they did not experience the disheartening lack of re- wards which many low-group first graders meet.

Recommendations

Recommendations regarding identification, testing, materials, grouping, pacing, teacher factor, and pupil morale are included in the report under the heading "Recommended for Use on a Wide Basis." Other recommendations (headed "Recommended for Further Study") pertained to method, combining methods, individualizing instruction, and comparing with established methods.

The report closes with the recommendation: "If time per- mitted, an interesting comparative study might be conducted to see which method effectively reached the brighter pupils within the low group and which method produced the best results among the so- called dullest members. .. " (Reid and Beltramo, 1965, pp. 218-219).

The preceding has shown that, in relation to the research question "How does differentiated instruction for low-group pupils at the first grade level affect later learning abilities?," there is urgenti need to determine what relationship between type of differentiated instruction and later learning abilities may be found.

Hypotheses The original Cedar Rapids study (1964-65) was designed to

develop and assess methods and materials especially adapted to low- reading-group pupils. This follow-up study was designed to examine the question "How does differentiated instruction for low-group pupils at the first grade level affect later learning abilities?" Relative to this question, the following hypotheses were tested:

1] There will be no significant differences in performance by method as measured by reading achievement tests administered when the pupils were in fifth or sixth grade.

2] There will be no significant cluster of pre-first grade readiness variables or end of the first grade achievement variables that predict fifth or sixth grade reading achievement.




3] The correlational structure of achievement-related variables will not have changed significantly over the intervening five- year period.1

Data and findings Data sources

Data analyzed came from three sources: (1) The University of Minnesota Coordinating Center supplied the two sets of punched cards containing pre- and post-test first grade scores. (2) Sixth grade iowa Tests of Basic Skills (Lindquist et al, 1955) ITBS scores on those pupils who participated in the first grade project were collected. (3) In addition, the author used pupil data unique to the Cedar Rapids study on these pupils contained in punched-card decks saved from the original project.

For the 230 first grade research pupils still in the Cedar Rapids school system by fifth2 or sixth grade, 27 variables were examined." Besides the four tests common to the national First Grade Studies (Metropolitan Readiness Tests; 1949; Murphy-Durrell Reading Readiness Analysis, 1964; Thurstone Identical Forms Test, unpublished; Thurstone Pattern Copying, unpublished), the Cedar Rapids study used three others: Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children, 1949, Bender Motor Gestalt Test, 1946, Wepman Auditory Discrimina- tion Test, 1958.

The four tests common to al Ithe studies, comprising 11 subtests, were administered the first week of school. The three tests unique to the Cedar Rapids study were given by the school psychologists during the Fall semester.

The Uintner-Cunningham Primary Test (1964) (intelligence measure administered to groups) was given in 1964 to the Cedar Rapids first grade research participants. In this study, however, the

1. The period referred to extended from May, 1965, when first grade achievement tests were administered, to January, 1970, when the sixth grade achievement scores were collected.

2. Fifty-nine of the 309 pupils who completed the Reid-Beltramo first grade study were retained a year during the five-year period between completion of the study (1965) and the sixth grade follow-up study. Their scores were included even though they reflect fifth grade achievement.

3. Table 1, below, lists the 27 variables and shows the means and standard deviations for each, as well as results from the ten criterion measures administered: five Stanford Achievement Tests given at the end of first grade, and five Iowa Tests of Basic Skills subtests given in January five years later.




Table 1 CORREL Analysis; Group Means and Standard Deviations for Twenty-seven (27) Variables: First Grade Readiness (17), First Grade Achievement

(5), Sixth Grade Achievement (5), N-230

Mean Test Name Raw Scoresa S.D.

First Grade Readiness

1 Sex 1.5b .5 2 Chronological Age (months) 77.3 3.4 3 WISC Verbal IQ 96.2 10.8 4 WISC Performance IQ 101.4 12.0 5 Metropolitan Word Meaning 7.4 2.4 6 Metropolitan Listening 9.1 2.2 7 Metropolitan Matching 5.9 3.2 8 Metropolitan Numbers 10.5 3.3 9 Metropolitan Copy 7.6 3.5

10 Metropolitan Alphabet 6.8 3.6 11 Murphy-Durrell Phonemes 16.5 11.9 12 Murphy-Durrell Caps/Lower Case 24.9 10.9 13 Murphy-Durrell Learning Rate 8.1 3.8 14 Thurstone Pattern Copying 7.5 6.2 15 Thurstone Identical Forms 12.6 8.1 16 Bender Gestalt 8.7 3.3 17 Wepman Auditory Discrimination 9.9 6.2

First Grade Achievement

18 SAT Word Reading 15.2 4.6 19 SAT Paragraph Meaning 11.9 4.7 20 SAT Vocabulary 17.6 5.3 21 SAT Spelling 6.5 4.8 22 SAT Word Study Skills 29.3 7.3

Sixth Grade Achievement

23 ITBS Vocabulary Total 47.2 15.2 24 ITBS Reading Total 48.7 14.0 25 ITBS Language Total 48.7 15.7 26 ITBS Work Study Total 48.6 12.7 27 ITBS Arithmetic 48.4 12.7

a. With the exception of sex, chronological age, and wisc intelligence quotients, the scores reported in this column are raw scores. b. Boys were coded 1, girls 2 in the first grade analysis.

author has used results obtained from the WISC (intelligence measure administered to individuals). Individual intelligence tests had been administered to all research subjects in the Reid-Beltramo study by the Cedar Rapids special Services Department during the fall semester. "It was hoped that through individual intelligence testing a more reliable measure might be obtained for the pupils" (Reid and Beltramo, 1965, p. 43).




