Languages of IndonesiaRepublic of Indonesia, Republik Indonesia. 248,496,420. National or official language: Indonesian. Literacy rate: 78%–85%. Also includes Arabic, languages of India and Europe. Information mainly from R. Blust 1983–1984; D. Tryon 1995; S. Wurm and S. Hattori 1981. Blind population: 1,000,000. Deaf population: 2,000,000 or more (1993). Deaf institutions: 94. The number of individual languages listed for Indonesia is 726. Of those, 719 are living languages, 2 are second languages without mother-tongue speakers, and 5 have no known speakers.

Indonesia (Java and Bali) Indonesia (Kalimantan) Indonesia (Maluku) Indonesia (Nusa Tenggara) Indonesia (Papua) Indonesia (Sulawesi) Indonesia (Sumatra)

Languages of Indonesia (Java and Bali)Indonesia (Java and Bali). 120,000,000 in Java (2003), 3,573,000 in Bali (2000 census). Immigrant languages: Dutch, Western Cham. The number of individual languages listed for Indonesia (Java and Bali) is 21. Of those, 20 are living languages and 1 has no known speakers.

Badui [bac] 20,000 (2000 census). West Java, Mount Kendeng, Kabupaten Rangkasbitung, Pandeglang, Sukabumi. Dialects: Sometimes considered a dialect of Sunda [sun].  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Malayo-Sumbawan, Sundanese  More information.

Bali [ban] 3,330,000 (2000 census). 7,000 in South Sulawesi. Island of Bali, north Nusa Penida, west Lombok Islands, and east Java, South Sulawesi. Alternate names: Balinese.  Dialects: Lowland Bali (Klungkung, Karangasem, Buleleng, Gianyar, Tabanan, Jembrana, Badung), Highland Bali (“Bali Aga” ), Nusa Penida. Reportedly two distinct dialects. High Bali is used in religion, but those who can use it are diminishing. There are speech strata in several lowland varieties (1989 A. Clynes).  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Malayo-Sumbawan, North and East, Bali-Sasak-Sumbawa  More information.

Benkala Sign Language [bqy] 41 (2007 SIL). Bali Island, Kabupaten District, Bengkala village. Classification: Deaf sign language  Nearly extinct. More information.

Betawi [bew] 2,700,000 (Johnstone 1993). Jakarta, Java. Alternate names: Batavi, Batawi, Betawi Malay, Jakarta Malay, Melayu Jakarte.  Dialects: A Malay-based creole quite distinct from both standard

Indonesian [ind] and from other Malay-based pidgins and creoles. It evolved by the mid-19th century. Unique phonological, morphological, and lexical traits. Also influences from Peranakan Indonesian [pea] and Bali [bcp]. Often not intelligible to Indonesian speakers not familiar with it (Allen 1989).  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Malayo-Sumbawan, North and East, Malayic, Malay, Trade  More information.

Chinese, Hakka [hak] 640,000 in Indonesia (1982).  Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Chinese  More information.

Chinese, Mandarin [cmn] 460,000 in Indonesia (1982). Scattered throughout Indonesia. Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Chinese  More information.

Chinese, Min Dong [cdo] 20,000 in Indonesia (1982).  Alternate names: Min Dong.  Dialects: Xinghua (Hsinghua).  Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Chinese  More information.

Chinese, Min Nan [nan] 700,000 in Indonesia (1982). Pontianak (West Borneo) and elsewhere. Alternate names: Min Nan, Minnan.  Dialects: Fujian (Hokkien), Chaochow (Tiu Chiu).  Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Chinese  More information.

Chinese, Yue [yue] 180,000 in Indonesia (1982).  Alternate names: Cantonese, Yue, Yueh.  Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Chinese  More information.

Indonesian [ind] 22,800,000 in Indonesia (2000). Population total all countries: 23,187,680. Widespread in Indonesia. Also in Netherlands, Philippines, Saudi Arabia, Singapore, United States. Alternate names: Bahasa Indonesia.  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Malayo-Sumbawan, North and East, Malayic, Malay  More information.

Indonesian Sign Language

[inl] Ethnic population: 2,000,000 deaf people (1993).  Classification: Deaf sign language  More information.

Indonesian, Peranakan [pea] 20,000 (Wurm and Hattori 1981). East and central Java. Alternate names: Baba Indonesian, Chinese Indonesian, Peranakan.  Dialects: Based on Indonesian [ind] and Javanese [jav], with Mandarin elements in contrast to Baba Malay [mbf], which has Hokkien (Chinese, Min Nan [nan]) elements.  Classification: Creole, Malay based  More information.

Javanese [jav] 84,300,000 in Indonesia (2000 census). 25,000 in south Sulawesi, and 69,000,000 on Java, 500,000 of them being in Banten region and 2,500,000 in Cirebon region of Java. Population total all countries: 84,608,470. Central Java, east third of west Java, southwest half of east

Java. Resettlements in Papua, Sulawesi, Maluku, Kalimantan, and Sumatra. Also in Malaysia (Sabah), Netherlands, Singapore, United States. Alternate names: Djawa, Jawa.  Dialects: Jawa Halus, Cirebon (Tjirebon, Cheribon), Tegal, Indramayu, Solo, Tembung, Pasisir, Surabaya, Malang-Pasuruan, Banten, Manuk, Banten, Cirebon, Tegal, Solo, Surabaya, Malang-Pasuruan. High Javanese (Jawa Halus) is the language of religion, but the number of people that can use that variety is mostly limited to Central Javanese speakers and diminishing. The Javanese varieties in Suriname and in New Caledonia have changed sufficiently to be only partially intelligible with difficulty. Javanese in New Caledonia are reported to not be able to use High Javanese (Koentjaraninggrat 1971). Several dialects in Sabah.  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Javanese  More information.

Javindo [jvd] Extinct. Central Java. Alternate names: “Krontjong”.  Dialects: Derived from Dutch lexicon and Javanese grammar.  Classification: Creole, Dutch based  More information.

Kangean [kkv] 110,000 (2000 census). East Madura area. Dialects: Barely intelligible with East Madura. A separate language (Stevens 1968). Lexical similarity: 75% with Madura [mad].  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Malayo-Sumbawan, Madurese  More information.

Madura [mad] 13,600,000 in Indonesia (2000 census). 86,000 Bawean. Population total all countries: 13,600,900. North coastal area of east Java, Sapudi Islands, Madura Island. Also in Singapore. Alternate names: Basa Mathura, Madhura, Madurese.  Dialects: Bawean (Boyanese), Bangkalan (Bangkalon), Pamekesan (Pamekasan), Sampang, Sapudi, Sumenep. Dialect continuum. Reports differ about inherent intelligibility among dialects: some Sumenep and Sampang report they cannot understand Pamekasan or Sumenep. Difficult intelligibility with Kangean [kkv]. Lexical similarity: 75% with Kangean.  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Malayo-Sumbawan, Madurese  More information.

Malay, Balinese [mhp] 25,000 (2000 census). Bali. Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Malayo-Sumbawan, North and East, Malayic, Malay, Trade  More information.

Osing [osi] 300,000 (2000 census). East Java, east and northeast coast. Alternate names: Banyuwangi.  Dialects: Related to East Javanese.  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Javanese  More information.

Petjo [pey]  Java, Djakarta (Batavia). Alternate names: Pecok, Petjoh.  Dialects: Influences from Dutch [nld], Javanese [jav], Betawi [bew].  Classification: Creole, Dutch based 

More information. Sunda [sun] 34,000,000 (2000 census). Java, western third of the island.

Alternate names: Priangan, Sundanese.  Dialects: Bogor (Krawang), Pringan, Cirebon.  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Malayo-Sumbawan, Sundanese  More information.

Tengger [tes] 80,000 (2000 census). East Java, Tengger-Semeru massif and slopes of Mt. Bromo. Alternate names: Tenggerese.  Dialects: May be marginally intelligible with Javanese [jav].  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Javanese  More information.

Languages of Indonesia (Kalimantan)Indonesia (Kalimantan). 11,331,558 (2000 census). 4 provinces. Immigrant languages: Tringgus-Sembaan Bidayuh. Information mainly from R. Blust 1974; A. Cense and E. Uhlenbeck 1958. The number of individual languages listed for Indonesia (Kalimantan) is 74. Of those, all are living languages.

Ampanang [apg] 30,000 (Wurm and Hattori 1981). East Kalimantan Province, central, southeast of Tunjung, Jambu, Lamper area. Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Greater Barito, Barito-Mahakam  More information.

Aoheng [pni] 2,630 (Wurm and Hattori 1981). East Kalimantan Province, north central near Sarawak border, upper reaches of Kapuas, Barito, and Mahakam rivers. Alternate names: Penihing.  Dialects: Lexical similarity: 69% with Kereho [xke], 67% with Hovongan [hov].  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, North Borneo, North Sarawakan, Kayan-Kenyah, Kayanic, Muller-Schwaner ‘Punan’  More information.

Bahau [bhv] 19,000 (2007 SIL). East Kalimantan Province. Northeast, north, and southeast of Busang. Long Apari, Long Pahangai, Long Bagun, and Long Hubung subdistricts, Kutai Barat Regency. Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, North Borneo, North Sarawakan, Kayan-Kenyah, Kayanic, Kayan Proper  More information.

Bakati’ [bei] 4,000 (1986 UBS). Northwest near Sarawak border, Sambas and Selvas areas. Alternate names: Bakati Nyam, Bakati Riok, Bakatiq, Bekati.  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Land Dayak, Bakati’  More information.

Bakati’, Rara [lra] 12,000 in Indonesia (2007). West Kalimantan Province, upper Lundu and Sambas rivers, Bengkayang area east of Gunung Pendering, and north in Pejampi and 2 other villages. Alternate names: Luru, Lara’, Bekatiq, Bekati’ Nyam-Pelayo, Bekati’ Kendayan.  Dialects:

Bina’e.  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Land Dayak, Bakati’  More information.

Bakati’, Sara [sre] 4,000. West Kalimantan Province, near Sanggau-Ledo northeast of Ledo. Alternate names: Sara, Riok.  Dialects: Some dialect differences. Unidirectional intelligibility from Sara to Rara-Bakati’.  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Land Dayak, Bakati’  More information.

Bakumpai [bkr] 100,000 (2003). Central Kalimantan Province. Kapuas and Barito rivers, northeast of Kuala Kapuas. Alternate names: Bakambai, Bara-Jida.  Dialects: Bakumpai, Mengkatip (Mangkatip, Oloh Mengkatip). Lexical similarity: 75% with Ngaju [nij], 45% with Banjar [bjn].  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Greater Barito, West, South  More information.

