Large-ScaleSugarcaneProductioninElSalvador

“We do not believe the talk about the economic benefits for a country that produces sugar for export. The communities in the regions where sugarcane is

grown are the poorest, most marginalized populations - malnourished, and contaminated.”

Miguel Ramirez Executive Director

Movement of Organic Agriculture in El Salvador

ThomasR.HughesJoseRobertoAcosta

JaimeLochhead

March2016

IntroductionResidents of rural communities throughout El Salvador areconcerned that large-scale sugarcane cultivation threatens theirenvironment, public health, access to water, local economy, andfoodsovereignty.ElSalvadorhas lawsandproceduresinplacethatshould regulate sugarcane production, but government officials atthe national and local levels have been unable or unwilling toenforcethem.Salvadoransugarcaneproductionhasgrowninrecentyearsduetothecountry’sembraceofneoliberaleconomicpoliciesthat emphasize, in part, free trade and unregulated markets.Unfortunately,theprofitsandwealthgeneratedbythe industrydonottrickledowntothecommunitieswhereitisgrown.Lastyear,Voiceson theBorder staff accompanied residentsof theBajo Lempa of Jiquilisco, Usulután as they stopped investors fromplanting sugarcane near local mangrove forests, wetlands, andcommunitycenters.Despitetheirsuccess,theadhocprotestsfailedto produce any long-term changes. During the process, however,residents, community leaders, and local civil society organizationsarticulatedaneedformoreinformationaboutsugarcaneproductionandhowitaffectstheregion.Voiceson theBorder staff respondedby researching the issueof sugarcanecultivationandproducing thisreport.Wedidsowithseveralaudiencesinmind.ThefirstwasourpartnercommunitiesintheBajoLempathat suffer the effects of burning fields, contamination of agrochemicals, loss of biodiversity, and otherimpacts of large-scale sugarcaneproduction.A second audience is the government officials that have thepower to regulate the industry, to ensure they knowhow sugarcane is affecting the regions like theBajoLempa.AthirdaudienceismembersoftheinternationalcommunitywhoareconcernedwithissuesrelatedtoElSalvador,climatechange,foodsovereignty,environmentaljustice,andothertopics.VoicesstaffisgratefultoJaimeLochheadforhishelpwiththisproject,especiallythetimehespentlivinginthe Bajo Lempa and interviewing local experts and community leaders. We are also grateful to RebeccaWalkerMarquez forherexcellenttranslationof thisdocument toSpanish.Vocies staffalso recognizesour

Salvadoranpartnerswhoarestarting tospeakoutontheimpacts of large-scale agricultural production. Finally,wearealsogratefultotheFloraFamilyFoundationandotherdonorsthatsupportVoicesGrassrootsResourceCenter.This report begins with an overview of large-scalesugarcane production as practiced in El Salvador. Itcontinues with a discussion of the impacts that thesepractices have on the surrounding communities. Thereport concludes with a list of findings andrecommendations that individuals, civil societyorganizations, and government officials must adopt inorder to protect El Salvador’s fragile environment andnaturalresources,aswellasthehealthofitspeople.

“The cultivation of cane is not bad. What’sbad is the practice ofmanagement and theinterestsbehind thecane.Canegrowersaretenants, while in theory the grower is theowner of his cane fields, but the one incontrol isthesugarmill.Theonesbehindallof the growth are the mills. The otherproblem is that no one regulates [theindustry]. There is a Land Use Plan but thegovernmenthasnotdoneanything toput itintopractice.”

MiguelRamírez,DirectordelMovimientodeAgriculturaOrgánica

deElSalvador

(AsugarcaneworkercuttingcaneinafieldalongtheLitoralHighwayinUsulután)

TableofContentsExecutiveSummary 1OverviewofSugarcaneProductioninElSalvador 2

HistoryofSugarcane 2Large-scaleProduction 2Zafra 3PlowingandPlanting 3Agrochemicals 4BurningandHarvesting 6ZafraVerde 7LifeofaSugarcaneWorker 8Milling 9NeoliberalismandtheDomesticandInternationalDemandforSugar 9OtherSugarcaneProducts 11

ImpactsofSugarcaneProduction 12 SugarcaneisBetterfortheEnvironment? 12 DestructionofTopsoil 13DepletionofWaterResources 14ContaminationofAgrochemicals 15BurningofSugarcane 18BiodiversityandLocalEcosystems 19FoodProduction 21

LawsandRegulations 22FindingsandRecommendations 24

CañalenFlorEranmaresloscañalesqueyocontemplabaundía(mibarcadefantasíabogabasobreesosmares).Elcañalnoseenguirnaldacomolosmares,deespumas;susfloresmásbiensonplumassobreespadasdeesmeralda...Losvientos-niñosperversos-bajandesdelasmontañas,yseoyenentrelascañascomodeshojandoversos...Mientraselhombreesinfiel,tanbuenossonloscañales,porqueteniendopuñales,sedejanrobarlamiel...YquetristelamoliendaAunquevuelaporlahaciendaDelaalegríaeltropel,PorquedestrozanentrañasLostrapichesylascañas…¡Viertanlagrimasdemiel!

ExecutiveSummaryLarge-scalesugarcaneproductionisbadfortheenvironmentandpublichealthofthecommunitieswhereitis grown. Destructive practices such as intensive tilling, the use of toxic agrochemicals, and burning canebefore harvest result in the erosion of topsoil, diminished biodiversity, and contamination of fragileecosystems andnearby communities. Large-scale sugarcaneproduction also decreases theability for localcommunitiestoachieveimportantdevelopmentgoalssuchasfoodsovereignty.TheMinistryoftheEnvironmentacknowledgestheseharmfulimpactsandhaseventriedtogetgrowerstoadoptpracticessuchaszafraverde(harvestingwithoutburning),butindustryleadersrefusetodoitbecauseitwillcutintotheirprofitmargins.TherearelawsinplacetoprotectSalvadoransandtheirenvironment,butgovernmentagencieshaveyettoenforcethem.Thesugarcaneindustry isamanifestationofElSalvador’scommitmenttoneoliberaleconomicpoliciesthatprioritize unregulated capital investment and generation of wealth. Sugarcane growers andmills want toproducethemostsugarpossibleforthelowestcostspossible,andthereforeexternalizetheiractualcostsofproductionbycontaminating the environment, destroying agricultural land, andpaying very lowwages tofieldworkers.While investors andmills generate large profits, the communities suffer the environmental,publichealth,andeconomicconsequences.Thisisagreatinjustice.Thisreportconcludeswiththefollowingfindingsandrecommendations:Findings1. El Salvador’s sugarcane industry is driven by neoliberal economic policies

thatprioritizeproductionofexportsandderegulation.Sugarcanegenerateswealth for investors, while communities where it is grown suffer seriousenvironmentalandhealthconsequences.

2. Heavytillingandburningofcanerendersonce-fertilesoilinfertile.3. Agrochemicals used in sugarcane production contaminate the soil, water,

and nearby farms and communities, contributing to the renal failureepidemic that plagues coastal regions. In addition, the application ofripenersbeforeharvestdestroyscropsonnearbyfarms.

4. The sugarcane industry’s unregulated use of groundwater for irrigation isdeprivingsmallerfarmsandlocalcommunitiesaccesstothewatertheyneedtosurvive.

5. Burningsugarcanecausesrespiratoryillness,asthma,atopy,andeczemainlocalpopulations.6. Large-scaleproductionofsugarcane(andothercrops)diminishesbiodiversityanddestroysecosystems.7. Theprofitabilityofsugarcaneincreasescompetitionforuseofland,drivingsmallfarmersoutofbusiness

anddiminishingfoodsecurity.8. TheSalvadorangovernmentdoesnotexerciseitslegalauthoritytoregulatesugarcaneproduction.Recommendations1. TheGovernmentmustbeginenforcingenvironmentallaws.2. TheLegislativeAssemblyshouldpasstheGeneralWaterLaw,alongwiththebanontoxicagrochemicals

andtheConstitutionalamendmentonfoodsecurity.3. TheLegislativeAssemblyandCentralGovernmentmustenactpoliciestoprotectsmallfarmersandlocal

markets.4. Municipalitiesmustenactordinancestoregulateagriculturalpracticesandhelpruralcommunitiescreate

environmentalunitstomonitordevelopmentissues.5. Launch a campaign in rural communities about the impacts of large-scale agriculture, and assist in

developingfoodsecurityplansbasedonlocalproductionforlocalconsumption.6. Createamovementofcommunitiesaffectedby large-scalesugarcanetoadvocate fortherightsofthe

peopleandproperregulationoftheindustry.

(1)

OverviewofSugarcaneProductioninElSalvadorHistoryofSugarcaneProductioninElSalvadorSugarcaneoriginatedinNewGuinea8,000yearsagoandspreadthroughoutAsia.1By1492,EuropeanshaddevelopedasweettoothandChristopherColumbuscarriedcanewithhimtotheAmericas.Earlycolonialists established sugarcane plantations on land seized from indigenous groups and usedenslavednativesandAfricansforlabor.2Atsomepointduringcolonization,sugarcanemadeitswaytoMexicoandontoElSalvador.3Forcenturies,Salvadoranfarmershavegrownsmallbatchesofsugarcaneforlocalconsumption.Inthe1960s,however,theamountoflanddedicatedtosugarcanegrew43%,resultingina114%increaseinsugarproducts.Theindustrygrewtocomprise3.1%oftheSalvadoranGDP.4Between2001and2011,sugarcaneproductiongrewanother30%,whilethepriceofsugarrosefrom$0.08to$0.25perpound.5During the2013/14 zafra (growing season),6growersproducedmore than7million tonsof caneon108.5manzanasofland(188acres),andproduced15.6millionquintalsofsugarand54milliongallonsofmolasses.7Large-scaleProductionWhile Salvadoran farmers continue to grow smallbatches of cane amongst their other crops, it is thelarge-scaleproductionthathasgrowninrecentyears.The distinction between small, artisanal farmers andlarge-scalegrowers is important.Artisanalproductionislargelysustainableandhasbeenpartofthecultureforgenerations.Small,artisanalproducersdonotusetoxicagro-chemicalsorburntheircrops,andthecanethey grow is for local consumption. Large-scaleproduction is a more recent phenomenon that hassignificant environmental, social, and economicimpacts. This report focuses almost exclusively onlarge-scaleproduction.The2007agriculturalcensusregistered2,615sugarcaneproducers,103ofwhichwerebusinessesorcorporationsthatgrew40%ofallcanethatyear.Sixty-sixothercooperativesgrewanother28%ofthecane,whiletheremaining2,446growersweresmallfamilyfarmsthataccountedfor32%ofthetotalcane harvested.8According to the Salvadoran Sugarcane Growers Association, there are now 7,000

1(ChewingCanen.d.)2(Johnsonn.d.)2(Johnsonn.d.)3(Ortega2008)4(OrganizationofAmericanStates1974)5(Keilhuaser2011)6Zafrareferstotheharvestofsugarcaneaswellasthegrowingseasons7(MinistryofAgriculture2014)8(REDD/CCAD-GIZ2014)

(Workerprocessingcanejuiceintopanelainasmalltrapiche(artisanalmill)inSanVicente)

(2)

growers that account for 90% of all sugarcane grown in El Salvador – a much larger number thanreported in the2007 census. Sixtypercentof thesegrowersareagricultural cooperatives,while the40% are small and medium sized growers.9 Three thousand shareholders own and operate thecountry’ssixmills,whichprocessthecaneintosugarandmolassesandcontrolmuchoftheindustry.