Data refinement Initial preparation. A check for missing information on the

first grade scores was the initial step in preparing the Cedar Rapids data for analysis. Of the 230 subjects used in this study, grand means were substituted for nine who had missing subtest scores.

The second step of preparation was to match the subjects' first grade data with the ITBS scores they received when in fifth or sixth grade.

Retainees. Fifty-nine of the 309 participating first grade pupils were retained a year during the five-year period between completion of the Cedar Rapids study (1965) and the sixth grade follow- up study. Their scores were included even though they reflect fifth grade achievement.

Missing data. Seventy-nine of the original first grade pupils, who had been retained more than one year (does not include the 59 pupils mentioned above), or who, for one reason or another, were no longer enrolled in the Cedar Rapids schools, were not included in this follow-up study since they were unavailable for fifth or sixth grade ITBS testing and the ITBS is not administered to fourth graders in Cedar Rapids. Generally, however, pupils are not retained more than one year in Cedar Rapids, so the percentage of pupils remaining below fifth grade would probably have been very small.'

Some of these 79 pupils may have suffered in their learning habits from lack of home stability; or they may have been so severely retarded as to have been either retained more than one year in a particular grade, as was mentioned, or forced to attend classes for the mentally retarded. In any case, the removal of these subjects from this study could influence the results of the analysis of covariance so as to give these results an appearance different from those obtained at the end of the Iowa first grade study.

Measurement instruments The measurement instruments used in all the First Grade

Studies are described fully in Bond and Dykstra (1967a, pp. 29-30) and in Reid and Beltramo (1965, pp. 101-167). Descriptions of the instruments unique to the Cedar Rapids Study (Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children, Bender Motor Gestalt Test, and Wepman Auditory

1. Thus, of the 309 children who completed the Reid Beltramo study, 79 dropped out, leaving 230 available for testing in the spring of 1970. Of these 230, 171 were sixth graders and 59 had been retained one year and were in the fifth grade.




Discrimination Test) may be found in Buros' Mental Measurements Yearbooks (1965 and preceding). These three tests were administered to individual students by qualified Cedar Rapids school psychologists. In the judgment of many diagnosticians, individually administered tests should provide more valuable insights into the characteristics of low-group first grade youngsters than tests administered to groups.

Statistical procedures Two basic data-analysis routes were taken in order to test the

three hypotheses. The first of these hypotheses, demands statistical handling by analysis of variance.

There will be no significant differences in performance means by method as measured by reading achievement tests administered when pupils are in fifth or sixth grade. The second and third hypotheses, There will be no significant cluster of first-grade-pupil variables that predict fifth or sixth grade reading achievement.

and The correlation structure of achievement-related variables will not have changed significantly over the intervening five-year period.

are concerned with structural changes in the data and therefore de- mand statistical treatments which will reveal correlational changes. Correlational models are designed to provide knowledge of the strength of relationship between two variables, such as sex and reading achievement, intelligence and reading, or readiness and reading achievement. If, on the other hand, a researcher should attempt to find several predictive variables for use in certain statistical models, such as the CANON model (discussed later in this section), he would look for lesser relationships in these variables in order that his predictive composite be as powerful as possible.

In the following sections, rather than present an exact chronological handling of the data, discussion of the statistical procedures will be given with the intent of maximizing reader understand- ing of the findings. (Table 2 presents group codes, names, and number of pupils in each treatment.)

Data Reduction. A data reduction program (designated COR- REL) developed by Cooley and Lohnes (1971, pp. 43-44) and modi- fied by Lee T. Bryant was used for the initial handling of data in preparation for the CANON model computation to be described later.




Table 2: Group Codes, Group Names, and Sample Sizes

Sample Size Group Code Group Name (Pupils per method)

I Language 32 II Letter Names 34

III Literature 30 IV Skills Development 42 V Language/Letter Names 35

VI Language/Literature 23 VII Language/Skills Development 34

N=230

Regardless of the type of multivariate analysis conducted, this preliminary reduction of data is necessary to establish the sample estimates of the vector mean (m), the vector dispersion (D), and the vector correlation (R). In addition, CORREL handles total sample data and yields intercorrelations among all the variables-a valuable tool, indeed, as the first instrument in a correlation study designed to examine structural change in pupil abilities over a five year period.

Table 1 provides the means and standard deviations for the 27 variables as computed on 230 subjects using the CORREL program.

CORREL 1. The first CORREL run processed the data from 22 variables (sex, age, 15 readiness measures, and the five subtests from the first grade SAT achievement battery).

In examining the intercorrelations among the readiness measures, the strongest correlation was between the Murphy-Durrell Caps and Lower Case Letter subtest and the Metropolitan Alphabet subtest (.75). The only other coefficient above .40 was that between WISC Verbal and WISC Performance (.43). Several other coefficients ranging from .30 to .39 were noted. Furthermore, between the readiness and achievement measures a coefficient of correlation (r) of .46 was found between WISC Verbal and SAT Vocabulary.

The strongest coefficients were found among the achievement measures and ranged as follows:

SAT Word Study Skills/SAT Spelling .72 SAT Word Reading/SAT Spelling .68 SAT Word Study Skills/SAT Word Reading .66 SAT Spelling/SAT Paragraph Meaning .54 SAT Word Reading/SAT Paragraph Meaning .53 SAT Word Study Skills/SAT Paragraph Meaning .52




CORREL 2. A second correlational analysis was conducted which also used 22 variables. In this second examination, however, relationships between first grade readiness and sixth grade achievement were considered. As in CANON 1, the strongest relationships (.58-.78) were found among the achievement subtest scores for the fifth and sixth grade pupils as represented by the ITBS scores. (The r between Work Study Skills and Arithmetic, for example, was .78; between Reading and Vocabulary .77; and between Reading and Lan- guage .77.) Otherwise, coefficients were mostly in the thirties and forties.