Banjar [bjn] 3,500,000 in Indonesia (2000 census), increasing. Population total all countries: 3,502,300. Around Banjarmasin south and east; East Kalimantan, coastal regions of Pulau Laut, Kutai and Pasir; Central Kalimantan as far as Sampit. Also in Malaysia (Sabah). Alternate names: Bandjarese, Banjar Malay, Banjarese, Labuhan.  Dialects: Kuala, Hulu. Lexical similarity: 73% with Indonesian [ind], 66% with Tamuan (Malayic Dayak), 45% with Bakumpai [bkr], 35% with Ngaju [nij].  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Malayo-Sumbawan, North and East, Malayic, Malay  More information.

Basap [bdb] 15,000 (2007 SIL). East Kalimantan Province, scattered in Bulungan, Sangkulirang, and Kutai regencies. Dialects: Jembayan, Bulungan, Berau, Dumaring, Binatang, Karangan.  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, North Borneo, Rejang-Sajau  More information.

Benyadu’ [byd] 54,000 (2007). West Kalimantan Province, northwest near Sarawak border, Landak and Bengkayang regencies. Alternate names: Njadu, Nyadu, Balantiang, Balantian.  Dialects: Pandu, Nyadu (Balantian, Balantiang, Njadu).  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Land Dayak  More information.

Bidayuh, Biatah [bth] 8,480 in Indonesia (2000). Northwest Kalimantan, on Sarawak border. Mainly in Sarawak. Alternate names: Biatah, Bideyu, Landu, Lundu, Pueh, Siburan.  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Land Dayak, Bidayuh, Core, Central  More information.

Bidayuh, Bukar-Sadong [sdo]  West Kalimantan Province, Sarawak border, Sanggau and Sintang regencies. Alternate names: Buka, Bukar, Bukar Sadong, Bukar Sadung Bidayah, Sabutan, Sadong, Serian, Tebakang.  Dialects: Bukar Sadong, Bukar Bidayuh (Bidayuh, Bidayah).  Classification:

Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Land Dayak, Bidayuh, Eastern  More information.

Bolongan [blj] 30,000 (Pusat Bahasa 2002). East Kalimantan Province, Tanjungselor area, lower Kayan River. Alternate names: Bulungan.  Dialects: May be a dialect of Tidong [tid] or Segai [sge]. Classification uncertain.  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, North Borneo, North Sarawakan, Dayic, Murutic, Tidong  More information.

Bukat [bvk] 400 (Wurm and Hattori 1981). West Kalimantan Province, northeast near Sarawak border, Kapuas River, southeast of Mendalam. 3 areas. Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, North Borneo, North Sarawakan, Kayan-Kenyah, Kayanic, Muller-Schwaner ’Punan’  More information.

Bukitan [bkn] 570 in Indonesia (2000). Population total all countries: 860. East Kalimantan Province, Iwan River, Sarawak border. Also in Malaysia (Sarawak). Alternate names: Bakatan, Bakitan, Beketan, Mangkettan, Manketa, Pakatan.  Dialects: Punan Ukit, Punan Busang.  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, North Borneo, Melanau-Kajang, Kajang  More information.

Burusu [bqr] 4,350 (2007 SIL). East Kalimantan Province, Bulungan Regency, Sesayap subdistrict, Sekatakbunyi area, north of Sajau Basap [sjb] language. Alternate names: Berusuh, Bulusu.  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, North Borneo, Rejang-Sajau  More information.

Dusun Deyah [dun] 20,000 (Wurm and Hattori 1981). South Kalimantan Province, Tabalong River northeast of Bongkang. Alternate names: Deah, Dejah.  Dialects: Lexical similarity: 53% with Lawangan [lbx], 52% with Tawoyan [twy].  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Greater Barito, East, Central-South, Central  More information.

Dusun Malang [duq] 4,500 (2003). 2,000 Bayan. Central Kalimantan Province, North Barito Regency, west of Muarainu, northeast of Muarateweh. Dialects: Bayan, Dusun Malang. Most similar to Ma’anyan [mhy], Paku [pku], Dusun Witu [duw], Malagasy [plt]. Lexical similarity: 90% between the 2 dialects.  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Greater Barito, East, Central-South, South  More information.

Dusun Witu [duw] 5,000 (2003). Central Kalimantan Province, South Barito Regency, Pendang and Buntokecil regions; south of Muarateweh. Dialects: Dusun Pepas, Dusun Witu. Most similar to Ma’anyan [mhy], Paku, Dusun Malang [duq], Malagasy [plt]. Lexical similarity: 75% with Ma’anyan, 73% with Paku [pku].  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Greater Barito, East, Central-South, South  More information.

Embaloh [emb] 10,000 (1991 NTM). West Kalimantan Province, Kapuas Hulu Regency, south of Sarawak border, upper Kapuas River: Embaloh, Leboyan, Lauh, Palin, Nyabau, Mandai, and Kalis tributaries. Alternate names: Malo, Maloh, Matoh, Mbaloh, Memaloh, Palin, Pari, Sangau, Sanggau.  Dialects: Kalis (Kalis Maloh, Kalis Dayak). Kalis may be a separate language.  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, South Sulawesi, Bugis, Tamanic  More information.

Hovongan [hov] 1,000 (1991 NTM). West Kalimantan Province near Sarawak and East Kalimantan Province borders; Kapuas Hulu Regency, far northeast corner. Alternate names: Punan Bungan.  Dialects: Hovongan, Penyavung, Semukung Uheng. Lexical similarity: 69% with Kereho [xke], 67% with Aoheng [pni].  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, North Borneo, North Sarawakan, Kayan-Kenyah, Kayanic, Muller-Schwaner ‘Punan’  More information.

Iban [iba] 15,000 in Kalimantan (Benjamin and Chou 2003). West Kalimantan Province, Sarawak border. Alternate names: Sea Dayak.  Dialects: Batang Lupar, Bugau, Kantu’, Ketungau (Air Tabun, Sigarau, Seklau, Sekapat, Banjur, Sebaru’, Demam, Maung, Sesat).  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Malayo-Sumbawan, North and East, Malayic, Ibanic  More information.

Jangkang [djo] 37,000 (2007 SIL). West Kalimantan Province, Central Sanggau Regency, south of Balai Sebut. Dialects: Jangkang proper, Pompang.  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Land Dayak, Southern  More information.

Kayan Mahakam [xay] 1,300 (Wurm and Hattori 1981). East Kalimantan Province, West Kutai and Malinau regencies, 2 areas. Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, North Borneo, North Sarawakan, Kayan-Kenyah, Kayanic, Kayan Proper  More information.

Kayan, Busang [bfg] 3,000 (Wurm and Hattori 1981). East Kalimantan Province, upper Mahakam, Oga, Belayan rivers. Alternate names: Busang, Kajan, Kajang.  Dialects: Mahakam Busang, Belayan, Long Bleh.  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, North Borneo, North Sarawakan, Kayan-Kenyah, Kayanic, Kayan Proper  More information.

Kayan, Kayan River [xkn] 2,000 (Wurm and Hattori 1981). East Kalimantan Province, Kayan River, 2 areas. Alternate names: Kajang, Kayan River Kajan.  Dialects: Uma Leken, Kayaniyut Kayan, Uma Laran.  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, North Borneo, North Sarawakan, Kayan-Kenyah, Kayanic, Kayan Proper  More information.

Kayan, Mendalam [xkd] 1,500 (Wurm and Hattori 1981). West Kalimantan Province,

northeast of Putus Sibau, Mendalam River. Alternate names: Mendalam Kajan.  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, North Borneo, North Sarawakan, Kayan-Kenyah, Kayanic, Kayan Proper  More information.

Kayan, Wahau [whu] 500 (Wurm and Hattori 1981). East Kalimantan Province, north of Muara Wahau. Alternate names: Wahau Kajan.  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, North Borneo, North Sarawakan, Kayan-Kenyah, Kayanic, Kayan Proper  More information.

Kelabit [kzi] 640 in Indonesia (2000). East Kalimantan Province, remote mountains, on Sarawak border, northwest of Longkemuat. Mainly in Sarawak. Alternate names: Kalabit, Kerabit, Apo Duat.  Dialects: Lon Bangag, Tring, Bareo (Bario), Pa’ Mada, Long Napir.  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, North Borneo, North Sarawakan, Dayic, Kelabitic  More information.

Kembayan [xem] 11,000 (2007 SIL). West Kalimantan Province, near Sarawak border, Balaikarangan, Kembayan, Landak River area. Alternate names: Karambai.  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Land Dayak, Southern  More information.

Kendayan [knx] 280,000 in Indonesia (2007). Population total all countries: 290,700. West Kalimantan Province, northeast of Bengkayang, Ledo area, Madi and Papan jungle area; Sambas regency. Also in Malaysia (Sarawak). Alternate names: Baicit, Kendayan-Ambawang, Kendayan Dayak, Damea, Salako.  Dialects: Ambawang, Kendayan, Ahe, Selako.  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Malayo-Sumbawan, North and East, Malayic, Kendayan  More information.

Keninjal [knl] 32,000 (2007 SIL). West Kalimantan Province, Sayan and Melawi rivers, Nangapinoh, Nangaella, Nangasayan, Gelalak areas. Alternate names: Dayak Kaninjal, Kaninjal, Kaninjal Dayak.  Dialects: Kubing.  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Malayo-Sumbawan, North and East, Malayic, Kendayan  More information.

Kenyah, Mainstream [xkl] 12,000 in Indonesia (2007), decreasing. Population total all countries: 32,000. East Kalimantan Province, Malinau Regency, Pimping, Long Setulang, Batu Kajang, Long Uli, Long Belua villages, Kayan, Mahakam, Upper Baram, Bahau, Upper Balui, Malinau, Belayan, and Telen river areas. Also in Malaysia (Sarawak). Alternate names: Usun Apau Kenyah, Highland Kenyah.  Dialects: Lepo’ Tau, Lepo’ Bem, Uma’ Jalan, Uma’ Tukung, Lepo’ Ke, Lepo’ Kuda, Lepo’ Maut, Lepo’ Ndang, Badeng, Bakung, Lepo’ Tepu’.  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, North Borneo, North Sarawakan, Kayan-Kenyah, Kenyah 

More information. Kenyah, Wahau [whk] 8,000 (2007), decreasing. East Kalimantan Province, upper

Mahakam River, Batu Majang, Buluk Sen, Uma’ Dian, Muara Pedohon, Kampung Baru, Uma’ Bekuai, Tabang Lama villages. Alternate names: Wahau Kenya, Lebu’ Kulit.  Dialects: Uma Timai, Lebu’ Kulit, Uma’ Ujok.  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, North Borneo, North Sarawakan, Kayan-Kenyah, Kenyah, Kayanic Kenyah  More information.

Kereho [xke] 500 (2003). West Kalimantan Province, far east Kapuas Hulu Regency, near Sarawak border, Kereho River. Alternate names: Keriau Punan.  Dialects: Busang (Kereho-Busang), Seputan, Uheng (Kereho-Uheng). Lexical similarity: 69% with Hovongan [hov], 69% with Aoheng [pni].  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, North Borneo, North Sarawakan, Kayan-Kenyah, Kayanic, Muller-Schwaner ‘Punan’  More information.