TheZafraThezafra,orsugarcane-growingseason,beginsonNovember1andendsonOctober31of thenextyear.Thezafra isdivided intotwoperiods,beginningwiththedryseasonzafra (NovembertoApril).During this period farmers grow and harvest sugarcane, and process it in the mills. From May toOctober, theperiodwhen there isnoharvest, farmersplantnew fieldsandmaintain those thatarealreadyplanted.Duringthisperiod,millsoftencloseforcleaningandmaintenance.10

PlowingandPlantingPlanting sugarcanebeginsbyworkers clearing the landof rocks and stumps, and breaking the ground with aheavyplow.Workersplowasecondtimetotill thesoildown80cm(31 inches).Theyplowathirdtimewithaheavy plow and then a forth with a polisher, a lightmachine that levels the ground. The final step is to goover the field with an amplifier, which creates rows.11Suchintensetillingsoftenstheearthandmaximizesthesoil contact with the cane plant, as well as managesweeds and assists with the absorption of chemical

fertilizers.

Oncethelandisprepared,growersplantsetts0.9to1.5meters(2.95to4.9feet)apart.Thesettsare40cm(15inch)piecesofcanecutfromapreviouscrop,eachwithacoupleofnodesandeyeswherethe rootsandshoots sprout.Onesetteproducesabout12shoots,orcaneplants.Growerssoak thesetts inwaterand fungicidebeforeplanting12toprotectagainst red rot,whichcanbedeadly to thefreshly planted cane.13Farmers also apply herbicides to prevent weeds, as well as a first round ofnitrogen, potassium, and phosphorus to ensure the crop has nutrients during the early stages ofgrowth.Oneplantingofcanegenerallyproducesfiveorsixcrops,thoughgrowersintheBajoLempasaytheycan harvest as many as nine crops per planting.14The first planting is called the plant cane andsubsequent crops are called the stubble or ratoon crops. Once the stubble becomes uneconomical,growersdestroytheplantwithchemicalsormechanicallybyplowingitunder.Theythentillagainandplant a new plant cane. Farmers strive to harvest 120-130 tons of cane permanzana, and produce9(AsociaciondeAzucareradeElSalvador2010)10(AsociaciondeAzucareradeElSalvador2010)11(Hernandez2015)12(Hernandez2015)13(Netafimn.d.)14(Hernandez2015)

(Afreshlyplowedfield,readyforsugarcane)

(3)

between220-240poundsof sugarper tonof cane.Whenacroponlyproduces90 tonsof canepermanzanaand150poundsofsugarperton,thecaneisnolongerprofitableandfarmersreplaceit.15 AgrochemicalsAccordingWilliam Hernandez, a Salvadoran agronomist whospecializes in Sugarcane production, “in themanagement ofcane,it’sallchemicals-controlofweeds,pests,andeventheplanting is mechanized with chemicals.” 16 Industrializedagriculture such as the large-scale cultivation of sugarcane,diminishesbiodiversityandthelifecyclesthatkeepsoilhealthyandproductive,andpreventoutbreaksofpestsanddiseases.Assoilqualitydecreases,farmershavetoapplyevenmorechemicalfertilizersandnutrients. They alsohave to applyherbicides, fungicides, and insecticides to controlweeds andotherpeststhatthriveintheabsenceofothernaturalcontrols.

FertilizersBecause sugarcane produces large quantities of stalks and leaves, it requires more nitrogen,phosphorus, potassium, andmicronutrients than other crops.17Sugarcane needs themost nitrogenduringthetilleringphase,whichoccurs30-45daysafterplanting.Thetilleringphase“isaphysiologicalprocessofrepeatedundergroundbranchingfromcompactnodaljointsoftheprimaryshoot.”Growersapplynitrogenatthebeginningofthetilleringphase,alongwithpotassiumandphosphorus.Whenthecaneissixmonthsalong,growersapplymorepotassiumtoincreasesugarrecovery.18Growers generally use a blended NPK (nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium) product, which savestimeandlabor.19FieldworkersapplytheNPKmixusingaspreaderpulledbyatractor.Thisapplicationacceleratesthegrowthandvolumeofthecaneandresultsindeepgreenleavesbutnotmuchsugar.WilliamHernandezsaystheconcentrationofsugarcomeslater.Attheearlierstagesthemaingoalistomakesurethecaneishealthy.20

FungicidesandPesticides21Large-scalesugarcanegrowershavetoworryaboutawidevarietyofpests,oneofwhichisthemoscapinta (Grass Spittlebug). To kill mosca pinta, growers spray Actara 25-WG, the active ingredient ofwhich isTiametoxam.22TheyalsouseJade23producedbyBayer-CropScience,theactive ingredientof

15(Hernandez2015)16(Hernandez2015)17(Netafimn.d.)18(Nitafimn.d.)19(Fertican.d.)20(Hernandez2015)21ThisreportdoesnotattempttoprovideacomprehensivelistofagrochemicalsusedinElSalvadororthedangersrelatedtospecificagrochemicals.22(Syngentan.d.)23(DiccionariodeEspecialidadesAgroquimicasn.d.)

(4)

“Inthemanagementofsugarcane,its all chemicals – the control ofweeds,pests,andevenplanting ismechanizedwithchemicals”

WilliamHernandezAgronomist

whichisimidacloprid.24ThesugarcaneborerisanothercommonpestinSalvadoransugarcanefields.Itis thestalk-boring larvaeofacane-eatingmoth.Adultmoths layeggson the leaves,andwhentheyhatchthelarvaecrawldownandboreintothestalkstoeatcane.Thelarvaecausealotofdamageandcanonlybekilledbeforetheybeginboring.Whilechemicalshavenotbeenoverlysuccessful,growersin Mexico apply Furadan 5G, Brigidir 3G, and Counter when they plant.25As mentioned already,sugarcanegrowers in El Salvador alsohave to contendwith red rot,which can kill youngplants. Tocombatredrot,growersapplyBenomylandCarbendazium.26

HerbicidesWeedinfestationscanreducesugarcaneyieldsby12-72%,makingweedcontrolanimportantpartofproduction.Weedsaremoreprevalentinsugarcanecanefieldsbecausecaneisplantedfartherapartthanothercrops,givingweedsplentyofspacetodevelop.Sugarcanealsotakesmoretimetosproutthanothercrops,givingweeds time to set rootsandconsumenutrients in thesoilbeforehaving tocompetewithcane.Sugarcaneneedsrelativelylargequantitiesofnitrogenandphosphorusearlyon,andifweedsconsumethenutrientsthatgrowershaveapplied,thecanewillnotgrowproperly.Growersworktocontrolweedsbeforetheyemergefromtheground.Pre-emergentcontrol includestilling, as well as spraying chemicals like Diuron +2, 4D Sodium salt 80 WSP, Paraquat, andGlyphosate.27Theconcentrationofthesechemicalsdependsonthesoiltype.SoilintheBajoLempaissandyloam,whichmeansmoreweedsandtheneedformorechemicals.28BayerCropSciencesellsapre-emergentherbicidecalledMerlinTotal.Thecompanyclaimsit isbetterfortheenvironmentandworkersbecauseitlingersinthesoilfor120days,meaningfewerapplications.TheyalsoclaimMerlinTotal increases production by 15-20%.29The active ingredients in Merlin Total are isoxaflutole andindaziflam. Atrazine is another common pre-emergent herbicide used on sugarcane. Syngenta, theSwisscompanythatproducesAtrazine,claimsthatitis“safeforpeople,goodfortheenvironmentandtheeconomy.”30

RipenersBeforeharvestingsugarcane,growerssprayit with a ripener,which is littlemore thananherbicidethatdamagestheplantcausingit to focus on producing sugar instead offlowering. Ripeners decrease the amount of cane produced, but result in a higher concentration ofsugar. Themost common ripener is glyphosate, themain ingredient inMonsanto’s lineof Roundupproducts, which includes Roundup WeatherMax and PowerMax, and Syngenta’s glyphosate-basedripenercalledTouchdownTotal.31

24(Hernandez2015)25(CamposHernandez,etal.2006)26(Victoria,GuzmanandAngel1995)27(Netafimn.d.)28(Hernandez2015)29(Diario1.com2015)30(Syngenta2014)31(Gravois2015)

(5)

“Themostdangerouspracticeistheburningbeforeharvest,andthesecond[mostdangerous]istheuseofripenersthateffecttheenvironment,whichtheyapplywithcropdusters.”

MiguelRamírezMovementofOrganicFarmersinElSalvador

Growersapplyripenerswithcrop-dusters.AccordingtotheLSUAgCenter,“a28-to-49daytreatment-to-harvest interval isrecommendedfollowingglyphosateapplication.”Ifgrowersharvestearlierthan28days after application, the ripeners donot have enough time to concentrate sugars in the cane.Harvestingbeyond49daysmaycauseharmsthatreduceyieldsinthecurrentcropaswellasthenextyear’scrop.32

BurningandHarvestingBefore harvesting sugarcane most growersburn it to remove the thick, green foliage.The burn is fast and intense. Flames sprintthrough the cane, consuming severalmanzanas in minutes. Temperatures duringthe burn exceed 1000 degrees F, andproduce large quantities of dense, blacksmoke and soot that can travel for miles,especially along the coast where the windsarestrong.Growers remove foliage in part because thecane is easier to cut and transport without the leaves. The main reason for burning, however, isbecausethemillsrequireit.WilliamHernandezsaysthatmillswillnotacceptcanethathasnotbeenburnedbecauseitistooexpensivetoremovethefoliageattheirfacility.33Burningispurelyaquestionofmaximizingprofits.Burningsugarcaneisarguablyagainstthelaw,apointmadebyMargaritaGarciaattheMinistryoftheEnvironment.34Article262-AofthePenalCodesays,“thosethatburnstubbleorcropsofanykindwillbesanctionedwithafineofbetween10and200daysoffine;eachdayoffineisequivalenttothedailyminimumwage.”35There isanexception,however, forcropsthatare“strictlycultural.”AccordingtoenvironmentalattorneyLuisGonzáles,theMinistryofAgriculturalconsidersburningsugarcanetobecultural and is thereforepermitted.Mr.Gonzáles also reports that theEnvironmentalOfficer at theOmbudsman’sofficeforHumanRightssaysburningsugarcaneisnotculturalandshouldbeprohibited.Unfortunately,theMinistryoftheEnvironmenthasyettotakeaclearposition,whichmeansthatforthetimebeinggrowerscankeepburning.Thedayaftergrowersburnasugarcanefield,ateamofworkerscutsitalldownandstacksitinrows.They are followed by a front-end loader that packs the burned, cut cane onto tractor-trailers thatdeliverittooneofElSalvador’ssixmills.