CORREL 3. The third examination conducted by means of correlational analysis techniques was that which examined the relationships between first grade achievement and sixth grade achievement. The highest intercorrelation among the first grade measures was between the SAT Word Study Skills subtest and the SAT Spelling subtest, (.72), while there were several intercorrelation coefficients at the sixth grade level which were in the seventies:

ITBS Work Study Skills/Language .78 Reading/Vocabulary .77 Language/Reading .77 Work Study Skills/Reading .75 Arithmetic/Work Study Skills .75

The highest correlations between first grade achievement and sixth grade achievement were in the forties and fifties as follows:

SAT ITBS

Spelling /Reading .58 Word Study Skills/Reading .58 Word Study Skills/ Vocabulary .53 Word Reading /Reading .52 Spelling /Vocabulary .51 Word Reading /Vocabulary .48 Paragraph Meaning/Reading .44 Vocabulary /Vocabulary .42

Canonical correlation. As described by Cooley and Lohnes (1971, pp. 175-176), canonical correlation provides a model




. . for representing the relationship between two sets of measures as n correlations between n factors of the first set of n factors of the second set, with all other correlations among the factors held to zero. ... The selected factors of each set are interpreted in the set as given in the factor pattern.... The canonical correlation model appears at first to be a complicated way of expressing the relationship between two measurement batteries. In fact, it is the simplest analytic model that can begin to do justice to this difficult problem of scientific generalization.

Another way of looking at canonical analysis is that it locates successive pairs of factors of two batteries (for example, readiness and achievement) with low levels of correlation with all previously extracted factors though maximally correlated with each other.

Thus, the canonical correlation model is admirably suited to finding the criterion-battery factor (achievement tests) most predict- able from the predictor-battery best factor (readiness tests). This is

exactly the problem posed in the question: Are there first grade pupil variables that predict later reading achievement?

CANON 1. The first canonical-correlations analysis (CANON 1) was performed using as predictors the 17 readiness measures (15 tests, sex, and age) listed in Table 1, and as criterion measures the five SAT first grade achievement tests (see Table 4).

Examination of the structure of the first factor from the criterion side reveals strong' loadings on:

WISC Verbal .63 WISC Performance .39

Metropolitan Word Meaning .32 Metropolitan Matching .48

Metropolitan Numbers .45 Metropolitan Alphabet .46

Murphy-Durrell Phonemes .67

Murphy-Durrell Capitals and Lower Case .57

Murphy-Durrell Meaning Rate .31

Wepman Auditory Discrimination Test .46

1. Cooley and Lohnes (1971) suggest that canonical correlations of less than .30 are trivial and should be suppressed in reporting the results of canonical analysis (p. 176). In this analysis, such correlations will not be reported.




These loadings point to a highly g-saturated factor1 even though intelligence was most surely restricted in range in the Cedar Rapids study due to the stipulation that only those pupils who fell on or below the 60th percentile on the total Metropolitan score were included in the study.

Table 3 CANON 1; factor structure for predictors (17 readiness measures), columns are canonical factors, rows are tests,* N-= 230

Canonical R .68 .44 .34 .27 .17 Readiness Factor Factor Factor Factor Factor Variable 1 2 3 4 5

1 Sex -.55 -.39 2 Age 3 WISC Ver .63 .46 4 WISC Perf .39 .43 5 Metro WM .32 .55 6 Metro Listen .34 .40 7 Metro Match .48 .66 8 Metro Numb .45 9 Metro Copy .34 .30

10 Metro Alpha .46 11 M-D Phon .67 -.34 12 M-D C/ic .57 -.36 13 M-D LR -.43 14 Thur Pat Copy .63 15 Thur Ident F .34 16 Bender 17 Wepman -.46

Proportion of variance extracted .16 .09 .05 .05 .07

Redundancy of proportion for rank 2 model .10

*Only loadings of .30 and above have been included.

From the predictor side, the first factor is strong in SAT Word Study Skills (.82), Vocabulary (.78), and Spelling (.74) which suggests a somewhat split factor in the light of later interpretation (p.

1. In outlining theories of the structure of abilities which show that positive correlations of all measurements of ability can be largely accounted for by a single general factor called g by Spearman, Cattell and Butcher (1968, p. 16) note that "there is no complete, agreed explanation of what the relationship of g to the primary abilities really means." However, they do suggest that ". . . there exists in every individual an inborn general ability, which, by practice and experience, becomes directed in different degrees to different areas" (Cattell and Butcher, 1968). This g factor may be thought of as a general ability to handle a wide variety of testing situations in an intelligent fashion.




Table 4 CANON 1; factor structure for criterion variables (5 first grade achievement-SAT), columns are canonical factors, rows are tests,* N=230

Canonical R .68 .44 .34 .27 .17 Achievement Factor Factor Factor Factor Factor

Variables 1 2 3 4 5

1 SAT Wd Rdg .70 -.66 2 SAT Par Mng .61 .64 .44 3 SAT Vocab .78 -.52 4 SAT Spell .74 .47 -.39 5 SAT Wd S S .82 .39 -.32


Proportion of redundancy .249 .037 .013 .004 .003

Totals for rank 2 model: Redundancy of proportion for rank 2 model .29 Total redundancy produced by a rank 5 model .31

*Only loadings of .30 and above have been included.

46). That is, girls seem to be consistently favored in the so-called "worker" categories (this would include Word Study Skills and Spell- ing). Boys, on the other hand are more favored in what might be designated a gratuitous "growth" category such as Vocabulary.