Kohin [kkx] 8,000 (2003). Central Kalimantan Province, Kotawaringin Timur Regency, central and north Seruyan River area. 10 villages. Alternate names: Bahasa Seruyan, Seruyan.  Dialects: Lexical similarity: 60%–65% with Ot Danum [otd], 50%–69% with Ngaju [nij].  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Greater Barito, West, North  More information.

Lawangan [lbx] 100,000 (Wurm and Hattori 1981). East central Kalimantan, Karau River area. Alternate names: Luwangan, Northeast Barito.  Dialects: Ajuh, Bakoi (Lampung), Bantian (Bentian), Banuwang, Bawu (Bawo), Kali, Karau (Beloh), Lawa, Lolang, Mantararen, Njumit, Purai, Purung, Tuwang, Pasir, Benua, Taboyan. At least 17 dialects. Tawoyan [twy] may be inherently intelligible. Lexical similarity: 77% with Tawoyan, 53% with Dusun Deyah [dun].  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Greater Barito, East, North  More information.

Lengilu [lgi] 4 (2000 S. Wurm). Northeast, between Sa’ban and Lundayeh. Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, North Borneo, North Sarawakan, Dayic, Kelabitic  Nearly extinct. More information.

Lun Bawang [lnd] 23,000 in Indonesia (2007 SIL). Population total all countries: 47,500. Interior from Brunei Bay to Padas River headwaters, to Baram headwaters, and into East Kalimantan, Indonesian mountains where Sesayap River tributaries arise. Also in Brunei, Malaysia (Sarawak). Alternate names: Southern Murut, Lundayeh, Lun Daye, Lun Dayah, Lun Daya, Lun Dayoh, Lundaya Putuk.  Dialects: Lun Daye, Papadi, Lun Bawang (Long Bawan, Sarawak Murut). Not Murutic, although sometimes called Southern Murut.  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, North Borneo, North Sarawakan, Dayic, Kelabitic 

More information. Ma’anyan [mhy] 150,000 (2003). Central Kalimantan, Barito Selatan Regency,

South Tamianglayang area, Dusun Hilir, Karau Kuala, Dusun Selatan, Dusun Utara, Gunung Bintang Awai, Dusun Tengah, Awang, and Patangkep Tutui subdistricts. Patai River drainage area. Alternate names: Ma’anjan, Maanyak Dayak.  Dialects: Samihim (Buluh Kuning), Sihong (Siong), Dusun Balangan. Related to Malagasy languages in Madagascar. Lexical similarity: 77% with Paku [pku], 75% with Dusun Witu [duv].  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Greater Barito, East, Central-South, South  More information.

Malay, Berau [bve] 11,200 (2007 SIL). East Kalimantan Province, central coastal area, Tanjungreder and Muaramalinau north to Sepinang south. Alternate names: Berau, Merau Malay.  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Malayo-Sumbawan, North and East, Malayic, Malay  More information.

Malay, Bukit [bvu] 59,000 (2007 SIL). East Kalimantan Province, southeast, Sampanahan River, northwest of Limbungan. Alternate names: Bukit, Meratus, Bukat.  Dialects: A variant of Banjar Malay [bjn].  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Malayo-Sumbawan, North and East, Malayic, Malay  More information.

Malay, Kota Bangun Kutai

[mqg] 80,000 (Wurm and Hattori 1981). East Kalimantan Province, central Mahakam River basin. Dialects: Not intelligible with Tenggarong Kutai Malay [vkt], but may be intelligible with one of its dialects (Northern Kutai).  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Malayo-Sumbawan, North and East, Malayic, Malay  More information.

Malay, Tenggarong Kutai

[vkt] 210,000 (Wurm and Hattori 1981). 100,000 in Tenggarong, 60,000 in Ancalong, 50,000 in Northern Kutai. East Kalimantan Province, Mahakam River basin, east central coastal area, from Sepinang and Tg; Mangkalihat north to Muarabadak and Samarinda south. Alternate names: Kutai, Tenggarong.  Dialects: Tenggarong Kutai, Ancalong Kutai, Northern Kutai. Many dialects. Tenggarong and Kota Bangun (Malay, Kota Bangun Kutai [mqg]) are not inherently intelligible. Shares phonological innovations with Berau Malay [bve], Banjar [bjn], and Brunei [xkd].  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Malayo-Sumbawan, North and East, Malayic, Malay  More information.

Malayic Dayak [xdy] 520,000 (Wurm and Hattori 1981). 300 Tapitn, 100,000 Banana’, 100,000 Kayung, 200,000 Delang, 10,000 Semitau, 10,000 Suhaid, 20,000 Mentebah-Suruk. Large portions of eastern West Kalimantan and western Central Kalimantan provinces. Banana’ and

Tapitn are western, between Singakawang, Bengkayang, Darit, and Sungairaya; Kayung and Delang are southern, between Sandai, Muarakayang, Pembuanghulu, Sukamara, and Sukaraja; Semitau, Suhaid, and Mentebah-Suruk are eastern, southeast of Kapuas River from Sintang to Putus Sibau. Alternate names: Bamayo, Bumayoh.  Dialects: Tapitn, Banana’, Kayung (Kayong), Delang, Semitau, Suhaid, Mentebah-Suruk, Arut (Sukarame), Lamandau (Landau Kantu), Sukamara (Kerta Mulya), Riam (Nibung Terjung), Belantikan (Sungkup), Tamuan, Tomun, Pangin, Sekakai, Silat. Listed dialects form a chain and may constitute 3 or more languages. Related to Kendayan [knx] and Keninjal [knl].  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Malayo-Sumbawan, North and East, Malayic, Malay  More information.

Modang [mxd] 15,300 (Wurm and Hattori 1981). East Kalimantan Province, Segah, Kelinjau, and Belayan rivers. 5 areas. Dialects: Kelingan (Long Wai, Long We), Long Glat, Long Bento’, Benehes, Nahes, Liah Bing.  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, North Borneo, North Sarawakan, Kayan-Kenyah, Kayanic, Modang  More information.

Mualang [mtd] 40,000 (2007 Tjia). West Kalimantan Province, Belitang Hilir, Belitang, and Belitang Hulu Sekadau subdistricts, along Ayak and Belitang rivers, about 320 kms. upstream from Pontianak. Dialects: Mualang Ili’, Mualang Ulu. Similar to Iban [iba].  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Malayo-Sumbawan, North and East, Malayic, Ibanic  More information.

Ngaju [nij] 890,000 (2003). Kalimantan, Kapuas, Kahayan, Katingan, and Mentaya rivers, south. Alternate names: Biadju, Dayak Ngaju, Ngadju, Ngaja, Ngaju Dayak, Southwest Barito.  Dialects: Ba’amang (Bara-Bare, Sampit), Katingan Ngaju, Katingan Ngawa, Kahayan, Kahayan Kapuas, Mantangai (Oloh Mangtangai), Pulopetak. Related to Bakumpai [bkr]. Lexical similarity: 75% with Bakumpai, 62% with Kohin [kkx], 50% with Ot Danum [otd], 35% with Banjar [bjn].  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Greater Barito, West, South  More information.

Okolod [kqv] 3,390 in Indonesia (2000). Population total all countries: 4,970. East Kalimantan Province along Sabah border, east of Lumbis, north of Lundayeh; also in Sarawak. Also in Malaysia (Sarawak). Alternate names: Kolod, Kolour, Kolur, Okolod Murut.  Dialects: Lexical similarity: 82% with Okolod of Sabah, 70% with Pensiangan Murut dialect of Tagal Murut [mvv], 34% with Lun Bawang [lnd].  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, North Borneo, North Sarawakan, Dayic, Murutic, Murut  More information.

Ot Danum [otd] 78,800 (2007 SIL). Upper reaches of south Borneo River, large area south of Schwaner Range. Ulu Ai’ on Mandai River with 7 villages. Alternate names: Dohoi, Malahoi, Uud Danum, Uut Danum.  Dialects: Ot Balawan, Ot Banu’u, Ot Murung 1 (Murung 1, Punan Ratah), Ot Olang, Ot Tuhup, Sarawai (Melawi), Dohoi, Ulu Ai’ (Da’an), Sebaung, Kadorih, Kuhin. Lexical similarity: 70% with Siang [sya], 65% with Kohin [kkx], 60% with Katingan dialect of Ngaju [nij], 50% with Ngaju (main dialect) [nij].  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Greater Barito, West, North  More information.

Paku [pku] 3,500 (2003), decreasing. Central Kalimantan Province, East Barito Regency, south of Ampah. Alternate names: Bakau.  Dialects: Lexical similarity: 77% with Ma’anyan [mhy], 73% with Dusun Witu [duv].  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Greater Barito, East, Central-South, South  More information.

Punan Aput [pud] 370 (Wurm and Hattori 1981). East Kalimantan Province, west and north of Mt. Menyapa. Alternate names: Aput.  Dialects: Allegedly unintelligible to other Penan languages.  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, North Borneo, North Sarawakan, Kayan-Kenyah, Kayanic, Muller-Schwaner ‘Punan’  More information.

Punan Merah [puf] 140 (Wurm and Hattori 1981). East Kalimantan Province, Mahakam River, east of Ujohhilang. Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, North Borneo, North Sarawakan, Kayan-Kenyah, Kayanic, Muller-Schwaner ‘Punan’  More information.

Punan Merap [puc] 200 (Wurm and Hattori 1981). East Kalimantan Province, east of Longkemuat. Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, North Borneo, Rejang-Sajau  More information.

Punan Tubu [puj] 2,000 (Wurm and Hattori 1981). East Kalimantan Province, Malinau, Mentarang, and Sembakung rivers, coastal. 8 locations. Dialects: Not a Kenyah language (Soriente 2003).  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, North Borneo, North Sarawakan, Punan Tubu  More information.

Putoh [put] 6,000 (Wurm and Hattori 1981). East Kalimantan Province, east of Lundayeh and Sa’ban, Mentarang River, Longberang, Mensalong, Bangalan areas. Alternate names: Putuk.  Dialects: Pa Kembaloh, Abai. May be the same as Lun Bawang [lnd].  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, North Borneo, North Sarawakan, Dayic, Kelabitic  More information.

Ribun [rir] 45,000 (Wurm and Hattori 1981). West Kalimantan Province, Kapuas Hulu Regency, Tayan Hulu subdistrict. Dialects: Ribun,

Bekidoh.  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Land Dayak, Southern  More information.

Sa’ban [snv] 850 in Indonesia (2000). East Kalimantan Province, Nunukan Regency, Sarawak border, south of Lundayeh. Alternate names: Saban, Merau.  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, North Borneo, North Sarawakan, Dayic, Kelabitic  More information.

Sajau Basap [sjb] 6,000 (Wurm and Hattori 1981). East Kalimantan Province, Berau and Bulungan regencies, northeast of Muaramalinau. Alternate names: Sajau, Sujau.  Dialects: Punan Sajau, Punan Basap, Punan Batu 2. Related to Basap [bdb].  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, North Borneo, Rejang-Sajau  More information.