32(Gravois2015)33(Hernandez2015)34(Garcia2015)35(LegislativeAssemblyofElSalvador1997)

(A6-manzanacanefieldburningjustbeforeharvest)

(6)

ZafraVerde(GreenHarvest)In 2011, recognizing the damage that burningsugarcanecancause,theMinistryoftheEnvironment,MinistryofAgriculture,and theSalvadoranCouncilofSugarcane, and others agree to adopt healthiergrowing practices, including harvesting cane withoutburning.AccordingtotheMinistryofEnvironment,theimpetuswasthegrowingconcernfortheenvironmentasvoicedbytheSalvadoranpeople,especiallycommunitiesfromtheBajoLemparegionofJiquilisco.36Governmentrepresentativesproposedthatgrowersharvest20,000manzanas(34,720acres)ofcaneusingthezafraverde,ornoburningpractices.Growers,however,committedtoonly2,500manzanas(4,340acres)tozafraverde.DirectorGarciasaid,“Inthe2011/2012harvest,weagreedon2,500manzanas(4,340acres)ofzafraverde,andtheyachieved2,540manzanas(4,409acres).It’saverysmallamount,almostinsignificant.For the following zafra 2012/2013, the goal was 7,500manzanas (13,020 acres) and they achieved6,800 (11,804.8 acres). The factors that prevented them from achievingmorewas that the cost ofproductionalmostdoubled,duetothetimethat ittakesthecutters.Forthe2013/2014harvest,wesetagoalof12,000manzanas(20,832acres).”37DirectorGarciastressedthattheMinistrydidnothave

theauthoritytoimposezafraverdeontheindustry,andthatanyactionswerepurelyvoluntary.Agricultural economist Amy Angel agrees with the idea ofZafra Verde but said the slow transition is due to thesugarcanecutterswhoprefer toburnbecause it iseasier toharvest. Miguel Ramírez from the Movement of OrganicFarming in El Salvador has a different view. He says thatgrowers are unwilling to convert to zafra verde because itmeans higher costs of production, and themill owners “donotwanttoabsorbthe[higherproduction]costseventhoughtheyaretheonesmakingtheprofit.”38According to Margarita Garcia, “MARN is rethinking itsstrategytowardsthesector.Untilnow,ithasbeenadialogueto achieve volunteer agreements, but this has yielded fewresults.”39It isunclearwhichway theministrywill go,but itmightbeagoodtimeforcommunitiestomaketheiropinionsknown.

36(MinistryoftheEnvironmentandNaturalResourcesn.d.)37(Garcia2015)38(Ramirez2015)39(Garcia2015)

“Thereisnotmuchinterestonthepartofthe cane growers to employ zafra verde(green harvest) because it means higherproductioncosts.”

MiguelRamírezMovementofOrganicFarminginElSalvador

(SugarcaneworkersfromSantaAnacuttingcaneintheBajoLempaofJiquilisco,Usulután)

(7)

LifeofaSugarcaneWorkerIt used to be that sugarcane fieldworkerswere from the communitieswhere canewas grown. Forexample, residentsofAmandoLopez intheBajoLemparecallwakingupat3amtoget tothemainroadwhereatruckwouldpickthemupandtakethemtonearbyfields.Whilethemajorityofworkerswere over the age of 18, adolescents as young as 13 would sneak on to the truck alongside theirfathers,unclesandbrothers.Thedayswerelongandhot,withnoshadeandlittlerest.40The days of local laborersworking in local sugarcane fields are ending.Mills now hire cane-cuttingcrewsthattravelaroundElSalvador.Professionalcrewsaremoreefficientandcost-effectivethanlocalworkers. In 2016, Voices staff spoke with a crew cutting cane in the Bajo Lempa of Usulután. TheworkerswerefromSonsonateandspenttheseasontravelingalongthecoastcuttingcane.Theyhadbeenontheroadforacouplemonthsandwouldnotreturnhomeuntil theseasonends inApril. In2014,VoicesstaffspokewithanothercanecuttingcrewinUsulutánthatwasfromSantaAna.Theytooweretravelingthecountrycuttingcaneforoneofthemills.Salvadoran sugarcane workers have received attention from the international community over theyears. In the late 1990s and 2000s, Salvadoran growerswere under scrutiny for allowingminors asyoungas13toworkintheirfieldsandsubjectingthemtodangerousworkconditions.41MorerecentlySalvadoransugarcaneworkershavebeeninthespotlightduetothechronicrenalfailureepidemicthathasplaguedCentralAmericancommunitiesforatleast17years.Publichealthofficialsremainunsureofthecauseofrenalfailureandforyearsmanyhaveblameditontheexposuretoagrochemicals.Thelatesttheory,however,isthattheyworktoohardfortoomanyhours,inextremeheatwithinsufficientaccesstoshadeandwater.Somepublichealthofficialssaytheepidemicisacombinationofexposuretoagrochemicalsandtheworkingconditions.Todate,nooneknowsforsurewhytensofthousandsofotherwisehealthypeoplealongthecoastofElSalvadoraredyingofrenalfailure.Theworking conditions in sugarcane fields are unquestionably harsh. Sugarcane is harvestedduringthehottest timeof yearwhen temperaturesalong thecoastexceed105degrees.Thehumidityandstrongtropicalsunarerepressiveandthereislittlereliefinthewide-openfields.Workersrarelyhaveaccess to fresh water and even if they bring theirownitisneverenoughandthewaterintheirplasticbottlesquicklybecomestoohottodrink.Inadditiontohavinghigh ratesof renal failure, sugarcane fieldworkers often suffer machete accidents, and areexposed to high levels of smoke, and soot. Andwhether it is the cause of renal failure or not,sugarcanefieldworkersareexposedtohighlevelsofagrochemicals. Most growers do not supplyprotective gear, but even when they do manyworkersoptoutduetotheextremeheat.”42

40(AmandoLopezCommunityBoard2015)41(HumanRightsWatch2004)42(UrbinoRodriguez,etal.2012)

(8)

“TheworkersintheMillearngood[money].The salaryofa technician isaround$800amonth with out taking into account theirbonusattheendoftheseason.Butthecaneworkers earn by the day and theirs is thesmallestincomeintheprocessofgeneratingandexportingsugar.

EsaúArtigaEconomist

UniversityofElSalvador

Though they endure such difficult conditions, a 2016documentary produced by the University of CentralAmerica reports that the minimum wage for sugarcanefield workers is just $3.64 a day, $0.30 less than theminimumforotheragriculturalworkers. Ifaworkercutscanefor30daysinamonth,heearns$109.20,farbelowwhat a Salvadoran family needs to survive. Julio Castro,the Executive Director of CONSAA argues that workersmakemore than that -$4or $5 a day.He also said “the

millswouldliketopaymore,butthereisarealitythatsugarandcoffeearecommoditiesthatrespondtoaglobaldemand,andthataffectswhattheycanpay,buttheindustrypaysverygoodwages.”43Toput that salary into perspective, economist Esua Artiga reports that mill technicians earn $800 amonth.44

MillingWhencanereachesthemills (therearesix inElSalvador),workersextract juicebyrunningthecanethrough a series of presses and grinders. The pulp is sold off to use formaking paper of producingenergy,whilethejuicegoesthroughaclarificationprocesstoremoveimpurities.Theclarifiedjuiceisdrainedintoevaporatorswhereitisboileddowntocanejuice.Themillthenevaporatesthecanjuiceto produce sugar crystals and molasses. The mill evaporates the molasses again to remove theremainingsugar,leavingback-strapmolasses.4546NeoliberalismandtheDomesticandInternationalDemandforSugarLarge-scale sugarcaneproduction is amanifestationofEl Salvador’s commitment toneoliberaleconomicpolicies. According to CorpWatch, neoliberalism promotes freemarkets, deregulation, privatization, andeliminationoftheconceptofthe“publicgood.”47Sincetheendofthecivilwar(1980-1992),theSalvadorangovernment has embraced neoliberalism by privatizing public assets, making the U.S. dollar the officialcurrency,signingfreetradeagreements,andadoptingapublic-privatepartnershiplawandotherpolicies.48Mostrecently,ElSalvadorjoinedGuatemalaandHondurasindevelopingPlanoftheAllianceforProsperityin the Northern Triangle, which posits that the way tostem the flowminors fleeing to theUnited States49is byattractingmore investment and creating jobs in tourism,light manufacturing, textiles, and agro-industry.50 For ElSalvador,agro-industrymeansmoresugarcane.43(AudiovisualesUCA2016)44(Artiga2015)45(Ovando2014)46(IngenioLaCabana2010)47(MartinezandGarcian.d.)48(J.E.Martinez2016)49ElizabethKennedy,whohasconductedyearsofresearchontheissuehasfoundthatminorsarefleeingduetoviolence.EconomistJuliaEvelynMartinezandsomepoliticalscientistareconcludingthatviolenceintheNorthernTriangleisaproductofneoliberaleconomicpoliciesandglobalization.Itisironicthatthesegovernmentsplantoaddressaproblemlikelycausedbyneoliberalismwithopeningtheeconomyevenmore.50(ElSalvador,Guatemala,andHonduras2014)

(Truckwaitingtobeloadedwithsugarcane)

“Producing sugarcane is not bad inandofitself.Thebadcomesfromthemanagement and interest behindsugarcane.Intheorythegroweristheowner of his land, but the ones incontrolarethemills; theonesbehindthegrowtharethemills.”

MiguelRamirezMovementofOrganicFarmersinElSalvador

(9)

These neoliberal policies have benefited large-scale sugarcane growers in a few ways. One is theunregulated use of capital. Instead of protecting small farmers with price guarantees or otherincentives to keep them farming, the government allows for the free use of capital, primarily land.Instead of competingwith subsidized corporate farms in theU.S. for shares of Salvadoranmarkets,manysmallfarmersleasetheirlandtosugarcanegrowersandliveoffremittancesfromfamilythathasmigrated.Anotherbenefit of neoliberalism is that growersoperate freeof environmental and laborregulations.Yetanotherbenefit isthatfreetradeagreementsguaranteethatsugarcanegrowerscansell totheUnitedStatesandEuropewith lower importtariffs.Contrarytoprincipalsof freemarketsandtrade,theSalvadorangovernmentalsoprotectsthedomesticsugarmarketfromcheaperimportsfromNicaragua,Honduras,andGuatemala.DomesticMarketsIn El Salvador, sugarcane distributors sell raw, white, and refined sugars to final consumers insupermarkets and other stores, while mills sell directly to companies like Coca-Cola. In 2013, theSalvadoranpopulation (6.5millionpeople) consumed6.1millionquintalsof sugar, anaverageof95pounds per person.51As mentioned, El Salvador protects its domestic markets with a 40% tariff,enoughtopreventcheapsugarfromHondurasorNicaraguafromundercuttingSalvadoranproducers.The government justifies the tariff because sugarcane “is an important driver of rural income andemployment,”andCentralAmericancountrieshaveyettoagreeonaharmonizedimporttariff.52Thedomestic priceof sugar in El Salvadorhas increased in recent years due in part to the growingdemand from internationalmarkets.According to representativesof FUTESCAM(theFoundation forPeasant Land and Hope), domestic prices are high because international prices have fallen, anddistributorsandmillstrytomakeupthedifferencebyraisinglocalprices.Withtariffsinplace,theycanraise prices without worrying about competition with growers in neighboring countries.53 If theprincipalsoffreetradeandmarketswereappliedevenly,SalvadorangrowerswouldhavetocompeteagainstcheaperimportsandtheremightbemoreincentiveforlandownerstocontinuefarmingExportsandPreferentialMarketsAccordingtotheU.S.DepartmentofAgriculture(USDA),ElSalvadorwasexpectedtoexport430,000metric tonsof sugar in 2014/2015and450,000 in 2015/2016.54The largest importers of SalvadoransugarareChina,SouthKorea,Taiwan,theUnitedStates,Canada,Indonesia,andtheEuropeanUnion.55The United States has two quotas for buying Salvadoran sugarcane – one under the World TradeOrganization (WTO) and another under the Central American Free Trade Agreement (CAFTA). ThequotasallowSalvadorandistributorstosellaguaranteedamountofsugarproductsinU.S.marketsatarelativelylowtariff.TheWTOTariff-Rate-QuotaallocationforElSalvadorforFY2015was27,379metrictonsrawvalue.56TheCAFTAquotaallowsanother32,340metrictonsofsugarproductstoenterthe