It is of note that restriction of range of g at the readiness level makes possible emergence of other dimensions of ability in canonical analysis. Given the strength of the second factor, it is appropriate to report a strong two-rank model, with interesting tenden- cies beginning to emerge in ranks three through five (see Table 3).

As shown above (Table 4), the first factor (significant at the .01 level of significance) extracts 54 per cent of shared variance' and 25 per cent of the redundancy2 of first grade achievement batteries.

1. In all the canonical correlation tables which follow, note that variances have been standardized. That is, the proportions of total variance of the criterion set accounted for by predictor variables have equal variances (their standard deviations have been equalized).

2. Redundancy, though mentioned elsewhere in this paper, is an important concept in the canonical correlation model and deserves a precise definition: "Redundancy is the proportion of variance extracted by the factor times the proportion of shared variance between the factor and the corresponding canonical factor of the other battery. Rdx is a new analytic tool invented by Stewart and Love (1968) and explored in depth by Miller (1969). We think that in some ways it is a more interesting number than Re , since it expresses the amount of actual overlap between the two batteries that is packaged in the first canonical relationship as seen from the side of z1 as added to an already available z2" (Cooley and Lohnes, 1971, p. 170).




In the factor structure for the predictors (see Table 3), the second factor (with strong male sex linkage),' has strong loadings on verbal capacities

WISC Verbal .46 Metropolitan Word Meaning .55 Metropolitan Listening .34

but a negative loading on Murphy-Durrell Caps and Lower Case Let- ters (-.36).

In the criterion factor structure, boys appear high on Vocabu- lary (once again, the "growth" category), while girls are favored on Paragraph Meaning and Spelling ("worker" categories). Factor 2 might therefore be interpreted as a sex difference factor.

Factor 3 again suggests sex linkage favoring the boys (-.39), with strong loadings on SAT Word Reading for the criterion structure (Table 3).

Factor 4, in the predictor structure (Table 3), shows

Metropolitan Listening .40 Metropolitan Copying .34 Metropolitan Learning Rate -.43

while in the criterion structure the only positive loading is on SAT Word Study Skills.

Factors 3, 4, and 5 account for an insignificant amount of criterion variance, so little importance can be attributed to the findings from this sample for these factors.

CANON 2. The second canonical correlation analysis included the same 17 readiness items used for CANON 1, but used fifth and sixth grade achievement scores (ITBS: Vocabulary, Read- ing, Language, Work Study Skills, and Arithmetic) as the achievement criteria rather than the SAT (see Tables 5 and 6).

The factor structure at the sixth grade level is essentially the same as that seen with the first grade analysis, except that it is slightly more complex at the sixth grade level than at first. That is, more redundancy occurs with the same number of tests (.34 at sixth grade as opposed to .31 at first, see Tables 4 and 6), 64 per cent of the variance is extracted by the first factor in CANON 2 (only 54 per cent of the variance had been extracted by the first factor in

1. Boys were coded 1, girls 2 in the First Grade Studies data analysis. Therefore, a strong minus loading on sex indicates that there is strong correlation with sex in the factor and the minuses favor the boys while the pluses favor the girls.




Table 5 CANON 2; factor structure for predictors (17 readiness measures), columns are canonical factors, rows are tests,* N= 230

Canonical R .67 .51 .39 .28 .19 Readiness Factor Factor Factor Factor Factor Variable 1 2 3 4 5

1 Sex .42 -.76 2 Age 3 WISC Ver .47 .66 4 WISC Perf .33 .31 5 Metro WM .40 -.32 .51 6 Metro Listen .42 7 Metro Match .48 .58 8 Metro Numb .39 .36 9 Metro Copy .47

10 Metro Alpha .34 11 M-D Phon .49 12 M-D C/lc .47 -.40 -.44 13 M-D LR .41 14 Thur Pat Copy .34 .36 15 Thur Ident F 16 Bender -.44** 17 Wepman -.34**



"*Only loadings of .30 and above have been included. "**Error scored so should be considered positive.

CANON 1), and the factor correlations for the sixth grade battery contain very high correlations for Reading (.90) and Language (.95). See Table 6.

It can be seen from Table 5 that by sixth grade, sex takes more of a place as a predictor, with girls having a slight edge over boys (with the .42 loading on Table 5 indicating favor for the girls). Age, on the other hand, has a slightly negative relationship with sixth grade reading achievement. In a correlation matrix not reproduced in this article, but available from this investigator on request, the WISC Verbal appears stronger as a predictor at sixth grade than at first grade with coefficients of correlation as follows:

Grade 1 SAT Grade 6 ITBS Word Reading .25 Vocabulary .42

Paragraph Meaning .14 Reading .41

Although the first-grade SAT and the sixth-grade ITBS reading subtests (Paragraph Meaning and Reading, respectively) are




Table 6 CANON 2; factor structure for criterion variables (5 sixth grade achievement-ITBS), columns are canonical factors, rows are tests,* N=230


Variables 1 2 3 4 5

1 ITBS Vocab .69 -.64 2 ITBS Reading .90 -.32 3 ITBS Language .95 4 ITBS Wk S S .74 -.33 .54 5 ITBS Arith .66 -.38 .37 -.43 .32



Totals for rank 2 model: Redundancy of proportion for rank 2 model .32 Total redundancy produced by a rank 5 model .34

"*Only loadings of .30 and above have been included.

different in level of difficulty, the tasks on the two reading subtests are essentially the same. On the SAT Paragraph Meaning Test, the pupil reads a two- or three-sentence paragraph and circles one of several words that appropriately complete the last sentence. On the ITBS Reading Test, the pupil reads a selection comprised of para- graphs which are followed by questions, accompanied by four foils, only one of which is correct. The pupil chooses the one answer which he deems better than any of the others.