Sanggau [scg] 45,000 (Wurm and Hattori 1981). West Kalimantan Province, Sanggau Regency, Kapuas River. Dialects: Dosan, Mayau, Sanggau. Very heterogenous dialects, probably more than 1 language in this group—not all Sanggau isolects mutually intelligible. Koman and Semerawai could be part of this group.  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Land Dayak  More information.

Seberuang [sbx] 37,000 (2007 SIL). West Kalimantan Province, Kapuas area from Nanga Silat to Selimbau, on Belimbing, Lebang, Belitang, Seauk, Tempunak, Selimbau, Silat rivers. Dialects: Quite similar to Desa.  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Malayo-Sumbawan, North and East, Malayic, Ibanic  More information.

Segai [sge] 2,000 (Wurm and Hattori 1981). East Kalimantan Province, Berau regency, Kelai River and around Longlaai. Alternate names: Called Segayi by the Berau, Ga’ay by the Kenyah and Kayan.  Dialects: Kelai, Segah.  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, North Borneo, North Sarawakan, Kayan-Kenyah, Kayanic, Modang  More information.

Selungai Murut [slg] 640 in Indonesia (2000). Population total all countries: 1,240. East Kalimantan Province, Nunukan Regency east of Lumbis on upper reaches of Sembakung River. Also in Malaysia (Sabah). Alternate names: Murut.  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, North Borneo, North Sarawakan, Dayic, Murutic, Murut  More information.

Semandang [sdm] 20,000. West Kalimantan Province, Ketapang Regency, Kualan and Semandang rivers. Alternate names: Kualan-Semandang.  Dialects: Semandang, Gerai, Beginci, Bihak, Komi.  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Land Dayak, Southern  More information.

Sembakung Murut [sbr] 3,180 in Indonesia (2000). Population total all countries: 5,180. East Kalimantan Province, Nunukan Regency, Sembakung River mouth into Sabah. Also in Malaysia (Sabah). Alternate names: Sembakoeng, Sembakong, Simbakong, Tingalun, Tinggalan, Tinggalum.  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, North Borneo, North Sarawakan, Dayic, Murutic, Tidong  More information.

Siang [sya] 60,000 (Wurm and Hattori 1981). Central Kalimantan Province, Murung Raya Regency, east of Dohoi. Alternate names: Ot Siang.  Dialects: Siang, Murung 2. Related to Dohoi.  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Greater Barito, West, North  More information.

Tagal Murut [mvv] 2,000 in Indonesia. East Kalimantan Province, Nunukan Regency, Pegalan Valley, Alumbis River. Alternate names: Semambu, Semembu, Sumambu, Sumambu-Tagal, Sumambuq.  Dialects: Rundum (Arundum), Tagal (Tagol, North Borneo Murut, Sabah Murut), Sumambu (Semembu, Sumambuq), Tolokoson (Telekoson), Sapulot Murut (Sapulut Murut), Pensiangan Murut (Pentjangan, Tagul, Taggal, Lagunan Murut), Alumbis (Lumbis, Loembis), Tawan, Tomani (Tumaniq), Maligan (Mauligan, Meligan, Bol Murut, Bole Murut).  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, North Borneo, North Sarawakan, Dayic, Murutic, Murut  More information.

Taman [tmn] 30,000 (2007 SIL). West Kalimantan Province, Kapuas Hulu regency, Kapuas River, upriver from Putussibau; Mendalam and Sibau tributaries. Alternate names: Dayak Taman, Taman Dayak.  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, South Sulawesi, Bugis, Tamanic  More information.

Tausug [tsg] 12,000 in Indonesia (1981 Wurm). Northeast Kalimantan coastal settlements, immigrants from Sulu Archipelago in the Philippines. Alternate names: Joloano Sulu, Moro Joloano, Sooloo, Sulu, Suluk, Taosug, Tausog, Taw Sug.  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Philippine, Greater Central Philippine, Central Philippine, Bisayan, South, Butuan-Tausug  More information.

Tawoyan [twy] 20,000 (Wurm and Hattori 1981). East Central around Palori. Alternate names: Tabojan, Tabojan Tongka, Taboyan, Tabuyan, Tawoyan Dayak, Tewoyan.  Dialects: Lexical similarity: 77% with Lawangan [lbx], 52% with Dusun Deyah.  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Greater Barito, East, North  More information.

Tidong [tid] 27,000 in Indonesia (2007 SIL). Population total all countries: 47,000. East Kalimantan Province, Bulungan Regency, Sembakung and Sibuka rivers, coast and islands around Tarakan and interior, Malinau River. Also in Malaysia (Sabah). Alternate names:

Camucones, Tedong, Tidoeng, Tidung, Tiran, Tirones, Tiroon, Zedong.  Dialects: Nonukan (Nunukan), Penchangan, Sedalir (Salalir, Sadalir, Saralir, Selalir), Tidung, Tarakan (Terakan), Sesayap (Sesajap), Sibuku.  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, North Borneo, North Sarawakan, Dayic, Murutic, Tidong  More information.

Tunjung [tjg] 50,000 (Wurm and Hattori 1981). East Kalimantan Province, Kutai Regency, between Adas, Dempar, Melak, and east around the lake; south Muntaiwan area. Alternate names: Tunjung Dayak.  Dialects: Tunjung (Tunjung Tengah), Tunjung Londong, Tunjung Linggang, Pahu.  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Greater Barito, Barito-Mahakam  More information.

Uma’ Lasan [xky] 1,500 in Indonesia (Soriente 2003, 2005). East Kalimantan Province, Malinau regency, primarily Long Pujungan and Long Jelet Mesahan villages, also Long Pejalin (Uma’ Alim). Alternate names: Western Kenyah.  Dialects: Uma’ Alim, Uma’ Lasan, Uma’ Baka.  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, North Borneo, North Sarawakan, Kayan-Kenyah, Kenyah, Upper Pujungan  More information.

Uma’ Lung [ulu] 3,000 (2006). East Kalimantan Province, Malinau regency mostly, Pimping, Long Setulang, Batu Kajang, Long Uli, Long Belua villages. Alternate names: Oma Longh.  Dialects: Marginally intelligible with Uma Lasan [xky].  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, North Borneo, North Sarawakan, Kayan-Kenyah, Kenyah, Upper Pujungan  More information.

Languages of Indonesia (Maluku)Indonesia (Maluku). 2,549,454 (2000 census). Information mainly from R. Bolton 1989, 1990; J. Collins 1983; B. D. Grimes 1994; C. Grimes 1995, 2000; C. and B. D. Grimes 1983; K. Polman 1981; M. Taber 1993; P. Taylor 1991; E. Travis 1986; K. Whinnom 1956. The number of individual languages listed for Indonesia (Maluku) is 132. Of those, 128 are living languages and 4 have no known speakers.

Alune [alp] 17,200 (2000). Central Maluku, west Seram, Seram Barat District, 5 villages; Kairatu, Taniwel districts, 22 villages. Alternate names: Patasiwa Alfoeren, Sapalewa.  Dialects: Kairatu, Central West Alune (Niniari-Piru-Riring-Lumoli), South Alune (Rambatu-Manussa-Rumberu), North Coastal Alune (Nikulkan-Murnaten-Wakolo), Central East Alune (Buriah-Weth-Laturake). Rambatu dialect reportedly prestigious. Kawe [kgb] may be a dialect. Related to Naka’ela [nae] and Lisabata-Nuniali [lcs]. Lexical similarity: 77%–91% among dialects, 64% with Lisabata-Nuniali, 63% with Hulung [huk] and Naka’ela.  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian,

Central-Eastern, Central Malayo-Polynesian, Central Maluku, East, Seram, Nunusaku, Three Rivers, Amalumute, Northwest Seram, Ulat Inai  More information.

Amahai [amq] 50 (1987 SIL). Central Maluku, southwest Seram. 4 villages near Masohi. Alternate names: Amahei.  Dialects: Makariki, Rutah, Soahuku. Language subgroup with Iha [ihp] and Kaibobo [kzb]. Also related to Elpaputih [elp] and Nusa Laut [nul]. Lexical similarity: 87% between dialects Makariki and Rutah villages; probably 2 languages, 59%-69% with Saparua [spr], 59% with Kamarian [kzx], 58% with Kaibobo, 52% with Piru [ppr], Luhu [lcq], and Hulung [huk], 50% with Alune [alp], 49% with Naka’ela [nae], 47% with Lisabata-Nuniali [lcs] and South Wemale [tlw], 45% with North Wemale [weo] and Nuaulu, 44% with Boano [bzn] and Saleman [sau].  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Central Malayo-Polynesian, Central Maluku, East, Seram, Nunusaku, Piru Bay, East, Seram Straits, Uliase, Hatuhaha, Elpaputi  Nearly extinct. More information.

Ambelau [amv] 5,700 (1989 SIL). Ethnic population: 5,700. Central Maluku, Ambelau Island off southeast coast of Buru Island; Buru coast, Wae Tawa village, opposite Ambelau. 8 villages. Alternate names: Amblau.  Dialects: Not intelligible with Buru [mhs].  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Central Malayo-Polynesian, Central Maluku, Ambelau  More information.

Aputai [apx] 150 (Hinton 1990). North central Wetar coast, southwest Maluku, Ilputih village; south central Wetar coast, Lurang village. Alternate names: Ilputih, Opotai, Tutunohan.  Dialects: Ilputih, Lurang, Welemur. Lexical similarity: 93% among dialects, 79% with Perai [wet], 74% with Tugun [tzn], 69% with Ili’uun [ilu], 57% with Talur [ilw].  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Central Malayo-Polynesian, Timor, Extra-Ramelaic, North, Wetar  More information.

Asilulu [asl] 8,760 (1987 SIL). Northwest Ambon Island, Asilulu, Ureng, Negeri Lima villages; some in West Seram, Hoamoal Peninsula, south coast. Dialects: Asilulu, Ureng, Negeri Lima (Lima, Henalima). Lexical similarity: 88% between Asilulu and the Negeri Lima dialect, 78%–82% with Seit-Kaitetu [hik], 72%–73% with the Wakal dialect of Hitu [htu], 67%–72% with Larike-Wakasihu [alo], 71%–73% with Luhu [lcq] on Seram.  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Central Malayo-Polynesian, Central Maluku, East, Seram, Nunusaku, Piru Bay, West, Asilulu  More information.

Babar, North [bcd] 1,000 (2007 SIL). South Maluku, northeast Babar Island, east of Timor, Ilwiara, Nakarhamto, Yatoke villages. Dialects: Reported

dialect variation.  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Central Malayo-Polynesian, Babar, North  More information.

Babar, Southeast [vbb] 4,460 (2007 SIL). South Maluku, southeast Babar Island. Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Central Malayo-Polynesian, Babar, South, Masela-South Babar  More information.