51Bycomparison,theaveragepersonintheUnitedStatesconsumesbetween150-170poundsofsugarinayear.(G.Hernandez2013)52(Herrera2015)53(FUTESCAM2015)54(Herrera2015)55(Pastron2015)56(OfficeoftheUnitedStatesTradeRepresentative2014)

(10)

UnitedStatesata lowtariff.ElSalvadorhasmaxedout itsCAFTAsugarquotaeveryyearexcept for2010and2012.57ElSalvadorisalsopartofaTradeAssociationAgreementbetweenCentralAmericanand European countries that allows growers to export 25,088 metric tons of sugar to Europe.58ElSalvadorisplanningtoexport430,000metrictonesofsugarproductsduringthe2014/2015zafraand450,000metrictonsin2015/2016.59TheUSDAalsopermitsU.S.refinerstoimportlow-dutysugarproductsfromElSalvadortorefineandre-exportontheworldmarket,allowingthemtostaycompetitive.60In2014/2015,USrefinersbought85,690 metric tons for re-export, a number that is expected to grow to 94,000 metric tons in2015/2016.61InJanuary2015,ElSalvadorcelebratedalargesaleofsugartoChina–50,000tons,whichrepresented10%of thecountry’sexportable sugar.62China is the largest sugarmarket in theworld,consuming 12million tons a year. The sale to China put $20million into the pockets of Salvadoranproducers.At thetimeof thesale, theViceMinisterof theEconomysaid itwouldcontributetothe50,000directjobsand200,000indirectjobsthatthesectoraddstothenationaleconomy.63Thepriceofsugarininternationalmarketshasfallenoverthepastfiveyears,fromahighof$0.2947perpound inJuly2011to$0.1067 inAugust2015.64Oneanalystsaidthat lowoilpricesmeansthatdemandforEthanolisdown,causingpricestofallaswell.65 OtherSugarcaneProductsInadditiontosellingsugar,themillssellthemolasses,theliquidleftafterthesugarcrystalshavebeenremoved. Molasses is used for producing ethanol and other alcohol products, cattle feed, andfertilizers.In2013/2014,themillsproduced51,473,360gallonsofmolasses.Themillssoldjust13.6%oftheirmolassesdomesticallyatapriceof$0.68pergallon,andexportedtheother86.40%atapriceof$0.50pergallon.Thenetincomefrommolassesin2013/2014wasjustshortof$27million.Oncethemillshaveextractedsugarandmolassesfromthecane,thereisonemoreproductlefttosell- thecrushedstalkscalledbagacillo,orbagasse.Themillssell it topowercompanieswhoburn it toproduceenergy.AccordingtoFUTESCAM,themillsmake$50millionayearsellingbagasse.66TheCleanEnergyCouncilofAustraliareportsthatevery10tonsofsugarcanecrushedproducedabout3tonsofbagasse.67

57(U.S.CustomsandBorderProtectionn.d.)58(Herrera2015)59(Herrera2015)60(USDepartmentofAgriculturen.d.)61(Herrera2015)62(Pastron2015)63(Rivas2015)64(IndexMundi2016)65(Srivastava2014)66(FUTESCAM2015)67(CleanEnergyCouncil2014)

(11)

ImpactsofSugarcaneProduction

Large-scale sugarcane production has profoundlynegative impacts on the environment, public health,and sustainability of the communities where it isgrown.TheMinistryoftheEnvironment2013NationalStrategy for Biodiversity recognized as much when itreported, “the agricultural practices used to cultivatesugarcane in El Salvador are based in technology thatcauses significant harm to the health [of thepopulation], soil, and environment. Of the practicesused, theworstnegative impacts areburningand theuseofagrochemicals.”68

Miguel Ramirez from the Organic AgriculturalMovement of El Salvador points out that “producingsugarcane is not bad in and of itself. The bad comes from the management and interest behindsugarcane.Intheorythegroweristheownerofhisland,buttheonesincontrolarethemills;theonesbehindthegrowtharethemills.”69SugarcaneisBetterfortheEnvironment?Beforedetailingtheaffectsof large-scalesugarcaneproduction, it isnecessarytorefuteanassertionmadebytheAssociationofSalvadoranSugarcaneProducersthatsugarcaneproductionisgoodfortheenvironment. Their claim is that “the high production of biomass of sugarcane, the production ofenvironmentally friendly bi-products, the requirement of carbon dioxide (CO2), and the release ofoxygen into the environment contribute to improving the ecosystem. To plant one hectare ofsugarcaneistheequivalentofplantingtwohectaresofnativeforest.”70Likeotherplants,sugarcaneabsorbscarbonduringphotosynthesis and stores it in its vegetation andeventually underground. However, any carbonabsorbed is released again when growers burntheir fields and plow their land, andmills processthecaneintosugarandmolasses.Deforestationisoneofthelargestcontributingfactorstoincreasedatmospheric carbon. Cutting down native forestsreleases carbon that has been sequestered formillennia,andplantingsugarcanecannotundothatdamage. One studyon the topic found that “soilorganiccarboncanaccumulatebyprocesses thatessentially reversesomeof theeffects responsibleforsoilorganiclosseswhenlandwasconvertedtoperennialvegetation.”71Thatmeanstheonlywayto

68(MinistryoftheEnvironmentandNaturalResources2013)69(Ramirez2015)70(AssociationofSugarcaneProducersofElSalvador2016)71(PostandKwon2000)

(TheBajoLempasaysNOtotheMono-cultivationofCane,intheDefenseofLifeandTerritory!)

(12)

recaptureandstorecarbonisbyplantingperennialvegetation.Sugarcaneisnotaperennialcoverage–itisacropthatisgrownandharvested,andthenremovedwhenitisnolongerprofitable.Itissimplyuntrueanddisingenuous toassert thatplantingsugarcane is inanywaymorebeneficial thannativeforests.

DestructionofTopsoilThe Food and Agriculture Organization of the UnitedNations says soil health is “the continued capacity ofsoil to function as a vital living system, withinecosystem and land-use boundaries, to sustainbiologicalproductivity,promotethequalityofairandwater environments, andmaintain plant, animal, andhumanhealth."72

Unfortunately,manyaspectsof large-scalesugarcaneproductionarebad forsoilhealth– tillingandburning fields at harvest being among the worst. The intensive tilling practices used in sugarcaneproduction are very harmful to topsoil. The Integrated Crop Management website reports thatfrequent tilling results in poor soil quality. “Since tillage fractures the soil, it disrupts soil structure,acceleratingsurfacerunoffandsoilerosion.Tillagealsoreducescropresidue,whichhelpscushiontheforceofpoundingraindrops.Withoutcropresidue,soilparticlesbecomemoreeasilydislodged,beingmovedorsplashedaway…Splashedparticlesclogsoilpores,effectivelysealingoff thesoil’ssurface,resultinginpoorwaterinfiltration.”Inaddition,“frequenttillagealsoresultsinacompletebreakdownofsoilstructure…bringingmicrobialactivitytoahalt.”73TheWorldWildlifeFundadds,“whennaturalvegetationisclearedandwhenfarmlandisploughed,theexposedtopsoilisoftenblownawaybywindorwashedawaybyrain.”74Thisisabigdeal“becauseittakes up to 300 years for 1 inch of agricultural topsoil to form, soil that is lost is essentiallyirreplaceable.”“Erosionaffectsproductivitybecause it removes thesurfacesoils, containingmostoftheorganicmatter,plantnutrients,andfinesoilparticles,whichhelptoretainwaterandnutrientsintherootzonewheretheyareavailabletoplants.Thesubsoilthatremainstendstobelessfertile,lessabsorbent,andlessabletoretainpesticides,fertilizers,andotherplantnutrients.”75Burningsugarcaneatharvestfurtherdegradesthehealthoftopsoil.Theextremelyhightemperaturesbake soil like clay in a kiln.MargaritaGarcia, an official from theMinistry of the Environment, toldVoicesontheBorder,“Weasasocietytendtoseetheimpacts[ofsugarcane]fromthegroundup,butwhat happens to the soil underneath when we burn? It affects the whole ecosystem. There areelementsthatgivelifetothesoil’smicroorganismsandaffectthefertilityofthesoil.”76

72(FoodandAgricultureOrganizationoftheUnitedNations,2008)73(Al-Kaisi,Hanna,&Tidman,2004)74(WorldWildlifeFundn.d.)75(Trautmann,Porter,&Wagenet,2012)76(Garcia,2015)

(13)

A2012studycomparedsugarcanefields inBrazil,burnedandnon-burned,and found,“soil chemical fertilityunderthe sugarcane without burning was better than undersugarcane with burn.” The differences were significant.“The TOC (TotalOrganic Carbon) values for native forestand for the harvesting without burn were higher thanthose under the sugarcane with burn (148% and 54%,respectively). This superiority was also confirmed for TN(TotalNitrogen), L-C (LibileCarbon) andR-C (RecalcitrantCarbon). An even more significant difference was foundundernaturalforestandsugarcanewithoutburnforMB-C(microbialbiomasscarbon),whichwas222%higherunder

native forest and 102% higher under sugarcanewithout burn than the value under sugarcanewithburn, confirming that MB-C could be a reliable indicator of soil quality for monitoring soils underdifferentsugarcaneharvestingsystems.”77Thismeansthatsoil ishealthiestundernativeforestsandsugarcane fields that have not been burned, and significantly lower under fields that have beenburned.Whilesugarcanegrowersinothercountriesaremovingtowardsno-tillproduction,thisisnotevenpartof the conversation in El Salvador. But without question, the heavy tilling practices and burning ofcropsbeforeharvestdestroythesoilwheresugarcaneisgrown.DepletionofWaterSuppliesLarge-scale sugarcane production also diminishes El Salvador’s already limitedwater supplies. JasonClayoftheWWFestimatesthatittakes“1,500-3,000liters(396-792gallons)ofwatertoproduce1kg(2.2 lbs)of sugar.” Inprocessingcane,millsuseanother10cubicmeters (2,641gallons)ofwater towasheachmetricton(1.1tons)ofsugar.78Salvadoransugarcanegrowersproducecaneinthehottest,driesttimeofyear(NovembertoApril)andrely heavily on irrigation. Small farmers in the Bajo Lempa report that water tables have fallendramatically in recent years and theyblame it onthe increased production of sugarcane, and thegovernment’s failure to regulate waterconsumption.Margarita Garcia at the Ministry of theEnvironment told Voices on the Border, “In thecoastal zonethey irrigatesugarcane.Asacountrywedonothavewaterinquantityandquality,andare entering a situation of water stress. Theyirrigatelargeexpansesofsugarcaneandthislimits

77(Souza,etal.2012)78(Clay,2012)

(14)

“There are other problems likeirrigation–inthecoastalregionstheyirrigate sugarcane. As a country thatdoes not have the quantity andquality of water available, we areentering a period of water stress.Whentheyirrigatelargeextensionsofsugarcane, this limits the amount ofwateravailableforotheruses.”