The SAT Word Reading Test and the ITBS Vocabulary in- volve different tasks and are not comparable.

Thus, the WISC Verbal appears to have more long than short- range validity as a predictor of reading achievement for pupils in this study, not an unusual finding in view of the fact that reading is a highly verbal skill and the WISC was originally designed to measure those verbal skills needed by, or apparently present in, successful pupils at a given level.

In CANON 2, the second factor on the predictor side is strongly sex-oriented in favor of the boys (--.76) and the loading on WISC Verbal is stronger in this factor at sixth grade than at first (.66 at sixth against .46 at first). WISC Performance has also begun to show up (.31). Metropolitan Word Meaning has weakened as a predictor (.40 as against .55 at first grade). On the criterion side in the second factor (again favoring the boys) Vocabulary (-.64),




Reading (-.32), Work Study Skills (-.33), and Arithmetic (-.38) figure as loadings in the factor (see Tables 5 and 6).

However, despite the fact that Factor 2 may be the strongly masculine component (as it gives favor to boys on the sex correlation (-.76), is high on WISC Verbal at .66 and ITBS Vocabulary at .64), it is apparent that in the first grade readiness with sixth grade achievement comparison, there is a split g saturation thus perhaps reinforcing Cattell's crystallized versus fluid ability theory. In this theory, Cattell characterizes as crystallized ability that portion of the ability structure which ". . . loads more highly those cognitive perform- ances in which certain initial intelligent judgments have become crystallized as habits." Fluid, on the other hand, ". .. shows more in tests requiring adaptations to entirely new situations." Crystallized intelligence, theoretically, is more open to the influence of the environment in that about 30 per cent of crystallized intelligence is amenable to change. Fluid abilities, on the other hand, tend to be more in- herently fixed, and offer only about 10 per cent margin for change due to environment. Thus, Cattell's theory does not rule out the possibility of changing a child's opportunities for success in school through environmental influence such as school surroundings and curriculum. He does suggest, however, that there are certain portions of the individual's intellectual structure that are more amenable to change than others (Cattell and Butcher, 1968, pp. 18-22).

Multivariate analysis of variance. To get at the differences between the means of the methods at the sixth year level as measured by fifth or sixth grade achievement, a multivariate statistical design technique called MANOVA (multivariate analysis of variance) was employed. MANOVA designs accommodate the dependent variables as a vector variable and are concerned with significant differences among the population centroids (means vectors). (See Cooley and Lohnes, 1971, Chapter 8: "Multivariate Analysis of Variance," pp. 233-242.)

Two MANOVA runs were made using four Metropolitan subtests (Word Meaning, Matching, Numbers, and Copying) and three Murphy-Durrell subtests (Phonemes, Caps/Lower Case, and Learning Rate) for covariance adjustment for first and sixth grade achievement. Since it was desirable to preserve as many degrees of freedom as possible, measures such as the WISC, Bender, and Wepman, were not included as covariates as most schools do not have access to these instruments in an initial testing battery. (Trial runs on several of




the other variables available suggested that the seven subtests finally chosen were the most likely to provide significant information.)

MANOVA 1. The first multivariate analysis, utilizing the five SAT subtests as criterion variables, revealed no significant differences between the treatments at the end of the first grade, a confirmation of the findings in the Cedar Rapids research in 1965 using the larger sample of 309 pupils.

MANOVA 2. The second multivariate analysis, utilizing the five ITBS subtests as criterion variables, revealed no significant differences between the treatments as measured by achievement on the sixth grade ITBA achievement subtests.

Tables 10 and 11, included at the end of the article, show means, F-Ratios, and eta squares for the two analyses performed using the MANOVA. Table 12 shows the comparison of the results on the first and sixth grade achievement batteries.

Covariance analysis. A second technique used to assess the differences between achievement performance at fifth or sixth grade is COVAR (Cooley and Lohnes, 1971, pp. 295-297). Covariance analysis allows for testing for mean differences between two or more groups while compensating for initial differences between the groups with respect to relevant variables.

. . Analysis of covariance may be used when a relationship is being studied between a dependent variable and two or more groups representing an independent variable. This powerful technique allows the researcher to statistically equate the independent variable groups with respect to one or more variables which are relevant to the dependent variable (Popham, 1967, p. 223).

Thus, it might be said that covariance analysis partials out (removes) the input differences (those which existed before grouping) and effects a prior adjustment before treatment differences are imposed.

COVAR 1. The initial covariance analysis (COVAR 1) util- ized seven readiness measures as the control variables (covariates) and five SAT achievement subtests as the dependent variables. There were no significant treatment differences at the end of the first grade on the sample of 230 pupils included in this study.




COVAR 2. The same seven readiness. measures were used as covariates in the second covariance analysis (COVAR 2). In this longitudinal analysis there were again no significant treatment differences revealed between the treatments after a five year interval using the ITBS subtests as the criterion measure.

As may be observed in Table 14, high standard deviations at sixth grade prohibit interpreting any trends in covariance.

(See Table 7 immediately following for a summary of multivariate significance tests from MANOVA I and II; and COVAR I and II.)

Table 7 Summary of All Multivariate Significance Tests from MANOVA I and MANOVA II; COVAR I and COVAR II

A. MANOVA I (7 readiness tests and 5 first grade achievement)

For equality of dispersions, MANOVA F468= 1.17

For equality of centroids, MANOVA F72= 1.07 00

B. MANOVA II (7 readiness tests and 5 sixth grade achievement) For equality of dispersions, MANOVA F468= 1.10

For equality of centroids, MANOVA F72= 1.05 00

C. COVAR I (7 readiness tests and 5 first grade achievement)

For equality of dispersions, COVAR F30 = 1.02 850

D. COVAR II (7 readiness tests and 5 sixth grade achievement)

For equality of dispersions, COVAR F 850 .98 850

CANON 3. It is in the third canonical correlation that the strongest case is laid for g as a predictor of long-range achievement when multivariate analysis is available as a tool for examination of several early predictors.