Banda [bnd] 3,000 (1987 SIL). South Maluku, Kei Islands, west and northeast side of Kei Besar Island, Banda-Eli and Banda-Elat villages, possibly another village. Dialects: Eli, Elat. Different from other languages of south Maluku.  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Central Malayo-Polynesian, Central Maluku, East, Banda-Geser  More information.

Barakai [baj] 4,300 (1995 SIL). South Maluku; Barakai Island, Longgar, Apara, Bemun, and Mesiang; southeast Aru Islands; Gomo-Gomo Island northeast of Barakai. Alternate names: Workai.  Dialects: Barakai, Mesiang. Similar to Karey [kyd]. Lexical similarity: 70% with Batuley [bay].  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Central Malayo-Polynesian, Aru  More information.

Bati [bvt] 3,500 (Loski 1989). Coastal east Seram Island between Kian Darat and Keleser, and inland. Alternate names: Gah.  Dialects: Related to Geser-Gorom [ges], Watubela [wah].  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Central Malayo-Polynesian, Central Maluku, East, Banda-Geser, Geser-Gorom  More information.

Batuley [bay] 3,840 (1995 SIL). South Maluku, off the east coast of Wokam Island. 7 villages in Aru on small islands. Alternate names: Gwataley, Watulai.  Dialects: Related to Kompane [kvp] to the north and Lola [lcd] to the south, slightly more distant from Dobel [kvo]. Lexical similarity: 70% with Barakai [baj] and Karey [kyd], 81% with Mariri [mqi].  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Central Malayo-Polynesian, Aru  More information.

Benggoi [bgy] 350 (1989 SIL). Central Maluku, Werinama and Bula districts, east Seram, north coast, Benggoi, Balakeo, Lesa villages. Alternate names: Bengoi, Isal, Kobi-Benggoi, Uhei Kachlakan, Uhei-Kaclakin, Uhei-Kahlakim.  Dialects: Lesa, Benggoi, Balakeo. Lexical similarity: 70% among ‘dialects’; 54% to 66% with Liana-Seti [ste], 46%–50% with Salas Gunung dialect [sgu], 32%–46% with Manusela [wha].  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Central Malayo-Polynesian, Central Maluku, East, Seram, Manusela-Seti  More information.

Boano [bzn] 3,240 (1982). Central Maluku, Boano Island west of Seram,

mainly North Buano village. Alternate names: Buano.  Dialects: Related to Larike-Wakasihu [alo]. Lexical similarity: 60% with Luhu [lcq], 61% with Lisabata-Nuniali [lcs] (most similar).  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Central Malayo-Polynesian, Central Maluku, East, Seram, Nunusaku, Piru Bay, West, Hoamoal, East  More information.

Bobot [bty] 4,500 (1989 SIL). Central Maluku, southeast Seram, Werinama District, from Atiahu village to Kota Baru, and Tunsai village in Liana area. Alternate names: Ahtiago, Atiahu, Hatumeten, Ntau, Werinama.  Dialects: Lexical similarity: 44% with Sepa [spb] and Teluti [tlt], 42% with Yalahatan [jal].  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Central Malayo-Polynesian, Central Maluku, East, Seram, Bobot  More information.

Buli [bzq] 2,520 (2000). North Maluku, central Halmahera, east coast. 3 villages. Dialects: Buli, Wayamli (Wajamli, Jawanli).  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Eastern Malayo-Polynesian, South Halmahera-West New Guinea, South Halmahera, Southeast  More information.

Buru [mhs] 33,000 in Indonesia (1989 SIL). 6,622 Wae Sama, 9,600 Masarete, 14,258 Rana, 500 Fogi, and 2,000 in Ambon. Central Maluku, Ambon, Jakarta, south, southeast, and central Buru Island. 70 villages. Also in Netherlands. Alternate names: Boeroe, Buruese.  Dialects: Masarete (South Buru), Wae Sama (Waesama), Central Buru (Rana, Wae Geren, Wae Kabo), Fogi (Li Emteban, Tomahu). Li Garan is a special taboo dialect spoken by the Rana people (3,000 to 5,000 users). Ethnic population Fogi dialect: 500, but no remaining speakers. Lexical similarity: 90% between Masarete and Wae Sama dialects, 88% between Masarete and Rana, 80% between Wae Sama and Rana, 68% between Lisela [lcl] and Masarete, 48% between Leliali dialect of Kayeli [kzl] and Masarete, 45% between Kayeli [kzl] and Masarete, 44% between Ambelau [amv] and Masarete, 27%–33% between Buru dialects and Sula [szn].  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Central Malayo-Polynesian, Central Maluku, Buru  More information.

Dai [dij] 820 (2007 SIL). Dai Island, Sinairusi, Lewa, Hertuti villages, Sinairusi Kecil hamlet. Dialects: No dialect variation. Lexical similarity: 72% with Dawera-Daweloor (most similar) [ddw], 71% with Nakarahamto, 49% with Masela-South Babar, 48% with Tepa (Luang).  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Central Malayo-Polynesian, Babar, North  More information.

Damar, East [dmr] 2,800 (1990 SIL). South Maluku, north of eastern tip of Timor

Island, east side of Damar Island, 6 villages, and east of Roma Island. Alternate names: South Damar.  Dialects: Not intelligible with West Damar [drn].  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Central Malayo-Polynesian, Timor, Extra-Ramelaic, East, East Damar  More information.

Damar, West [drn] 800 (1987 SIL). South Maluku, north of the eastern tip of Timor Island, north side of Damar Island, 2 villages. Alternate names: North Damar.  Dialects: Not intelligible with East Damar [dmr].  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Central Malayo-Polynesian, West Damar  More information.

Dawera-Daweloor [ddw] 1,270 (2007 SIL). South Maluku, Dawelor Island, Wiratan, Watuwei and Nurnyaman; Dawera Island, Welora, Letmasa and Ilmarang northeast of Babar Island. Alternate names: Davelor.  Dialects: Minor dialect differences.  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Central Malayo-Polynesian, Babar, North  More information.

Dobel [kvo] 8,000 (2000 SIL), increasing. 6,500 plus 1,000 outside the area; 2,700 in Northern Dobel, 1,800 in Straits Dobel, 1,400 in Southeast Dobel. Southeast Maluku, Aru Islands, entire east coast of Kobror Island, 1 village in southeast Wokam Island, 4 villages eastern half of Barakai Strait (Kobror and Koba Islands), 2 villages in central Kobror Island. 18 villages. Also Dobo and Ambon. Alternate names: Doibel, Kobro’or, Kobroor, Sersifar Tannin.  Dialects: Northern Dobel, Straits Dobel, Southeast Dobel. At least 3 dialects. Related to Lola [lcd], Lorang [lrn]. Lexical similarity: 78%–86% with Koba [kpd].  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Central Malayo-Polynesian, Aru  More information.

Elpaputih [elp] 420 (2000). Central Maluku, West Seram. Alternate names: Elpaputi.  Dialects: Most similar to Nusa Laut [nul], Amahai [amq].  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Central Malayo-Polynesian, Central Maluku, East, Seram, Nunusaku, Piru Bay, East, Seram Straits, Uliase, Hatuhaha, Elpaputi  More information.

Emplawas [emw] 250 (2007 SIL). South Maluku, southwest Babar Island, Emplawas village. Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Central Malayo-Polynesian, Babar, South, Southwest Babar  Nearly extinct. More information.

Fordata [frd] 50,000 (Marshall 2000). 25,000 in the language area and 25,000 elsewhere (Marshall 2000). Southeast Maluku, north Tanimbar Islands of the Fordata, Larat, the Molu-Maru group, a few villages on the northwest part of Yamdena, and on Seira off the west coast of

Yamdena. 30 villages. Also Saumlaki, Ambon, Tual, Sorong, Hayapura, Jakarta. Alternate names: Larat, Vai Fordata, Vai Tnebar, Vaidida.  Dialects: Fordata-Larat I, Fordata-Larat II, Molo (Molo-Maru), Sera (Seira). Sera is most divergent dialect. Lexical similarity: 68% with Kei [kei].  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Central Malayo-Polynesian, Southeast Maluku, Kei-Tanimbar, Kei-Fordata  More information.

Galela [gbi] 79,000 (1990 SIL). 41,000 Kadai, 10,000 Kadina, 24,000 Morotai, and 4,000 Sopi. North Maluku, Galela Bay, north of Tobelo to northern tip of Halmahera; Morotai Island except southeast quadrant; Gunage and Moari islands near Kayoa, Bacan, Obi, scattered along the southwest coast of Halmahera. Dialects: Kadai, Kadina, Morotai, Sopi. Laba [lau] may be a dialect. 65% intelligibility with Loloda [loa], Loloda 85% with Galela.  Classification: West Papuan, North Halmahera, Galela-Loloda  More information.

Gamkonora [gak] 1,500 (Voorhoeve and Visser 1987). North Maluku, north Halmahera, a few coastal villages south of the Ibu area. Dialects: Lexical similarity: 81% with Waioli [wli].  Classification: West Papuan, North Halmahera, Sahu  More information.

Gane [gzn] 2,900 (1982 D. Teljeur). North Maluku, Halmahera Island, south southern peninsula. Alternate names: Gani, Giman.  Dialects: Similar to East Makian [mky], Kayoa, a dialect of East Makian [mky].  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Eastern Malayo-Polynesian, South Halmahera-West New Guinea, South Halmahera, East Makian-Gane  More information.

Gebe [gei] 2,650 (2000). North Maluku, Gebe, Yoi’umiyal, and Gag islands between southern Halmahera and Waigeo Island (Papua). 4 villages. Alternate names: Gebi.  Dialects: Umera. Lexical similarity: 44% with Patani [ptn].  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Eastern Malayo-Polynesian, South Halmahera-West New Guinea, West New Guinea, Cenderawasih Bay, Raja Ampat  More information.

Geser-Gorom [ges] 36,500 (1989 SIL). East end of Seram, Gorom Islands. Alternate names: Gesa, Geser, Goram, Goran, Gorom, Gorong, Seram, Seran, Seran Laut.  Dialects: Goram Laut, Mina Mina Gorong, Kelimuri. Lexical similarity: 73%–93% among dialects, 51%–61% with Watubela [wah].  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Central Malayo-Polynesian, Central Maluku, East, Banda-Geser, Geser-Gorom  More information.

Gorap [goq] 1,000 (1992 SIL). North Maluku, Morotai Island, Pilowo and Waringin villages; Central Halmahera, Bobane and Igo villages.

Dialects: Reportedly a mixed language, with Ternate [tft] and Malay [max] words and different word order from other languages of north Halmahera or Austronesian languages. Lexical similarity: 85% with Indonesian [ind], but comprehension is limited.  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Unclassified  More information.