MargaritaGarciaMinistryoftheEnvironment

theamountofwateravailableforotheruses.”79GuillerminaRivas,amemberofthemunicipalcouncilof Tecoluca saidmuch the same. “Another problem [with cane] is the use ofwater. The sugarcanegrowers irrigate their fields, installing largepumps, andextract largequantitiesofwater, leavingnowaterforustouseonoursmallparcels.”80Aparticipant inafocusgroupinNuevaEsperanzaaddedthatsugarcane“consumesverylargequantitiesofwater,soittakeslargeinvestmentstogrowit.Thepeoplewith economic resources are diggingwells and takewater all theway to the bottomof theaquiferssotheyhaveenoughtowatertheirsugarcane,andthatleavesthewatersourcesforhumanconsumptionalldriedup,andthatisdangerous.”81SmallfarmersintheBajoLempagrowtraditionalcropssuchascorn,beans,sorghum,vegetables,andothersduringtherainyseason,MaytoNovember.Inanormalyear,therainsareenoughtoproducehealthycropsthatfeedlocalfamiliesandgeneratesomeincome.Climatechangehashadanadverseaffect on the rain cycles, which in recent years has resulted in drought. The overuse of water bysugarcane growers hasmeant that there is not enoughwater in the region’s aquifers to help thesesmallfarmersgetthroughthesedroughts.ContaminationofAgrochemicalsContamination of agrochemicals is perhapsthebiggestconcerns for thosewho livenearsugarcane fields. Toxic pesticides andfertilizers contaminatenearbywaterandsoilresources,aswellasfarms,fieldworkers,andlocalcommunities.Sugarcane growers apply fertilizers,fungicides, herbicides, and pesticides usingcrop-dusters, backpack sprayers, andspreaderspulledbytractors.GeologistBrendaHicksreportsthatitisnearlyimpossible“forpesticidestoonlyaffectitstargetedcrop.”82Thesameistrueforfertilizers,herbicides,andotherchemicalinputs–theyalldriftintonearbyfieldsandcommunities,leachintothesoil,andtravelthroughsurfaceandundergroundwaterresources.Bysomeestimates,“whenpesticidesareappliedtoprotectacropfrompestsanddiseases,onlyaround15%ofthepreparationhitsthetargetandtherestwillbedistributedintothesoil,water,andair;andfinallyreachnearbywaterbodiesthroughrun-off.”83AccordingtoagronomistWilliamHernandez,whenfarmersapplyagrochemicalsviacrop-duster,theyhave to use a greater concentration because the drift ismuchworse. In order to apply the correctquantity of chemicals on the intended targets, growers have to apply more and at greaterconcentrations.84Ifonly15%ofthechemicalsarehittingtheirtarget,thisisbadnewsfortheforests,rivers,farms,schools,soccerfields,andotherplaceswheretheother85%settles.

79(Garcia,2015)80(Rivas,2015)81(NuevaEsperanzaFocusGroup2015)82(Hicks,2012)83(Hegde,Mandya,Gokarnakar,Babu,&Shivaramaiah)84(Hernandez,2015)

(15)

“The ripeners affect ismost of all – I don’t knowwhat kind of chemical it is. More than anythingwhen they apply it with the airplanes orhelicopters it doesn’t fall directly on the crop –someofitdoes,butthewindcarriesmostofittoneighboring houses, gardens where they growfruit.Theaffectsoftheripenersare felt themoston vegetables like chiles, tomatoes, which aremoredelicate.”

FocusGroupParticipantComunidadAmandoLopez

Windisabigproblemforspreadingagrochemicalsbeyondtheirintendedtarget.Whetherit’sacropduster,backpacksprayer, or a spreader pulled by a tractor, if thewind isblowing, the chemicalswill drift. The concern is so greatthatenvironmentallawsandregulationsaroundtheworldprohibit application of agrochemicals when the windblows above a set level. With regards to the drift ofripeners,theLouisianaStateUniversityAgCenterwebsite

says,“glyphosatecancauseseriousdamagewhendriftedontonon-targetsites,suchasnewlyplantedcane, other crops or residential landscapes. Drift-control agents may be added to reduce drift.However,ripenersshouldonlybeappliedwhenwindspeedsarebetween3and10mphandshouldnotbeappliedwhenthereisasurfacetemperatureinversion.”85GuillerminaRivas,amemberofthemunicipalcouncilofTecolucatoldVoicesontheBorderthatonereasonthemunicipalitywantedto regulatesugarcaneproductionwasdueto the impactsofdriftingagrochemicals. “There are many reasons we drafted the ordinance [that regulates sugarcane andagrochemicals]. Nine years ago we started to work on a popular movement to organize farming(MOPOA).Throughthismovementwehaveundergonemanyprocesseswiththegoalthatthepeoplewill improvetheirwayof life.Oneofthesewastoproducecashewnutsandcertifythemasorganic.Wealsoproducedvegetables.Littlebylittlepeoplelosttheirmotivationandareleasingtheirlandtocultivatesugarcane.Manytimesourcashewcropsborderwithsugarcanefields,andwhentheysprayripeners our cashews are affected. The flower falls off and we lose our crops and organiccertification.”86Inadditiontodrifting,agrochemicalssoak intothesoilwhereorganismsconsumeandpassthemupthefoodchain.Agrochemicalsalsomigratethroughsoilviarainandirrigationwater,whichtransportsthem to groundwater, streams, rivers, and on to the ocean.Once agrochemicals enter thesewaterresourcestheyadverselyaffectfishandotheraquaticlife,aswellasanyfloraorfaunathatconsumesthewater,includinghumans.

Runoff of agrochemicals is especiallydangerous inregions liketheBajoLempathat are home to important ecosystemssuch as mangrove forests and wetlands,gallery forests, and agricultural land. Indiscussing mangrove ecology, theEncyclopedia of Earth reports, “runofffrom agricultural fields represents themain source of organic chemicalcontamination in mangrove ecosystems.Little is known about the effects ofpesticides in mangroves and associatedfauna,althoughchroniceffectsare likely.

85(Gravois2015)86(Rivas,2015)

(16)

“If regulation of agrochemicals is apriority, they could do it – thegovernmenthassufficientfundsandifitwereapriority, theywouldbeabletoregulationthem.”

AmyAngelEconomist,FUSADES

As with heavy metals, many of thesecompounds are absorbed onto sedimentparticles and degrade very slowly underanoxic conditions.” 87 The MarvelousMangrove Australia has entire chapterdedicated to the human impacts onmangroves. It reports that groundwatercarries agrochemicals into mangrove forests.Contaminated groundwater flows throughmud due to tidal differences of the watertable and can be flushed through animalburrows through tidal change.88 Similarly, a2012 report on sugarcane production in theBajo Lempa concluded that sprayingagrochemicals resulted in a lossof tomatoes,chilies, and other vegetables. Thecontaminatedproducts[thatsurvive]goontothecitywheretheyareconsumed.89Theheavyuseofagrochemicalsonsugarcanehasaprofoundimpactonthehealthofthecommunitieswhereitisgrown.ManybelievethattheextremelyhighratesofrenalfailureintheBajoLempaarearesult of theagrochemicals that contaminate the region.GuillerminaRivas toldVoices, “thereare alarge number of people suffering with renal failure. Many say that it has nothing to do withagrochemicals,buttheamountthattheyapplyisexaggerated.”90Most residentsof theBajoLempasettled in theregion in1992asElSalvador’scivilwarcametoanend. By 1999, public health officials began noting the high rates of renal failure in the region. Dr.RamónAntonioGarciaTrabanino toldVoices thatwhenthey firstbegandocumentingpatients, theywerestumpedbecausetheirdiseaseswerenotlinkedtodiabetesorhypertension.91Overthepast17years,tensofthousandsofpeoplealongElSalvador’scoasthavediedfromrenalfailure.Manypeopleattributetheepidemictothetoxicagrochemicalsusedontheregion’scottonplantationsfordecadesbeforethewar,andontheirpresentuseonsugarcanecane.ApaperpublishedbytheU.S.NationalInstituteofHealthin2013arguesthatglyphosate,theactiveingredientinMonsanto’slineofRoundupherbicidesandripeners,“mayexplaintherecentsurgeinkidneyfailureamongagriculturalworkersinCentralAmerica.”92Thenewesttheoryaboutwhat iscausingtherenalfailureepidemic isthatagriculturalworkersworklong hours in the hot sunwith inadequate access to shade andwater. There are pilot programs insugarcane fields to provide workers with better conditions to see if that lowers the rates of renalfailure.Butmanyexpertsbelievethattheagrochemicalsareat leastpartoftheproblem-thereare

87(NationalOceanicandAtmosphericAdministration-EarthSyste,2014)88(MangroveActionProject2014)89(UrbinoRodriguez,etal.2012)90(Rivas,2015)91(Trabanino,2015)92(SamselandSeneff2013)

(17)

(In2014,growerswantedtoplantsugarcaneona680-acrefieldattheheadofthisestuaryintheBajoLempa.Communitiesfeared

thatchemicalrunoffanddriftwouldpollutethewatersanddestroythedensemangroveforests.)

manyrenalfailurepatientsthathaveneverworkedinsugarcanefieldsoreveninagriculture.Somepublichealthofficialsbelievethatitmightbeacombinationofheatand failure todrinkwaterandexposure toagrochemicals.The lackofwaterallowsagrochemicals toaccumulateinthebodyanddamagethekidneys.AgriculturalEconomistAmyAngeltoldVoicesontheBorder,the“issueof agrochemicals is where we see the weakness of the regulatorysystem. There is no effective control with consequences that arerespected.Iftheregulationoftheuseofagrochemicalswereapriority,theywoulddoit.Thegovernmenthassufficientmeansandifitwasapriority they would do it.”93This was also a conclusion from a 2012report on sugarcane – “State organizations have the knowledge,studies,and laws, [to regulate theuseofagrochemicals]but theydonotapplythem.TheStateoughttobemorestrictintheapplicationofthelawsandordinances.”94MargaritaGarciatoldVoicesontheBorder,“withregardstotheissue

ofagrochemicals,wedonothaveconclusivedata,buttheprecautionaryprincipalsaysthatoneshouldavoidactivitiesbeforethereisthepossibilityofenvironmentaldamage.”95Thatmeansgrowersshouldstopusingagrochemicalsasprecaution,sotheydonotruntheriskofharmingtheenvironmentandcausingharmtolocalpopulations.BurningSugarcaneWhen Voices interviewed communities in the Bajo Lempa about sugarcane production, one of thebiggestconcernsexpressedwastheimpactthatburningfieldshasonlocalpopulations.Duringthedryseason–JanuarytoApril–itseemsasthoughthewholeregionisonfire.Thesmokeandashfromthefirescontaminatehomes,crops,andwater,andcauserespiratoryillnesses.Thesciencebackstheirconcerns.One2006studypublished in the journal Environmental HealthPerspectivesreportsan“adverseimpactofsugarcane burning emissions on the health of thepopulation,reinforcingtheneedforpubliceffortstoreduceandeventuallyeliminatethissourceofair pollution.” The study found that in Braziliancommunities where sugarcane is grown, duringthe burning season the number of children andelderly admitted to the hospital for respiratoryillnessweremuchhigherthanadmissionsduringthenon-burningseasons.“Theeffectsduringthe

93(Angel,2015)94(UrbinoRodriguez,etal.2012)95(Garcia,2015)

(18)