CANON 3 computed canonical correlations between first and sixth grade achievement (see Tables 8 and 9). First grade achievement (SAT) proved to have very powerful predictive properties for sixth grade achievement as measured by the ITBS.

Factor 1 (g) (see discussion, pp. 493-494, 498, 502) extracted 73 per cent of the generalized variance and 38 per cent of the redundancy of the criterion set given the predictor set, out of a total redundancy of 39 per cent extracted by all 5 factors (see Table 9).




Table 8 CANON 3; factor structure for predictors (5 SAT first grade achievement tests), columns are canonical factors, rows are tests,* N=230


Variables 1 2 3 4 5

1 SAT Wd Rdg .77 -.48 .31 2 SAT Par Mng .65 .58 .48 3 SAT Vocab .55 -.57 .38 .45 4 SAT Spell .89 5 SAT Wd S S .90 .34




It can be seen from this analysis that despite the restriction of range of intelligence which must surely have occurred due to using only low-group children, that multivariate general intelligence is still the strongest predictor of fifth and sixth grade achievement in reading (as well as in language and vocabulary), with intelligence, however, not operationalized in any one so-called intelligence test.

Table 9 CANON 3; factor structure of 5 ITBS criterion variables (5 sixth grade achievement-ITBS), columns are canonical factors, rows are tests,*N=230


Variable 1 2 3 4 5

1 ITBS Vocab .83 -.54 2 ITBS Reading .92 -.32 3 ITBS Language .94 4 ITBS Wk S S .78 .53 5 ITBS Arith .78 -.45 .34



Totals for rank 2 model: Redundancy of proportion for rank 2 model .39 Total redundancy produced by a 5 rank model .39


These findings suggest the need of further investigation ap- plying statistical technique such as discriminate analysis which would make possible a more refined examination of the suitability of pre-




paring particular curricula for certain types of children. Such an analysis was not possible in this investigation. The number of subjects was not large enough to guarantee adequate degrees of freedom and there had not been random assignment of pupil to treatment. (There had been random assignment of teacher to treatment.) But discriminate analysis is a very logical and needed next step of research.

Conclusions, implications, and recommendations

Conclusions

According to the findings of the study, the three hypotheses posed must be answered as follows:

Hypothesis 1: "There will be no significant differences in performance by method as measured by reading achievement tests administered when the pupils were in fifth or sixth grade." Accepted. Neither multivariate nor covariance analysis revealed significant differences between the treatment groups at first or sixth grade level.

Hypothesis 2: "There will be no significant cluster of pre- first-grade readiness variables or end of first grade achievement variables that predict fifth or sixth grade reading achievement." Rejected. First grade reading achievement test results (SAT) were found to be a significantly strong predictor of sixth grade reading achievement and more reliable than first grade readiness measures including the WISC Verbal, Murphy-Durrell Phonemes, and Murphy-Durrell Caps and Lower Case Letter Names Tests.

Hypothesis 3: "The correlational structure of achievement- related variables will not have changed significantly over the intervening years." Accepted and rejected depending upon the statistical interpretation deemed mos?tvalid.

Comparisons of the three canonical correlation analyses revealed a strong structural continuity: a striking persistance and intensification of the g-type factor with each successive canonical. This is particularly noteworthy in view of the attenuation of g which probably took place in first grade. Thus, this interpretation would be considered an acceptance of the hypothesis. However, one might reject the hypothesis in the light of the emergence of a strongly sex-linked




second factor at the sixth grade level, a factor that favors the boys and suggests a more exploratory vocabulary-category strength.

As discussed in preceding sections, the differentiation between the first and second factors may lend support to Cattell's theory of crystallized versus fluid intelligence. The first canonical factor, which might represent crystallized intelligence or the "good-worker category," appears, in the sixth-grade analysis, to favor the girls. On the other hand, the second factor, favoring a fluid intellect, suggests that boys more than girls absorb and react spontaneously or creatively to the world around them, but do not respond as much with the teacher-pleasing behavior that, for girls, often results in high scores in such subtests as Spelling and Work Study Skills.

An unusual aspect of the left-set (predictor) factor structure is that SAT Spelling and SAT Word Study Skills turned out to have a much higher loading in the rank-one factor than SAT Paragraph Meaning. This contradicts the usual assumption that because the Para- graph Meaning subtest is similar to a normal reading situation it is thus the best predictor of utimate reading success. Therefore the questions arise: "Is this unusual finding a result of the restriction of readiness range that was imposed on the children by the terms of the research?" or "Did this finding occur because the low-group first graders took the Paragraph Meaning subtest before they were ade- quately prepared through a sufficient amount of basal reading?"

Implications and recommendations

1. Methodology. The fact that there were no treatment differences at the end of either first or sixth grade achievement testing might imply that methodology was of no consequence in the teaching of reading to low-group pupils. On the other hand, it might, as suggested by the factor ranks in the three canonical correlations, imply that reading educators and researchers need to become even more careful observers of children's learning behaviors in order to determine which learning situations will most benefit a particular pupil. Further examination of methods appropriate to low-group children with particular readiness characteristics should be conducted.

2. Prediction. The fact that first grade achievement proved to have so much more predictive power than first grade readiness most surely implies that premature or static grouping practices in first grade should be avoided. Flexible grouping for particular skill deficien- cies would seem much more appropriate.