Haruku [hrk] 18,200 (1989 SIL). Central Maluku, Lease Islands, Haruku Island. Dialects: Hulaliu, Pelauw, Kailolo, Rohomoni. Each village uses a separate dialect. Lexical similarity: 81%–92% among dialects, 74%–76% with Tulehu [tlu], 67%–71% with Saparua [spr].  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Central Malayo-Polynesian, Central Maluku, East, Seram, Nunusaku, Piru Bay  More information.

Hitu [htu] 16,000 (1987 SIL). Ambon Island, Hitu Peninsula, Wakal, Hitu, Mamala, Morela, Hila. Dialects: Wakal, Morela, Mamala, Hitu, Hila. Lexical similarity: 67%–82% with Seit-Kaitetu [hik], 74%–82% with Tulehu [tlu].  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Central Malayo-Polynesian, Central Maluku, East, Seram, Nunusaku, Piru Bay, East, Seram Straits, Ambon  More information.

Horuru [hrr] 4,240 (2000). Central Maluku, Seram. Dialects: Hulung [huk] may be related. Horuru may be alternate name for another language.  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Central Malayo-Polynesian, Central Maluku, East, Seram, Nunusaku, Three Rivers, Amalumute, Northwest Seram  More information.

Hoti [hti] 10 (1987 SIL). Central Maluku, east Seram. Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Central Malayo-Polynesian, Central Maluku, East, Seram, East Seram  Nearly extinct. More information.

Huaulu [hud] 300 (1987 SIL). Central Maluku, east Seram, northwest of Manusela. 10 villages. Alternate names: Alakamat, Bahasa Asli.  Dialects: Lexical similarity: 64%–72% with Manusela [wha] dialects.  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Central Malayo-Polynesian, Central Maluku, East, Seram, Manusela-Seti  More information.

Hukumina [huw] Extinct. Northwest Buru Island, Hukumina, Palumata, and Tomahu districts. Alternate names: Bambaa.  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Hukumina  More information.

Hulung [huk] 10 (1991 SIL). Central Maluku, west Seram, Hulung village, Sauweli hamlet. Dialects: Lexical similarity: 67% with Lisabata-Nuniali [lcs], 66% with Naka’ela [nae] and South Wemale [tlw], 63% with Alune [alp], 59% with North Wemale [weo].  Classification:

Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Central Malayo-Polynesian, Central Maluku, East, Seram, Nunusaku, Three Rivers, Amalumute, Northwest Seram, Hulung  Nearly extinct. More information.

Ibu [ibu] 35 (Voorhoeve and Visser 1987). Ethnic population: 50 to 200 (1984). North Maluku, north Halmahera Island, Ibu River mouth, Gamlamo and Gamici villages. Dialects: May be inherently intelligible with Sahu [saj].  Classification: West Papuan, North Halmahera, Sahu  Nearly extinct. More information.

Ili’uun [ilu] 1,400 (1990 SIL). Southwest Maluku, Wetar Island coast, Telemar, Karbubu, Klishatu, Ilmaumau, Erai (Eray), Nabar, Esulit villages on the west end of Wetar, and Istutun village on Lirang Island, southwest tip of Wetar. Alternate names: Erai, Hahutan, Hahutau, Iliun, Ilmaumau, Limera.  Dialects: Telemar, Karbubu, Ustutun, Klishatu, Ilmaumau, Eray, Nabar, Esulit. All also use the Ili’uun dialect. Lexical similarity: 93%–97% among dialects. Lexical similarity 73% with Tugun [tzn], 69% with Aputai [apx], 67% with Perai [wet], 51% with Talur [ilw].  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Central Malayo-Polynesian, Timor, Extra-Ramelaic, North, Wetar  More information.

Imroing [imr] 560 (2007 SIL). South Maluku, southwest Babar Island, Imroing village. Alternate names: Imroin.  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Central Malayo-Polynesian, Babar, South, Southwest Babar  More information.

Kadai [kzd] 350 (2000). North Maluku, Sula Islands, Taliabu Island, interior mountains. Possibly Mangole Island mountains. Dialects: May be intelligible with Taliabu [tlv].  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Central Malayo-Polynesian, Central Maluku, Sula, Taliabo  More information.

Kaibobo [kzb] 500 (Collins 1983). Central Maluku, west Seram, Piru Bay, Kairatu District, Kaibobo, Hatusua, Waisamu, Kamarian, Seruawan, Tihulale villages. Alternate names: Kaibubu.  Dialects: Kaibobo, Hatusua. Related to Lisabata-Nuniali [lcs]. Lexical similarity: 82%–88% between Kaibobo and Hatusua dialect, 75% with Kamarian [kzx], 62%–65% with Saparua [spr], 62% with Piru [ppr], 58%–62% with Luhu [lcq], 61% with Naka’ela [nae].  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Central Malayo-Polynesian, Central Maluku, East, Seram, Nunusaku, Piru Bay, East  More information.

Kamarian [kzx] 10 (1987 SIL). Ethnic population: 6,000 in the village (1987 SIL). Central Maluku, west Seram, east end of Piru Bay, Kamarian village on south coast. Alternate names: Kamariang, Seruawan. 

Dialects: Lexical similarity: 75% with Kaibobo [kzb], 67% with Saparua [spr], 60% with Lisabata-Nuniali [lcs], 59% with Amahai [amq], Piru, Naka’ela [nae], and Hulung [huk].  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Central Malayo-Polynesian, Central Maluku, East, Seram, Nunusaku, Piru Bay, East, Seram Straits, Uliase, Kamarian  Nearly extinct. More information.

Kao [kax] 400 (2000). North Maluku, interior North Halmahera, Kao town area, Kao River mouth area. Alternate names: Ka’u, Kau.  Dialects: Could be a marginal dialect of Pagu [pgu], but relates uniquely to other languages in Kao River subbranch.  Classification: West Papuan, North Halmahera, Sahu  More information.

Karey [kyd] 950 (1995 SIL). South Maluku, south Aru Islands, Karey Valley, east coast of Tarangan Island. Alternate names: Kerei, Krei.  Dialects: Lexical similarity: 70% with East Tarangan [tre] and Batuley [bay].  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Central Malayo-Polynesian, Aru  More information.

Kayeli [kzl] 3 (1995). Not used for 3 decades (1989 SIL). Ethnic population: 800 (1995). Central Maluku, north Buru Island, south Namlea Bay. Alternate names: Caeli, Cajeli, Gaeli, Kajeli.  Dialects: Kayeli, Leliali (Liliali), Lumaete (Lumaiti, Mumaite, Lumara).  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Central Malayo-Polynesian, Central Maluku, East, Seram, Nunusaku, Kayeli  Nearly extinct. More information.

Kei [kei] 85,000 (2000 SIL). 4,500 monolinguals. Southeast Maluku, Kei Kecil, Kei Besar, surrounding islands, except Banda Eli and Banda Elat villages on Kei Besar; Kur Islands, where Kei is a lingua franca. About 207 villages on about 10 islands. Alternate names: Kai, Saumlaki, Veveu Evav.  Dialects: Kei Kecil, Kei Besar, Tayando, Tanimbar Kei (Atnebar), Ta’am. Kei Kecil is the prestigious urban dialect. Kei Besar speakers usually also know Kei Kecil, but not vice versa. Kei Besar is more similar to Fordata [frd] than other Kei dialects. Tanimbar Kei is spoken in only one village. Lexical similarity: 60% with Fordata.  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Central Malayo-Polynesian, Southeast Maluku, Kei-Tanimbar, Kei-Fordata  More information.

Kisar [kje] 20,000 (1995 SIL). South Maluku, Kisar Island northeast of Timor Island, 19 villages; Roma Island, Hila and Likagraha (Solath) villages; Wetar Island, Amau, Naumatan, Hi’ai; Ambon City, Dili, and Kupang. Alternate names: Meher, Yotowawa.  Dialects: Not related to Oirata [oia], which has sometimes been called a dialect.  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern,

Central Malayo-Polynesian, Timor, Extra-Ramelaic, East, Luang-Kisar, Kisar  More information.

Koba [kpd] 600 (Hughes 2000). Southeast Maluku, Aru Islands, Baun and Fukarel islands bordering Dobel, 3 villages; southeast of Kobror Island, mouth of Barakai Strait. Dialects: Southeast Koba. Low comprehension of Dobel [kvo]. Lexical similarity: 78%–86% with Dobel.  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Central Malayo-Polynesian, Aru  More information.

Kola [kvv] 7,700 (1995 SIL). South Maluku, north Aru Islands, widespread on Kola Island coast, adjacent islands. 22 villages. Alternate names: Kulaha, Marlasi, Warilau.  Dialects: Intelligibility test showed Marlasi dialect intelligible to Kompane [kvp]. Lexical similarity: 77% with Kompane, 70% with Ujir [udj].  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Central Malayo-Polynesian, Aru  More information.

Kompane [kvp] 330 (1995 SIL). South Maluku, east coast of Kongan Island, northeast Aru, Kompane village, south of Kola and north of Wokam islands. Alternate names: Komfana, Kongampani.  Dialects: Similar to Kola [kvv], linguistically between Kola and Batuley [bay]. Good intelligibility of Kola.  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Central Malayo-Polynesian, Aru  More information.

Kur [kuv] 3,180 (2000). South Maluku, west Kei Kecil District, Kur Island and nearby islands. Dialects: Different from Kei [kei]. Boundaries of intelligibility with dialects to the north and the central dialect, and with Teor [tev] need further investigation. Lexical similarity: 47%–50% with Kei, 71%–83% with Teor, 41% with Watubela [wah], 38% with Geser [ges].  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Central Malayo-Polynesian, Teor-Kur  More information.

Laba [lau] 2,000 (1991 SIL). North Maluku, interior south end of Loloda District. 4 villages. Alternate names: Kedi, South Loloda.  Dialects: Phonology like Galela [gbi], 70% intelligibility, 75% with Loloda [loa]. Lexical similarity: 75% with Galela, 78% with Loloda.  Classification: West Papuan, North Halmahera, Galela-Loloda  More information.

Laha [lhh] 3,890 (1987 SIL). Central Maluku, south central coast of Ambon Island, Laha village, nearby smaller villages. Alternate names: Central Ambon.  Dialects: Related to Seram languages, but distinct from Manusela [wha]. Lexical similarity: 64%–66% with Asilulu [asl] and Seit-Kaitetu [hik] (most similar).  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Central Malayo-Polynesian, Central Maluku, East, Seram, Nunusaku, Piru Bay, East, Seram Straits, Ambon 

More information. Larike-Wakasihu [alo] 12,600 (1987 SIL). Ambon Island, southwest Hitu Peninsula,

Larike, Wakasihu, Tapi, Allang, Lai villages. Dialects: Allang, Wakasihu, Larike. The western end of the Ambon dialect subgroup. Lexical similarity: 81% among Allang, and Larike, and Wakasihu dialects; 92% between Larike and Wakasihu; 68%–71% with Asilulu [asl], 67% to 72% with Negeri Lima dialect of Asilulu [asl].  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Central Malayo-Polynesian, Central Maluku, East, Seram, Nunusaku, Piru Bay, West, Hoamoal, East  More information.