(OneofmanyfamiliesintheBajoLempaaffectedbytherenalfailure

epidemic)

burning period were much higher than the effects during non-burning period.”96Another study inHondurasconcluded,“outdoorairpollutioninanagriculturalareawheresugarcaneisburnedformuchof the year is associated with a high prevalence of pediatric asthma, atopy, and eczema.”97Theparticulatesfromburningsugarcanecauseenvironmentalrhinitis,“themedicaltermforexcessmucus,congestion and sneezing…where particles clog or irritate nasal passages.” The smoke affects somepeopleworsethanothers.Theonlytreatmentistostayindoorsanduseasinusrinseandsalinenosespray. At times rhinitis can be treatedwithmedications such as Zyrtec,which are designed to helpallergies. But environmental rhinitis is not caused by allergies andmedications generally offer littlerelief.98ResidentsoftheHawaiianislandofMauiarehavingaheateddebateoversugarcaneproductionandspecifically,theissueofburning.Residentscomplainthatsmokecontaminatescommunitieswhentheisland’sonlysugarcanefarmburnstheir36,000acresofsugarcane.Residentsreportlungcancerandreactiveairwaydisease,andteacherssaytheirstudentssufferfromasthmaandnosebleedswhenthefieldsareburning.Maui residentscreatedawebsitewherepeoplecan filecomplaints,and lastyearalonetheyreceived1,100ofthem.Commentsleftforanon-linearticlereportingontheissueseemtorepresent twosidesof thedebate.Onecommentersaysshesupports theburningof sugarcaneandthe sugarcane industry. “It is steeped with history and provides hundreds of jobs for our localcommunity.”Shealsosaysthatsheandherfriendsandfamilyhavenotexperiencedasthmadirectlyrelatedtoburning.99Anothercommenterrespondedthathergrouphas“postedseveralpeerreviewstudies showing that Ag[cultural] smoke DOES cause lung disease on StopCaneBurning.org.”100Theorganization that maintains the site has also filed lawsuits and taken other actions that might beinterestingforcommunitiesintheBajoLempatolearnmoreabout.BiodiversityandLocalEcosystemsBiodiversity is the“varietyof life,”101andessentialbecauseit “boosts ecosystem productivity, where each species, nomatter how small, have an important roll to play. A largernumberofspeciesmeansagreatervarietyofcrops.Greaterspecies diversity ensures natural sustainability for all lifeforms.Healthyecosystemscanbetterwithstandandrecoverfromavarietyofdisasters.”102Simplyput–Salvadoranswillbehealthierandlessvulnerabletodisastersiftheypromotebiodiversity and ensure that their ecosystems are diverse,resilient,andmorecapableofsustaininglife.Biodiversity and mono-crop production of sugarcane aremutually exclusive. “In natural ecosystems the internal

96(Cancado,etal.,2006)97(Herrera-Camino,etal.,2014)98(Albright,2012)99(MunchiesStaff,2105)100(StopCaneBurningonMaui,2015)101(NationalWildlifeFederationn.d.)102(Shah2014)

“For example, recently we heardthat there was 400 hectares ofprotected land that theycut down.Nooneknowswhodidit–thelandsupposedly belonged to the state,andthey saidthattheydon’tknowanything about it. [Governmentofficials]arenotinterestedbecauserightnowthegovernmentwantstogenerate economic activities,money. They don’t want togenerateenvironmentalawareness,and if you file a complaint againstthem,theythreatenyou.”

FocusGroupParticipant

ComunidadAmandoLopez

(19)

regulationoffunctionissubstantiallyaproductofplantbio-diversitythroughflowsofenergy,nutrientsand information, this form of control is progressively lost under agricultural intensification so thatultimately the only integrated ecosystem function is invested in the below-ground subsystems,regulatedpredominatelybychemicalinputsofindustrialorigin.”103Thismeansthatasbiodiversityislosttomono-cropproduction,landbecomesincreasinglyunabletosupportlife,exceptthroughinputssuch as fertilizers, herbicides, fungicides, and pesticides. Biodiversity is lost when growers destroyforestsandotherecosystemstoplantlargeextensionsofcrops.Thelossofplantliferesultsinthelossof insectsandvertebrate species thatno longerhaveahabitat. Theplants, insects, andvertebratesthat survive in the new agricultural setting proliferate due to the lack of predators, requiring thatfarmers use pesticides to keep them under control. This in turn leads to further reduction inbiodiversityanddestructionoftheecosystems.104ElSalvadorhasallowedthemajorityofthecountry’sforeststobecutdown.Today,lessthan2%ofElSalvador’s primary forests survive, and less than 10% of the country is “vegetated.” Deforestationoccurred tomake room for crops such as coffee, indigo, cotton, and now sugarcane. Recently, theMinistry of the Environment and theNationalUniversity of El Salvador studied satellite images anddetermined that sugarcane coverage grew 30,000 hectares between 2000 and 2010. The greatestconcentration of the growth came along the coast in San Miguel, Sonsonate, La Paz, San Vicente,Chalatenango, and Usulután. In 2007 there were 274,321 hectares of forest in El Salvador, notincludingcoffee.Thattotalwas48,280hectares lessthanitwas in1998.Oneofthemost importantforest ecosystems in El Salvador ismangroves.105In the 1950s, El Salvador hadmore than 100,000hectaresofmangroveforests.Today,thereareonly40,000.Duetothedestructionofthesehabitats,10%ofallspecieslivinginElSalvadorarethreatenedorendangered.

Ina2004reportEnvironmentalImpactsofSugarProduction,the World Wildlife Fund concluded, “the environmentalimpactsofsugarcaneproductionhavebeenlargelyignored.Sugarcane plantations in many tropical and subtropicalcountrieshaveledtoperhapsthelargestlossofbiodiversityof any single agricultural project. Although much of thishabitat and species loss is historic, sugar production todayhasawiderangeofnegativeimpactsonsoil,water,andairinpartsoftheworldthatenvironmentalorganizations,suchas the World Wildlife Fund, have identified as globallyimportant.”106In a slide presentation, Jason Clay from theWWFreported,“historicalclearingofawiderangeofuniquehabitats for sugarcane cultivation is probably one of themost significantcausesofbiodiversity loss fromagricultureontheplanet.”107

103(SwiftandAnderson1994)104(Steve2012)105(MinistryoftheEnvironmentandNaturalResources2012)106(Cheesman2004)107(Clay2012)

(20)

“We need a campaign to wakepeopleupandsay, look, inplaceofplantingcaneit’sbetterifyouplant[crops], because the people that[leasetheirlandtoplantcane]havea contract for five years. The[growers] burn every year, andwhen the landowners returnafterwards their land is arid andsick, and there are no nutrients.Then they have to wait another 5yearstoallowthelandtoheal.”

FocusGroupComunidadAmandoLopez

Biodiversity and farming do not have to be mutually exclusive. Farmers have produced food forthousandsofyearswithoutdestroyingtheirhostenvironments.Infact,therearefarmersintheBajoLempa thatproducemore than70varietiesof fruits andvegetableswithoutusingagrochemicalsordestroying their land. Instead they use traditional methods that maintain balance and biodiversity.They even grow sugarcane. The difference is that they do not use heavy tilling practices oragrochemicals,andtheydonotburntheirfields.FoodProduction

Sugarcane is not a food that can sustain Salvadorans, and landdedicatedtosugarcaneproductionislandthatisnotbeingusedtofeedpeople.Accordingtoa2013UnitedNationsCommissiononTradeandDevelopmentreporttitledWakeUpBeforeIt’stooLate, “the world needs a paradigm shift in agriculturaldevelopment: from a ‘green revolution to an ecologicalintensificationapproach.Thisimpliesarapidandsignificantshiftfrom conventional, monoculture-based and high-external-input-development industrial production towards mosaics ofsustainable, regenerative production systems that alsoconsiderablyimprovetheproductivityofsmall-scalefarmers.”108EconomistMiguelAltierisaidsomethingsimilar.“Multifunctionalagriculture can emerge only if landscapes are dominated byhundreds of small bio-diverse farms, which studies show canproduce between two and ten times more per unit area thanlargefarms.Severalstudiesshowthatsmallandmediumfarmersdelivera totaloutputgreater thanextensivemonocultures,and

reduceerosionandconservemorebiodiversity.Communitiessurroundedbysmallfarmsexhibitfewersocialproblems(alcoholism,drugaddiction,andfamilyviolence)andhealthiereconomiesthanthosesurroundedbylargemechanizedfarms.”109In the Bajo Lempa, sugarcane growers are displacing the kinds of small-scale farmers that the UNreportsaystheworldneedsmoreof,andthatMr.Altierisaidaremoreproductiveandbetterforthebiodiversityandsociety.TheproblemisthattheSalvadorangovernmenthasprioritizedtheproductionof tradables,products to sellon internationalmarkets,overdomestic foodproduction.110Under thecurrent neoliberal economicmodel, the Salvadoran governmentwould rather that land in the BajoLempaandotherfertileregionsofElSalvadorbeusedtoproducesugarthatcanbesoldtotheU.S.andChina,thanvegetablesanddairyfordomesticmarkets.Whilesugarcaneproductiondoesgeneratewealthforinvestors,itisnotdistributedequally.Thecommunitieswheresugarcaneisgrownandeventheworkersinthefieldsdonothaveashareinthoseprofitsandremainunabletofeedtheirfamilies.Moreimportantly,thosethatliveinandaroundsugarcanefieldshavetopaytheenvironmental,publichealth,andsocialcostsofthesugarcaneproduction.

108(UnitedNationsConferenceonTradeandDevelopment2013)109(Altieri2009)110(U.S.DepartmentofState2011)

(21)

(OrganicFarmerintheBajoLempawhoproducesmorethan70varietiesoffruitsandvegetablesonhissmallplotofland)

TheemphasisontradablesandproductionofsugarcanehasincreasedthedemandforlandinregionsliketheBajoLempa.Peoplewhowanttogetintosmall-scalefarmingcannotdosobecauselandissoexpensivetorentorbuy.Similarly,peoplewith landarefinding iteasierandmorebeneficialtorenttheir land to sugarcane growers than to farm. Thismeans thatmore land is being used to producesugarcanethantoproducefood.LawsandRegulationsThereareseveralexistinglawsandregulationsthatSalvadoranofficialsshouldenforceagainst large-scalesugarcaneproducersinordertodecreasetheimpactsoncommunitieswhereitisgrown.For example, Article 262-A of the Penal Code bans allburningofcropsandagriculturalfields–theexceptionisanactivitythat isstrictlycultural.111MargaritaGarciasaysthatso far large-scale growers have skirted around the ban byarguing they fall within that strictly cultural exception.112Large-scalegrowersrent land,hireworkersandmachinery,buyagro-chemicals,andsellcanetomills-andtheydoittomake money. Growing sugarcane in this manner is aneconomic venture, not cultural. Small farmers that growpatches of cane that they process at their local trapichemight fall into the cultural exemption, but they do not burn their crops. The Ministry of theEnvironmentandStateProsecutorsshouldprosecutelarge-scalegrowersthatburnandchallengethisideathatburninglargefieldsofcaneisstrictlycultural.According to Margarita Garcia from the Ministry of the Environment, the government should beapplying Article 42 to large-scale sugarcane production.113Article 42 says that all people, natural orlegal, shouldavoidactions thatdeteriorate theenvironment. Italso requires thatallpeoplepreventenvironmentalcontaminationthatcouldharmhealth,qualityoflife,andecosystems.Finallyitrequiresthat people avoid activities that contaminate the air, water, soil, and coast.114Many aspects ofsugarcaneproductionrunafoulofArticle42–heavytilling,burningcrops,anduseofagrochemicals.Under this provision alone, the Ministry of the Environment should shutdown most large-scalesugarcaneoperations,oratleastrequiresthemtodramaticallyalterthewaytheyoperate.MargaritaGarciaalsosaidthateverysugarcaneprojecthastosubmitanenvironmentalapplicationtodetermine whether they need to submit an environmental impact analysis and secure anenvironmental permit. She says that not one grower, however, submits even the environmentalapplication,andtheMinistrydoesnothavetheauthoritytomakethemdoso.“Evenwhenapersonfilesacomplaintagainstagrowerthatdoesnothaveapermit,thelawdoesnotenable[theMinistry]to stop their work.We suggest they stop and submit an environmental application, but it is just a

111(LegislativeAssembly1997)112(Garcia2015)113(Garcia2015)114(LegislativeAssembly1996)

“The act of intentionally burningstubble or crops of any nature, willbesanctionedwithafineofbetween10 and 200 days [income]… Theexception will be farmers whoseagriculturallaborisstrictlycultural.”