3. Correlational structure of achievement-related variables. The findings of this study appear to have major implications regarding the strong g-factor in first and sixth grade reading achievement. a) Multivariate analysis needed: since intelligence is multivariate in nature, children should not be judged by the results of only one test. During the Cedar Rapids, Iowa, school year 1964-65, a group of children were involved in a training program which, as the next few

years progressed, enabled at least one-third of them to exceed scho- lastic prediction. Scores on the Metropolitan Readiness Test, often used to group children in first grade reading, indicated that these children were likely to fail. Five years later, however, these children were achieving at or above grade level. Thus, to have prejudged them negatively because of their poor showing on one test, in this case the test generally considered predictive of reading success, might have meant failure in their school experience. b) Sex-related differences important: the varying learning rates which often accompany sex differences should be understood by teachers so that the strengths and weaknesses of children may be compensated for as appropriate. For example, in the first two of the three canonical correlations conducted in this study, strong two-rank factors appeared. In each case the first was a g-factor, and the second had a sex linkage in favor of boys. Also, in both cases this second factor has relatively strong loading on vocabulary-type subtests indicating a "growth" category as opposed to such girl-favored "worker" categories as Word Study Skills and Spelling. Future research should pursue the possibility of more skillfully treating sex-related pupil differences, while teachers should recognize these differences and structure teaching programs accordingly.

In addition, the findings regarding boys' strength in some areas of vocabulary mastery in all three canonicals suggest that boys should not be considered verbally immature or inferior to girls in

handling vocabulary (even among low-group children-or perhaps most especially among low-group children, depending upon the results of future research). Rather, considerable advantage might accrue to boys in their intellectual growth, if this cumulative vocabulary development were dealt with as the strength it is.

c) New directions in curriculum planning for low-group: another very important step would be to determine if factor 5 (see Table 4), might suggest a direction for curriculum instruction to pursue for low-group pupils. (This might be accomplished by (1)




finding low-group pupils who have deficits in the areas where strong loadings appear in factor 5, that is, in matching and copying as ex- emplified in the Metropolitan Readiness Tests; (2) providing normal reading instruction without special remedial instruction for the deficits; and (3) observing (after instruction), through multivariate analysis; whether g still emerges as the most important first factor. To the degree that it does not, some case could be made for developing a special curricular package for this kind of deficit.)

The reason that any reference to these insignificant factors has been included at all is that the need for individualization for low-group children is great and educators have stumbled through many programs trying to find an approach or a set of materials th't would be particularly appropriate for these underachieving pupils. These factors, ranks three through five, may be suggesting a kind of experimental research and analysis that could be fruitful for this group. For example, factor 5 could be suggesting a special treatment for those who perform poorly in such skills as matching and copying.

Since, even with restricted degrees of freedom, other factors are emerging which suggest a complex structure of intellect for this underachieving pupil, then the implications are strong, indeed, for educators to pursue such leading and discover how to best utilize this knowledge in curriculum planning for the low-group child.

This study has demonstrated through refined statistical procedures that random assignment of treatment to classroom has neither short- nor long-range effect on later learning characteristics of low-

Table 10 MANOVA Study; criterion is five first-grade achievement subtests (SAT); predictors are seven readiness subtests (four Metropolitan and three Murphy-Durrell), N=230

Murphy- Metropolitan Durrell Stanford Achievement

Wd Mat Num Cop Pho Caps LR Wd Par Voc Spg Wd Mng I/c Rdg Mng SS

Means Means Means Means Means Means Means Means Means Means Means Means

I 6.9 6.1 9.6 7.2 15.3 27.9 8.9 15.3 12.9 16.0 7.3 30.1 II 7.7 6.4 10.4 7.1 18.0 23.2 8.0 15.7 11.4 19.1 6.0 29.0

III 6.9 6.3 10.4 8.6 13.0 23.3 8.5 13.9 13.1 17.7 5.8 28.8 IV 7.6 6.2 10.7 7.9 15.8 23.7 7.7 16.0 11.7 18.0 7.4 30.3 V 7.3 5.3 10.0 7.1 13.4 25.4 8.6 15.6 11.6 17.3 6.1 29.3

VI 8.0 5.6 10.7 8.2 22.0 28.4 7.7 14.5 11.4 18.0 5.9 28.1 VII 7.4 5.4 11.3 7.5 19.7 24.2 7.6 15.1 11.3 17.0 6.2 28.7

F-Ratio* .8 .7 .9 .9 2.3 1.2 .6 .8 .8 1.1 .7 .4 Eta Sq. .02 .02 .02 .02 .06 .03 .02 .02 .02 .03 .02 .01

"*None of these ratios were significant at the .05 level.




group youngsters. What has not been demonstrated, however, is whether a more selective assignment, determined by careful analysis of pupil characteristics at the kindergarten or first-grade level, would benefit certain types of learners. Given the opportunity through multivariate procedures to tailor initial reading instruction for low-group children with particular learning characteristics, a different picture might emerge.' Undoubtedly, one of the next research questions to

pursue should be, "How does differentiated instruction specifically

Table 11 MANOVA Study; criterion is five sixth-grade achievement subtests (ITBS); predictors are seven readiness subtests (four Metropolitan and three Murphy-Durrell), N=230