Latu [ltu] 2,130 (1982 SIL). Central Maluku, southwest Seram Island, Elpaputih Bay, Latu village. Dialects: Lexical similarity: 82%–84% with Saparua [spr] dialects.  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Central Malayo-Polynesian, Central Maluku, East, Seram, Nunusaku, Piru Bay, East, Seram Straits, Uliase, Hatuhaha, Saparua  More information.

Leti [lti] 7,500 (1995 SIL). Leti Island. Dialects: Marginal intelligibility and difficulty with written Luang [lex]. Lexical similarity: 89% with Luang.  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Central Malayo-Polynesian, Timor, Extra-Ramelaic, East, Luang-Kisar, Luang  More information.

Liana-Seti [ste] 3,000 (1989 SIL). Central Maluku, districts of Seram, Bula, Werinama, and Tehoru, east Teluti Bay to the north coast. 8 villages. Alternate names: Liambata-Kobi, Liana, Lianan, Teula, Uhei Kachlakan, Uhei Kaclakin, Uhei Kahlakim.  Dialects: “Seti” , Wahakaim, Kobi. Lexical similarity: 66%–74% between Seti (westernmost and interior) and Wahakaim (near coast) dialects, 69%–78% between Kobi and Seti, 70% between Kobi and Wahakaim, 42%–61% between Kobi and Manusela [wha], 54%–66% between Kobi and Benggoi [bgy], 48%–58% between Kobi and Salas [sgu].  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Central Malayo-Polynesian, Central Maluku, East, Seram, Manusela-Seti  More information.

Lisabata-Nuniali [lcs] 1,830 (1982). Central Maluku, West and North Seram, spread across the north coast. 5 villages. Alternate names: Lisabata, Noniali, Nuniali.  Dialects: Lisabata-Timur, Nuniali, Sukaraja, Kawa. Lexical similarity: between Kawa (far western) and Lisabata Timur (far eastern) dialects is 85%, 72% with Naka’ela [nae], 67% with Hulung [huk], 63% with Alune [alp].  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Central Malayo-Polynesian, Central Maluku, East, Seram, Nunusaku, Three Rivers, Amalumute, Northwest Seram 

More information. Lisela [lcl] 11,900 (1989 SIL). Central Maluku, Buru Island, north, northeast,

north central coastal strips, and northwest, lower Wae Geren and Vae Apo valleys. Some in Ambon. Alternate names: Buru, Li Enyorot, Liet Enjorot, North Buru, Wayapo.  Dialects: Lisela (Licela, Licella), Tagalisa.  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Central Malayo-Polynesian, Central Maluku, Buru  More information.

Lola [lcd] 830 (1995 SIL). Southeast Maluku, 3 islands east of Kobroor and Baun islands, Aru Islands, Lola, Warabal, and Jambuair villages. Dialects: Lola, Warabal. Linguistically between Batuley [bay] and Dobel [kvo]; similar to Koba [kpd].  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Central Malayo-Polynesian, Aru  More information.

Loloda [loa] 15,000 (1991 SIL). 2,000 Bakun. North Maluku, northwest coast of Halmahera. Alternate names: Loda, North Loloda.  Dialects: Bakun. Intelligibility with Laba [lau] very limited. 85% intelligibility with Galela [gbi], Galela [gbi] has 65% intelligibility of Loloda.  Classification: West Papuan, North Halmahera, Galela-Loloda  More information.

Lorang [lrn] 320 (1995 SIL). Southeast Maluku, Koba Island, Aru center, Lorang village. Dialects: Similar to Koba [kpd] and, to a lesser extent, Dobel [kvl]. Some similarities with Manombai [woo], but intelligibility is lower than might be expected.  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Central Malayo-Polynesian, Aru  More information.

Loun [lox] 20. Central Maluku, north-central Seram. Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Central Malayo-Polynesian, Central Maluku, East, Seram, Nunusaku, Three Rivers, Amalumute, Northwest Seram, Loun  Nearly extinct. More information.

Luang [lex] 18,000 (1995 SIL). 200 monolinguals. South Maluku, east of Timor, Moa, Lakor, Luang, Sermata, Wetan, northwest Babar Islands. Alternate names: Letri Lgona, Lgona, Literi Lagona.  Dialects: Luang, Wetan (Wetang), Moa, Lakor. Low comprehension of Leti [lti]. Lexical similarity: 89% with Leti.  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Central Malayo-Polynesian, Timor, Extra-Ramelaic, East, Luang-Kisar, Luang  More information.

Luhu [lcq] 6,500 (1983 J. Collins). West Seram Island, Hoamoal Peninsula, Luhu village; Boano and Kelang islands, off of west Seram. Dialects: Luhu, Batu Merah, Kelang. Related to Manipa [mqp]. Lexical similarity: 77% with Piru [ppr], 71%–73% with Asilulu [asl].  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Central Malayo-Polynesian, Central Maluku, East, Seram, Nunusaku,

Piru Bay, West, Hoamoal, West  More information.

Maba [mqa] 6,620 (2000). North Maluku, Halmahera, north coast of southeast peninsula; Wasilei area. Alternate names: Bicoli, Bitjoli, Ingli.  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Eastern Malayo-Polynesian, South Halmahera-West New Guinea, South Halmahera, Southeast  More information.

Makian, East [mky] 20,000. 18,000 or more in East Makian, 2,000 or more in Kayoa (1983 SIL). North Maluku, east Makian Island, south Mori Island, Kayoa islands, west coast of south Halmahera, Bacan and Obi islands. Transmigration project near Kao. Alternate names: Makian Dalam, Makian Timur.  Dialects: East Makian, Kayoa (Kajoa). Similar to Gane [gzn].  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Eastern Malayo-Polynesian, South Halmahera-West New Guinea, South Halmahera, East Makian-Gane  More information.

Makian, West [mqs] 12,000 (Voegelin and Voegelin 1977). 7,000 on Makian Island, 5,000 on Kayoa Islands. North Maluku, west Makian Island, some Kayoa Islands, west coast of south Halmahera areas. Alternate names: Makian Barat, Makian Luar.  Dialects: Language isolate within north Halmahera. Formerly classified as Austronesian.  Classification: West Papuan, North Halmahera, West Makian  More information.

Malay, Ambonese [abs] 200,000 in Indonesia (1987 J. Collins). Population total all countries: 245,020. Central Maluku, Ambon, Haruku, Nusa Laut, Saparua Islands, along the coastal areas of Seram, and south Maluku. Also in Netherlands, United States. Alternate names: Ambonese, Ambong, Malayu Ambon.  Dialects: Dobo Malay. Marginal intelligibility with Indonesian [ind]. Difficult intelligibility with Ternate Malay [max]; speakers switch to Indonesian. Lexical similarity: 81% with Standard Malay [zsm].  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Malayo-Sumbawan, North and East, Malayic, Malay, Trade, East Indonesian  More information.

Malay, Bacanese [btj] 2,500 (1991 SIL). Over 1,000 in Labuha (1987 J. Collins). North Maluku, Bacan Island west of southern Halmahera; former Labuha palace area, 1 village; Mandioli Island, and half of Waya and Lele villages. Alternate names: Bacan, Batjan.  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Malayo-Sumbawan, North and East, Malayic, Malay  More information.

Malay, Banda [bpq] 3,690 (2000). Banda Islands. Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Malayo-Sumbawan, North and East, Malayic, Malay, Trade, East Indonesian  More information.

Malay, North Moluccan [max] 700,000 (2001 SIL). 100,000 monolinguals. North Maluku, Halmahera, Sula, and Obi islands. Labuha neighborhood (Christian), and some other families with parents of different ethnic origins. Alternate names: Ternate Malay.  Dialects: Different meaning of particles from Manado Malay [xmm]. More similar to Manado Malay than to Ambonese Malay [abs].  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Malayo-Sumbawan, North and East, Malayic, Malay, Trade, East Indonesian  More information.

Mangole [mqc] 7,280 (2000). North Maluku, south coast of Mangole Island; Sula Islands, north tip of Sulabesi. Alternate names: Mangoli, Sula Mangoli.  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Central Malayo-Polynesian, Central Maluku, Sula  More information.

Manipa [mqp] 1,500 (Collins and Voorhoeve 1983). Central Maluku, Manipa Island west of Seram. 4 villages. Alternate names: Soow Huhelia.  Dialects: Lexical similarity: 72% with Luhu [lcq], 64% with Piru [ppr], 60%–62% with Hitu [htu], 60%–61% with Tulehu [tlu] and Asilulu [asl], 58%–61% with Seit-Kaitetu [hik], 55%–60% with Larike-Wakasihu [alo], 56% with Boano [bzn] and Kaibobo [kzb].  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Central Malayo-Polynesian, Central Maluku, East  More information.

Manombai [woo] 7,480 (1995 J. Hughes). Southeast Maluku, Aru Islands, Manombai Strait (Sungai) area as far as Wakua, west coast of Wokam Island, from Wokam village south, 21 villages; Kobror Island, Benjina; west end of Barakai Strait, Maikor Island, Gardakau; east coast of Wokam Island, Kobamar village. May no longer be spoken on Wamar Island. Alternate names: Manobai, Wamar, Wokam.  Dialects: Not inherently intelligible with Dobel [kvo]. Lexical similarity: 76% with Lorang [lrn].  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Central Malayo-Polynesian, Aru  More information.

Manusela [wha] 7,000 (1989 SIL). Central Maluku, north Seram, Mansuela mountains, 30 villages; south Seram along Teluti Bay. Alternate names: Wahai, Wahinama.  Dialects: Kanikeh, Hatuolu, Maneo, South Manusela. Lexical similarity: 66%–74% between the Kanikeh dialect and other varieties, 67%–75% with Hatuolo, 64%–86% with Maneo, 66%–86% with Maneoratu, 67%–80% with South Manusela; 64%–72% with Huaulu [hud], 42%–61% with Liana Seti [ste], 45% with Saleman [sau].  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Central Malayo-Polynesian, Central Maluku, East, Seram, Manusela-Seti  More information.

Mariri [mqi] 390 (1995 SIL). South Maluku, Mariri Island, east Aru east of Kobroor Island. 1 village. Alternate names: Mairiri.  Dialects: Lexical

similarity: 81% with Batuley [bay].  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Central Malayo-Polynesian, Aru  More information.

Masela, Central [mxz] 511 (1980 N. de Jonge). South Maluku, Marsela Island. 3 villages. Alternate names: Central Marsela, Marsela-South Babar.  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Central Malayo-Polynesian, Babar, South, Masela-South Babar  More information.

Masela, East [vme] 520 (1980 N. de Jonge). South Maluku, Marsela Island. 3 villages. Alternate names: East Marsela.  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Central Malayo-Polynesian, Babar, South, Masela-South Babar  More information.