Article262APenalCode

(22)

suggestion.We cannot stop a project; the law does not give us any authority to stop any type ofproject.Allwecandoisaskthattheystopandgothroughtheprocess.”115Otherlegalscholarsthatwespoke to seemed to indicate that theMinistry does have the authority to enforce the laws but ischoosingtonotenforceit.AmajorityofsugarcanegrownalongthecoastofElSalvadorisinornearprotectedareas.Therearemanylawsthatcanbeusedtoregulatecaneintheseareas.TheLawonProtectedNaturalAreasandtheLawontheConservationofWildlifecanbeusedtolimittheaffectofsugarcane.Municipalordinancesareanothermechanismforregulatingsugarcaneproduction.Localgovernmentshave the authority to enact ordinances to limit burning, useof agrochemicals, andother aspects ofproduction.TheMunicipalGovernmentofTecoluca, SanVicentepassed suchanordinance last yearwiththehelpoftheMinistryofEnvironmentandcivilsocietyorganizations.GuillerminaRivasoftheTecolucaMunicipalCouncilsaid,“nationalregulationsalreadyexistbuttheydonotenforcethem,andfor that reason our ordinance is important, so that we can achieve what the laws have alreadyestablished.”116In2010civilsocietyorganizationspresentedadraftordinanceonsugarcanetotheMayorofJiquilisco.At the time the authors said, “We are not against the cultivation of sugarcane, which provides animportantsourceofincomeforthecountry.However,weopposethepracticeofburningandtheuseof fertilizers and agrochemicals because they affect our crops and harm our natural resources.”117Nelson Calero, President of the Association of the Communities of the Bajo Lempa says that if theMunicipal governmenthasmadeprogresson theordinance it hasbeenwithoutany input from thelocal population. He said the ordinance came up in a recent conversation with officials from theMayor’s office, and it was clear that the focus is on regulating aspects of the industry and notprohibitingnewcrops.Mr.Caleroadded that large-scalesugarcaneproduction is themain threat tocommunitiesoftheBajoLempa.Itpreventscommunitydevelopmentandaffectstheregion’snaturalresources.118

Wheneverone talksaboutenvironmental laws inElSalvador, there isacommontheme– thereareplentyoflawsbuttheStatedoesn’tenforcethem.Thiscameupinseveralofourconversationsaboutsugarcane. Participants in a focus group in theBajo Lempa communityofBajo Lempa, for example,said,“Whereisthelaw?Here,thereisnoproblemwithlaw,theproblemiswithenforcement.”119

115(Garcia2015)116(Rivas2015)117(Funes2010)118(Calero2015)119(AmandoLopezCommunityBoard2015)

(23)

FindingsandRecommendationsFindings1. ElSalvador’ssugarcaneindustryisdrivenbyneoliberaleconomicpoliciesthatprioritizeproduction

ofexportsandderegulation.Sugarcanegenerateswealthforinvestors,whilecommunitieswhereitisgrownsuffertheenvironmentalandhealthconsequences.

2. Heavytillingandburningcropsquicklyrendersonce-fertilesoilinfertile.3. Agrochemicals used in sugarcaneproduction contaminate the soil,water, andnearby farms and

communities, contributing to the renal failureepidemic thatplaguescoastal regions. Inaddition,theapplicationofripenersbeforeharvestdestroysthecropsonnearbyfarms.

4. The sugarcane industry’s unregulated use of groundwater denies small famers and residents

access.5. The burning of sugarcane causes respiratory illness, asthma, atopy, and eczema in local

populations.6. Large-scaleproductionofsugarcanediminishesbiodiversityanddestroysecosystems.7. Prioritizationofexportcropsdiminishesthefoodsecurityoflocalpopulations.8. TheSalvadorangovernmentdoesnotexerciseitslegalauthorityorenforceitsenvironmentallaws

toregulatesugarcaneproduction.

Recommendations1. TheGovernmentofElSalvadormustbeginenforcingitsenvironmentallaws.2. TheLegislativeAssemblyshouldpassandthePresidentsignintolawtheGeneralWaterLawas

proposedbycivilsocietyorganizationsin2006,alongwiththe2014banonagrochemicals,andtheconstitutionalamendmentonfoodsecurity.

3. TheSalvadorangovernmentshouldenactmorepoliciesthatbenefitsmallfarmersandlocal

markets.Theseincludeprotectingvegetableandgrainmarketswithimporttariffsliketheydoforsugarcanegrowers,andhelpingmoreruralcommunitiescreateweeklyfarmer’smarkets.Thegovernmentshouldalsolaunchanutritioncampaignthatfocusesoneatinglocallyproducedgoods.

4. Municipalgovernmentsshouldadoptordinancesthatregulateagriculturalpractices,andhelprural

communitiescreateenvironmentalunitstomonitorlocaldevelopmentissues.5. Launchacampaigninruralcommunitiesabouttheimpactsoflarge-scaleagriculture,andassist

themindevelopingfoodsecurityplansthatarebasedonlocalproductionforlocalconsumption.6. Createamovementofcommunitiesaffectedbylarge-scalesugarcanetoadvocatefortherightsofthe

peopleandproperregulationoftheindustry.

(24)

References(Name).(2015,June).(J.Acosta,Interviewer)Albright,M.(2012,November1).DoctorsTalkSugarCaneSmoke,HealthEffects.DailyComet.Al-Kaisi,M.,Hanna,M.,&Tidman,M.(2004,June27).IntegratedCropManangement.RetrievedOctober22,2015,fromFrequentTillageanditsImpactonSoilQuality:www.ipm.iastate.edu/ipm/icm/2004/6-28-2004/frequenttill.htmlAltieri,M.A.(2009).GreenDeserts:MonocultureandItsImpactsonBiodiversity.UniversityofCalifornia,Berkeley.AmandoLopezCommunityBoard.(2015,June6).(J.Lochhead,Compiler)Angel,A.(2015,June6).(J.Acosta,Interviewer)Artiga,D.E.(2015,June8).(J.Acosta,Interviewer)AsociaciondeAzucareradeElSalvador.(2010).Industria.RetrievedOctober19,2105,fromAzucardeElSalvador:http://www.asociacionazucarera.net/industria.html#mas1AssociationofSugarcaneProducersofElSalvador.(2016).ProtectingtheEnvironment.RetrievedMarch8,2016,fromSugarofElSalvador:TasteofProgress:http://azucardeelsalvador.com/protegiendo-el-medio-ambiente/IndustriaCañeraenElSalvador.Aportes(2016).[MotionPicture].Calero,N.(2015,November7).SugarcaneOrdinanceofJiquilisco.(J.Acosta,Interviewer)CamposHernandez,A.,PatricioRomero,J.,AmbrizCervantes,R.,&DiazCorro,L.(2006,April).ManejoIntegradoParaelControldeGusanoBarrenadorenCanadeAzucarenElEstadodeMorelos.RetrievedOctober22,2015,fromCOFUPRO:http://www.cofupro.org.mx/cofupro/images/contenidoweb/indice/unidadmorelos/libros/UTIMISIMAS/MANEJO%20INTEGRADO%20GUSANO%20BARRENADOR%20CANA.pdfCancado,J.E.,Saldiva,P.H.,Pereira,L.A.,Lara,L.B.,Artaxo,P.,Martinelli,L.A.,etal.(2006,May).TheImpactofSugarCane-BurningEmissionsontheRespiratorySystemsofChildrenandtheElderly.EnvironmentalHealthPerspectives.Cheesman,O.(2004).Environmentalimpactsofsugarproduction:thecultivationandprocessingofsugarcaneandsugarbeet.Oxford.ChewingCane.(n.d.).WhatisSugarcane?HistoryofSugarcane.RetrievedOctober20,2015,fromSugarcaneHistory:http://www.chewingcane.com/sugarcane_history.htmlClay,J.(2012,June21).SugarProductionandtheEnvironment.BetterSugarMeeting.

CleanEnergyCouncil.(2014).Bioenergy.RetrievedOctober22,2015,fromCleanEnergyCouncil:https://www.cleanenergycouncil.org.au/technologies/bioenergy.htmlDiario1.com.(2015,February20).Bayerlanzanuevasoluciónparacontroldemalezaencañadeazúcar.RetrievedOctober20,2015,fromDiario1.com:http://diario1.com/nacionales/2015/02/bayer-lanza-nueva-solucion-para-control-de-maleza-en-cana-de-azucar/DiccionariodeEspecialidadesAgroquimicas.(n.d.).Jade.RetrievedOctober19,2015,fromDiccionariodeEspecialidadesAgroquimicas:http://www.agroquimicos-organicosplm.com/jade-1128-3#inicioElSalvadorandUnitedStatesGovernments.(2011,November).PartnershipforGrowthElSalvador-UnitedStatesJointCountryActionPlan.RetrievedJanuary28,2016,fromhttp://photos.state.gov/libraries/elsavador/92891/octubre2011/Joint_Country_Action_Plan.pdfElSalvador,Guatemala,andHonduras.(2014,September).ThePlanoftheAlliancefortheProsperityoftheNorthernTriangle:ARoadMap.RetrievedJanuary28,2016,fromidbdocs:http://idbdocs.iadb.org/wsdocs/getdocument.aspx?docnum=39224238FoodandAgricultureOrganizationoftheUnitedNations.(2008,July).AGP-WhatisHealthySoil.RetrievedFebruary13,2016,fromhttp://www.fao.org/agriculture/crops/thematic-sitemap/theme/spi/soil-biodiversity/the-nature-of-soil/what-is-a-healthy-soil/en/Funes,A.V.(2010,November26).DenouncingPracticesintheCultivationofSugarcanethatAffecttheHealthoftheBajoLempa.ElUniversitario.FUTESCAN.(2015,July7).(J.Acosta,Interviewer)Garcia,M.(2015,June).(J.Acosta,Interviewer)Gravois,K.(2015,December10).SugarcaneRipenerRecommendations-Glyphosate.RetrievedJanuary15,2016,fromLSUAgCenter:http://www.lsuagcenter.com/en/crops_livestock/crops/sugarcane/harvesting_processing/Sugarcane-Ripener-Recommendations--Glyphosate.htmHegde,G.,Mandya,M.,Gokarnakar,S.S.,Babu,V.N.,&Shivaramaiah.Hernandez,G.(2013,October11).EachSalvadoranConsumes95PoundsoFSugar.elsalvador.comHernandez,W.(2015,October).(J.Acosta,Interviewer)Herrera,M.(2015).ElSalvadorSugarAnnual.GlobalAgriculturalInformationNetwork.USDAForeignAgriculuturalService.