Murphy- Metropolitan Durrell Iowa Tests of Basic Skills

Wd Mat Num Cop Pho Caps LR Voc Rdg Lang Work Arith Mng 1/c SS

Means Means Means Means Means Means Means Means Means Means Means Means

I 6.9 6.1 9.6 7.2 15.3 27.9 8.9 44.5 46.6 50,3 48.7 50.7 II 7.7 6.4 10.4 7.1 18.0 23.2 8.0 49.1 51.0 51.1 51.6 49.4

III 6.9 6.3 10.4 8.6 13.0 23.3 8.5 44.9 48.0 46.7 50.2 46.7 IV 7.6 6.2 10.7 7.9 15.9 23.7 7.7 49.9 49.3 49.5 49.2 48.5 V 7.3 5.3 10.0 7.1 13.4 25.4 8.6 47.6 48.5 47.2 45.2 48.3

VI 8.0 5.6 10.7 8.2 22.0 28.4 7.7 49.7 51.7 49.7 48.4 49.9 VII 7.4 5.4 11.3 7.5 19.7 24.2 7.6 44.7 46.4 46.4 47.1 45.7

F-Ratio* .8 .7 .9 .9 2.3 1.2 .6 .8 .6 .5 .9 .8 Eta Sq. .02 .02 .02 .02 .06 .03 .02 .02 .02 .01 .02 .02


Table 12 MANOVA Study; criterion is five sixth-grade achievement subtests (ITBS); predictors are five first-grade achievement subtests (SAT), N=230

Stanford Achievement Iowa Tests of Basic Skills

Wd Par Voc Spg Wd Voc Rdg Lang Wk Arith Rdg Mng SS SS

Means Means Means Means Means Means Means Means Means Means

I 15.3 12.9 16.0 7.3 30.1 44.5 46.6 50.3 48.7 50.7 II 15.7 11.4 19.1 6.0 29.0 49.1 51.0 51.1 51.6 49.4

III 13.9 13.1 17.7 5.8 28.8 44.9 48.0 46.7 50.2 46.7 IV 16.0 11.7 18.0 7.4 30.3 49.9 49.3 49.5 49.2 48.5 V 15.6 11.6 17.3 6.1 29.3 47.6 48.5 47.2 45.2 48.3

VI 14.5 11.4 18.0 5.9 28.1 49.7 51.7 49.7 48.4 49.9 VII 15.1 11.3 17.0 6.2 28.7 44.6 46.4 46.4 47.1 45.7

F-Ratio* .8 .8 1.1 .7 .4 .8 .6 .5 .9 .8 Eta Sq. .02 .02 .03 .02 .01 .02 .02 .01 .02 .02


1. Also to be dealt with is the question of what influence the experiences of the intervening years (grades two through five) have on sixth grade achievement scores.




designed for low-group children of given learning characteristics at the first grade level affect later learning abilities?"

Table 13 COVAR Study; covariates or control variables are seven first- grade readiness subtests (four Metropolitan, three Murphy- Durrell); dependent variables are five first-grade achievement subtests (SAT), N=230

Stanford Achievement Test

Word Paragraph Vocabulary Spelling Word Study Reading Meaning Skills Means Means Means Means Means

I 14.9 12.5 16.4 7.0 30.1 II 15.6 11.4 18.9 6.1 29.0

III 14.2 13.1 18.3 6.1 29.4 IV 16.2 11.8 17.9 7.6 30.4 V 15.9 12.0 17.9 6.5 30.2

VI 13.8 11.0 16.9 5.1 26.6 VII 15.0 11.4 16.6 6.0 28.2

Pooled Samples 4.0 4.1 4.6 4.1 6.1

S. D. F-Ratio* 1.4 .8 1.2 1.1 1.3


Table 14 COVAR Study; covariates or control variables are seven first- grade readiness subtests (four Metropolitan, three Murphy- Durrell); dependent variables are five sixth-grade achievement subtests (ITBS), N=230

Iowa Tests of Basic Skills

Vocabulary Reading Language Work Study Arithmetic Total Total Total Skills Total

Total Means Means Means Means Means

I 45.2 46.9 50.4 49.3 50.6 II 49.2 51.1 51.3 51.3 49.4

III 45.6 48.4 46.5 49.8 46.6 IV 49.7 49.2 49.5 48.8 48.5 V 48.6 49.9 48.8 46.6 49.2

VI 47.1 49.2 47.1 47.3 48.9 VII 44.3 46.0 46.2 46.8 45.5

Pooled Samples 13.6 .12.2 13.4 11.1 10.0

S. D. F-Ratio* .8 .7 .7 .8 .9





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TEST REFERENCES

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IDENTICAL FORMS TEST. Thelma G. Thur- stone & T. E. Jeffrey. Chapel Hill: Psychometric Laboratory, University of North Carolina, 1956.

IOWA TESTS OF BASIC SKILLS. E. F. Lind- quist, A. N. Hieronymus, et al. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1956.

METROPOLITAN READINESS TESTS, FORM A. Gertrude H. Hildreth, Nellie L. Grif- fiths, & Mary E. McGauvran. New York: Harcourt, Brace & World, 1964.

METROPOLITAN READINESS TESTS, FORM R. Gertrude H. Hildreth & Nellie L. Grif- fiths. New York: Harcourt, Brace & World, 1949.

PINTNER-CUNNINGHAM TEST. R. Pintner, Bess V. Cunningham, & W. N. Durost. New York: Harcourt, Brace & World, 1964.

STANFORD ACHIEVEMENT TEST, PRIMARY I

BATTERY, FORM X. Truman L. Kelley, et al. New York: Harcourt, Brace & World, 1964.

VISUAL MOTOR GESTALT TEST. Lauretta Bender, New York: American Ortho- psychiatric .Association, 1946.

WECHSLER INTELLIGENCE SCALE FOR CHIL- DREN. D. Wechsler et al. New York: Psychological Corporation, 1949.



Documents

Later Achievement Study of Pupils Underachieving in Reading in First Grade