Herrera-Camino,A.,Stevens,J.,Bendy,L.,Yu,Z.,Slaven,J.,Tepper,R.,etal.(2014).AssociationBetweenSugarCaneBurningandthePrevalenceofAsthma,Atopy,andPulmonaryFunctionChangesinRuralHonduranChildren.RespiratoryandCriticalCareMedicine.Hicks,B.(2012).AgriculturalPesticidesandHumanHealth.RetrievedfromGeologyandHumanHealth:http://serc.carleton.edu/NAGTWorkshops/health/case_studies/pesticides.htmlHumanRightsWatch.(2004).TurningaBlindEye:HazardousChildLaborinElSalvador'sSugarcaneCultivation.HumanRightsWatch.IndexMundi.(2016,February16).SugarMonthlyPrice-UScentsperpound.RetrievedMarch14,2016,fromIndexMundi:http://www.indexmundi.com/commodities/?commodity=sugar&months=60IngenioLaCabana.(2010,February25).IngenioLaCabana.RetrievedNovember2,2015,fromhttps://www.youtube.com/watch?v=u2WRu1xaAZkJohnson,M.(n.d.).theSugarTradeintheWestIndiesandBrazilBetween1492and1700.RetrievedOctober22,2015,fromUniversityofMinnesotaLibraries:https://www.lib.umn.edu/bell/tradeproducts/sugarKeilhuaser,J.(2011,November14).ProductionofSugarcaneGrew30%in10Years.LaPrensaGrafica.LegislativeAssembly.(1996).LawontheEnvironmentandNaturalResources.Law.LegislativeAssembly.(1997,June10).PenalCodeofElSalvador,Article262-A.MangroveActionProject.(2014).HumanImpactsonMangroves.InM.A.Keelyy,MarvelousMangroveAustralia:AWetlandsEducationResourceBookforAustralia.MangroveActionProject.Martinez,E.,&Garcia,A.(n.d.).WhatisNeoliberalism?RetrievedMarch15,2016,fromCorpWatch:HoldingCorporationsAccountable:http://www.corpwatch.org/article.php?id=376Martinez,J.E.(2016,January27).(J.Acosta,Interviewer)Members,A.L.(2015,June8).(J.Lochhead,Interviewer)MinistryofAgriculture.(2014).InformationaboutSugarcaneinElSalvador:2013-2014Harvest.MinistryoftheAgriculture.MinistryoftheEnvironmentandNaturalResources.(2013).NationalStrategyonBiodiversity.RetrievedOctober22,2015,fromMinistryoftheEnvironmentandNaturalResources:http://www.marn.gob.sv/phocadownload/Estrategia-Nacional-Biodiversidad.pdfMinistryoftheEnvironmentandNaturalResources.(2012).NationalEnvironmentalPolicy2012.MinistryoftheEnvironment.

MinistryoftheEnvironmentandNaturalResources.(n.d.).ZafraVerde.RetrievedOctober22,2015,fromMinistryoftheEnvironmentandNaturalResources:http://www.marn.sv/temas/biodiversidad/zafra-verde.htmlMunchiesStaff.(2105,March15).Munchies.RetrievedfromVices:http://munchies.vice.com/articles/maui-residents-say-sugar-cane-harvest-isnt-so-sweetMutiyar,P.K.,Mittal,A.K.,&Pekdeger,A.(2009).IdentificationandMonitoringofPesticidesinaWellFieldinDelhi,India.Proceedingsofthe2009InternationalConferenceonChemical,BiologicalandEnvironmentalEngineering.Singapore:CBEE.NationalOceanicandAtmosphericAdministration-EarthSyste.(2014,October19).Wetlands-MangroveEcology.RetrievedOctober22,2015,fromTheEncyclopediaofEarth:http://www.eoearth.org/view/article/159955/NationalWildlifeFederation.(n.d.).WildlifeConservation-WhatisBiodiversity.Retrievedfromhttp://www.nwf.org/Wildlife/Wildlife-Conservation/Biodiversity.aspxNetafim.(n.d.).SugarcaneCrops.RetrievedOctober22,2015,fromPlantingMaterial:http://www.sugarcanecrops.com/agronomic_practices/planting_material/Netafim.(n.d.).TilleringPhase.RetrievedOctober22,2015,fromSugarcaneCrops:http://www.sugarcanecrops.com/crop_growth_phases/tillering_phase/Nitafim.(n.d.).SugarcaneCrops.RetrievedOctober22,2015,fromFertigation:http://www.sugarcanecrops.com/agronomic_practices/fertigation/NuevaEsperanzaFocusGroup.(2015,June).(J.Lochhead,Interviewer)OfficeoftheUnitedStatesTradeRepresentative.(2014,September).U.S.TradeRepresentativeFromanAnnouncesFY2015WTOTariff-RateQuotaAllocation.RetrievedOctober22,2015,fromOfficeoftheUnitedStatesTradeRepresentative:https://ustr.gov/about-us/policy-offices/press-office/press-releases/2014/September/USTR-Froman-Announces-FY-2015-WTO-Tariff-Rate-Quota-Allocations-for-Raw-CaneOrganizationofAmericanStates.(1974).CanadeAzucar.RetrievedOctober19,2015,fromhttps://www.oas.org/dsd/publications/Unit/oea34s/ch026.htm#TopOfPageOrtega,A.W.(2008).AntecedentesGeneralesdelosIngeniosAzucareros.RetrievedAugust19,2015,fromUniversityofFranciscoGavidia:http://ri.ufg.edu.sv/jspui/bitstream/11592/7150/2/662.669-A385d-Capitulo%20I.pdfOrtiz,R.(2014,October17).Forcasta10%fallinSugarExportsThisYear.elsalvador.com.Ovando,I.M.(2014).CostosdelaProducciondelaCanadeAzucar.RetrievedOctober18,2015,fromhttp://agroinsumosdeelsalvador.com/wp-content/uploads/2013/10/ESTRUCTURA-DE-COSTOS-FINAL.pdf

Pastron,R.M.(2015,February18).PreparingtoSend50,000TonsofSugartoChina.LaPrensaGrafica.Rivas,G.(2015,June10).(J.Acosta,Interviewer)Post,W.M.,&Kwon,K.C.(2000).SoilCarbonSequestrationandLandUseChange:ProcessandPotential.GlobalChangeBiology.PresidentoftheRepublicofElSalvador.(2015,June5).MinisteroftheEnvironment.RetrievedMarch21,2016,fromPresidentoftheRepublicofElSalvador:http://www.presidencia.gob.sv/marn-suspende-permisos-ambientales-en-volcan-de-san-salvador-y-cordillera-del-balsamo/Ramirez,D.M.(2015,June9).(J.Acosta,Interviewer)REDD/CCAD-GIZ.(2014).AnalysisofSugarcaneProductioninElSalvadorandtheLinkswiththeProcessofChangingLandUse,Deforestation,andDegredationofForestEcosystems.Managua:ITZTANInstituteofResearch.Samsel,A.,&Seneff,a.S.(2013,December).Glyphosate,PathwaystoModernDiseasesII:CeliacSprueandGlutenIntolerance.USNationalLibraryofMedicine.Shah,A.(2014,January19).WhyisBiodiversityImportant?WhoCares?.RetrievedOctober29,2015,fromGlobalIssues:http://www.globalissues.org/article/170/why-is-biodiversity-important-who-caresSouza,R.A.,Telles,T.S.,Machado,W.,Hungria,M.,Filho,J.T.,&Guimaraes,M.(2012).EffectsofSugarcaneHarvestingWithBurningontheChemicalandMicrobiologicalPropertiesoftheSoil.Agriculutre,Ecosystems,andEnvironment,155,1-6.Srivastava,K.(2014,December20).DNAIndia.RetrievedOctober22,2015,fromDNA:http://www.dnaindia.com/mumbai/report-falling-crude-oil-prices-alarm-sugarcane-farmers-2045463Steve.(2012,February8).Monocropping:NecessityorEnvironmentallyNeglectful?RetrievedOctober29,2015,fromGreenSteve:http://www.greensteve.com/538/monocropping-necessity-or-environmentally-neglectful/StopCaneBurningonMaui.(2015).StopCaneBurningonMaui.RetrievedNovember22,2105,fromhttp://StopCaneBurning.orgSwift,M.,&Anderson,J.(1994).BiodiversityandEcosystemFunctioninAgriculturalSystems.SpringerStudyEdition,15-41.

Syngenta.(n.d.).Actara25WG.RetrievedOctober19,2015,fromSyngenta:http://www3.syngenta.com/country/gt/sp/Soluciones/Proteccion_Cultivos/Vegetales/Insecticidas/Paginas/Actara25WG.aspxSyngenta.(2014).Atrazine.RetrievedOctober22,2015,fromSyngenta:http://www.atrazine.com/atramain.aspxTrabanino,D.R.(2015,June8).(J.Acosta,Interviewer)Trautmann,N.,Porter,K.,&Wagenet,R.(2012).PesticideSafetyEducationProgram(PSEP).RetrievedFebruary16,2016,fromCornellCooperativeExtension:http://psep.cce.cornell.edu/facts-slides-self/facts/mod-ag-grw85.aspxU.S.CustomsandBorderProtection.(n.d.).CAFTASugarTRQ9822052000.RetrievedOctober22,2015,fromU.S.CustomsandBoarderProtectionDocuments:http://www.cbp.gov/sites/default/files/documents/CAFTASugar.xlsU.S.DepartmentofState.(2011,November3).PartnershipforGrowth:ElSalvador2011-2015.RetrievedMarch10,2016,fromDepartmentofState:http://www.state.gov/p/wha/rls/fs/2011/176636.htmUnitedNationsConferenceonTradeandDevelopment.(2013).TradeandEnvitonmentReview2013WakeUpBeforeItstooLate.UnitedNations.UrbinoRodriguez,J.,Ramos,J.,Hernandez,E.,Hernandez,D.A.,&GeremiasPintin,G.(2012).ImpactodelCultivodelaCanadeAzucarenelDeterioroAmbientaldeComunidadesRurales.SanSalvador.USDepartmentofAgriculture.(n.d.).SugarImportProgram.RetrievedOctober22,2015,fromUSDepartmentofAgricultureForeignAgricultureService:http://www.fas.usda.gov/programs/sugar-import-programVictoria,J.I.,Guzman,M.L.,&Angel,J.C.(1995).EnfermedadesdelaCanadeAzucarenColombia.RetrievedOctober22,2015,fromCenicana:http://www.cenicana.org/pdf/documentos_no_seriados/libro_el_cultivo_cana/libro_p265-293.pdfWorldHealthOrganization.(n.d.).Trade,ForeignPolicy,Diplomacy,andHealth.RetrievedfromWorldHealthOrganization:http://www.who.int/trade/glossary/story028/en/WorldWildlifeFund.(n.d.).Farming:SoilErosion.RetrievedFebruary16,2016,fromWorldWildlifeFund:http://wwf.panda.org/what_we_do/footprint/agriculture/impacts/soil_erosion/