Masela, West [mss] 850 (2007 SIL). South Maluku, Marsela Island. 5 villages. Alternate names: West Marsela.  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Central Malayo-Polynesian, Babar, South, Masela-South Babar  More information.

Masiwang [bnf] 1,000 (1989 SIL). Central Maluku, Bula District, Seram Island, Waru Bay area. Alternate names: Bonfia.  Dialects: Lexical similarity: 44% with Bobot [bty], 43% with Salas [sgu], 39% with Sepa [spb] and Teluti [tlt], 36% with Liana Seti [ste] and Atamanu.  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Central Malayo-Polynesian, Central Maluku, East, Seram, Masiwang  More information.

Modole [mqo] 2,000 (1983 SIL). North Maluku, interior north Halmahera Island, Kao River headwaters. Alternate names: Madole.  Dialects: North Modole, South Modole. Minimal differences between north and south Modole.  Classification: West Papuan, North Halmahera, Galela-Loloda  More information.

Moksela [vms] Extinct. Central Maluku, possibly east Buru Island, near Kayeli. Alternate names: Maksela, Opselan.  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Central Malayo-Polynesian, Central Maluku, Buru  More information.

Naka’ela [nae] 5 (1985 SIL). Central Maluku, northwest Seram, Kairatu village. Dialects: Lexical similarity: 71% with Lisabata-Nuniali [lcs], 66% with Hulung [huk], 63% with Alune [alp].  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Central Malayo-Polynesian, Central Maluku, East, Seram, Nunusaku, Three Rivers, Amalumute, Northwest Seram, Ulat Inai  Nearly extinct. More information.

Nila [nil] 1,800 (1989 SIL), decreasing. Central Maluku, south central Seram Island transmigration area. 6 villages. (Originally Nila Island in

south central Maluku). Dialects: Similar to Serua [srw]. Not intelligible with Teun [tve].  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Central Malayo-Polynesian, Timor, Extra-Ramelaic, East, Teun-Nila-Serua, Nila-Serua  More information.

Nuaulu, North [nni] 500 (1990 SIL). Central Maluku, central Seram Island north coast. 2 villages. Alternate names: Fatakai, Nuaulu, Patakai.  Dialects: Lexical similarity: 67% with South Nuaulu, 64% with Saleman.  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Central Malayo-Polynesian, Central Maluku, East, Seram, Sawai-Nuaulu  More information.

Nuaulu, South [nxl] 1,500 (1995 SIL). Central Maluku, Seram Island, Amahai District, south coast and interior. 6 villages. Alternate names: Fatakai, Nuaulu, Patakai.  Dialects: Lexical similarity: 67% with North Nuaulu [nni], 50% with South Wemale, Hulung [huk], and Naka’ela [nae], 48% with Saleman [sau].  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Central Malayo-Polynesian, Central Maluku, East, Seram, Sawai-Nuaulu  More information.

Nusa Laut [nul] 10. Ethnic population: 2,226 (1989 SIL). Central Maluku, Lease Islands, Nusa Laut Island, Titawai village. Alternate names: Nusalaut.  Dialects: Lexical similarity: 69% with Saparua [spr], 65% with Amahai [amq].  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Central Malayo-Polynesian, Central Maluku, East, Seram, Nunusaku, Piru Bay, East, Seram Straits, Uliase, Hatuhaha, Elpaputi  Nearly extinct. More information.

Oirata [oia] 1,220 (1987 SIL). South Maluku, southeast Kisar Island, east and west Oirata. 2 villages; Ambon City. Alternate names: Maaro.  Dialects: Not related to other languages on Oirata or to central Maluku languages. Not closely related to languages in East Timor.  Classification: Trans-New Guinea, West, East Timor, Fataluku-Oirata 

More information. Pagu [pgu] 3,310 (2000). North Maluku, interior North Halmahera south of

Modole [mqo] to the mouth of Kao River. Alternate names: Pago, Pagoe.  Dialects: Isam, Pagu, Toliwiku (Toliliko).  Classification: West Papuan, North Halmahera, Galela-Loloda  More information.

Palumata [pmc] Extinct. Central Maluku, northwest Buru Island. Alternate names: Balamata, Palamata.  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Central Malayo-Polynesian, Central Maluku, Buru  More information.

Patani [ptn] 10,600 (2000). North Maluku, Halmahera, narrow tip of

southeast peninsula and west along the coast. 9 villages. Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Eastern Malayo-Polynesian, South Halmahera-West New Guinea, South Halmahera, Southeast  More information.

Paulohi [plh] 50 (1982). Central Maluku, West Seram, south central Seram Island, Elpaputih Bay west shore. 2 villages, Kecamatan Amahai. Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Central Malayo-Polynesian, Central Maluku, East, Seram, Nunusaku, Piru Bay, East, Seram Straits, Solehua  Nearly extinct. More information.

Perai [wet] 280 (Hinton 2000). Southwest Maluku, Wetar Island northeast coast, north of Timor, Uhak and Moning villages. Alternate names: Tutunohan.  Dialects: Moning, Uhak. Lexical similarity: 93% among dialects, 79% with Aputai [apx], 76% with Tugun [tzn], 67% with Ili’uun [ilu], 51% with Talur [ilw].  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Central Malayo-Polynesian, Timor, Extra-Ramelaic, North, Wetar  More information.

Piru [ppr] 10 (1985 SIL). Central Maluku, west Seram Island. 1 village. Dialects: Lexical similarity: 72% with Luhu [lcq].  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Central Malayo-Polynesian, Central Maluku, East, Seram, Nunusaku, Three Rivers, Amalumute, Northwest Seram  Nearly extinct. More information.

Roma [rmm] 1,700 (1991 SIL). South Maluku, Roma Island north of Timor Island, Jerusu village. Alternate names: Romang.  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Central Malayo-Polynesian, Timor, Extra-Ramelaic, East, Luang-Kisar, Kisar  More information.

Sahu [saj] 7,500 (Voorhoeve and Visser 1987). 3,500 in Tala’i, 4,000 in Pa’disua. North Maluku, southwestern north Halmahera Island. Alternate names: Sa’u, Sahu’u, Sau.  Dialects: Pa’disua (Palisua), Tala’i. Similar to Waioli [wli], Gamkonora [gak].  Classification: West Papuan, North Halmahera, Sahu  More information.

Salas [sgu] 50 (1989 SIL). Central Maluku, Seram Island, Waru Bay, Salas Gunung village. Alternate names: Lenkaitahe, Liambata, Salas Gunung.  Dialects: Lexical similarity: 48%–58% with Liana-Seti [ste], 46%–50% with Benggoi [bgy], 35%–46% with Manusela [wha].  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Central Malayo-Polynesian, Central Maluku, East, Seram, Manusela-Seti  Nearly extinct. More information.

Saleman [sau] 4,800 (1989 SIL). Central Maluku, north central Seram. 5 villages (Saleman, Pasanea, Sawai, Besi, Wahai). Alternate names:

Hatue, Sawai, Seleman, Wahai.  Dialects: Lexical similarity: 64% with North Nuaulu [nni], 48% with South Nuaulu [nxl].  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Central Malayo-Polynesian, Central Maluku, East, Seram, Sawai-Nuaulu  More information.

Saparua [spr] 10,200 (1989 SIL). 4,519 in Iha. Central Maluku, Lease Islands, Saparua Island, Kulur, Iha, Siri-Sori villages; Seram Island, Iha, Kulur, Latu, Hualoy, Tomalehu villages; also Kairatu village. Dialects: Kulur, Iha-Saparua, Iha-Seram, Siri-Sori. Each village is a dialect. Lexical similarity: 86%–89% among dialects; 82%–84% with Latu [ltu], 69% with Amahai [amq], 67% with Kamarian [kzk], 68%–71% with Haruku [hrk], 65% with Kaibobo [kzb], 62%–66% with Tulehu [tlu], 54%–62% with Luhu [lcq], 49% with Piru [ppr], 54% with Naka’ela [nae].  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Central Malayo-Polynesian, Central Maluku, East, Seram, Nunusaku, Piru Bay, East, Seram Straits, Uliase, Hatuhaha, Saparua  More information.

Sawai [szw] 12,000 (2000 SIL), increasing. Few monolinguals. North Maluku, Gane Timur and Weda districts, Halmahera, south and southeast peninsula coasts. 13 villages. Alternate names: Weda, Weda-Sawai, Were.  Dialects: Weda, Sawai, Kobe, Faya-Mafa, Messa-Dote. Lexical similarity: 64% with North Nuaulu [nni].  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Eastern Malayo-Polynesian, South Halmahera-West New Guinea, South Halmahera, Southeast  More information.

Seit-Kaitetu [hik] 10,200 (1987 SIL). Central Maluku, Ambon Island north coast, Seit (Seith) and Kaitetu villages. Alternate names: Hila-Kaitetu.  Dialects: Seit (Seith), Kaitetu. Lexical similarity: 85% between Kaitetu and Seit dialects. Lexical similarity: 78%–82% with Asilulu [asl], 67%–74% with Tulehu [tlu].  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Central Malayo-Polynesian, Central Maluku, East, Seram, Nunusaku, Piru Bay, West, Asilulu  More information.

Selaru [slu] 8,000 (2001 SIL). South Muluku, Tanimbar, Selaru Island, 6 of 7 villages, Yamdena Island, half Latdalam village, Nus-Wotar Island off Yamdena west coast, Lingada village; Saumlake and Ambon. Alternate names: Salaru.  Dialects: Kandar. Slight dialect differences. Not closely related to other nearby languages. Lexical similarity: 56% with Seluwasan [sws].  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Central Malayo-Polynesian, Southeast Maluku, Southern  More information.

Seluwasan [sws] 2,840 (1980 Government report), decreasing. 739 in Makatian, 2,100 in Seluwasan. South Maluku, Yamdena Island, southwest coast, Wermatang, Batu Putih, and Marantutul. Alternate names: Selvasa,

Selwasa.  Dialects: Seluwasan, Makatian. Makatian dialect quite different from others.  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Central Malayo-Polynesian, Southeast Maluku, Southern  More information.

Sepa [spb] 2,600 (1989 SIL). Central Maluku, Seram Island, Sepa village. Alternate names: Tamilouw.  Dialects: Lexical similarity: 69%–78% with Teluti [tlt], 50% with Yalahatan [jal].  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Central Malayo-Polynesian, Central Maluku, East, Seram, Nunusaku, Piru Bay, East  More information.

Serili [sve] 330 (1980 N. de Jonge). South Maluku, northeast Marsela Island. Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Central Malayo-Polynesian, Babar, South, Masela-South Babar  More information.

Serua [srw] 2,000 (1990 SIL), decreasing. Central Maluku, south central Seram Island, transmigration area. 4 villages. Dialects: Similar to Nila [nil]. Not intelligible with Teun [tve].  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Central Malayo-Polynesian, Timor, Extra-Ramelaic, East, Teun-Nila-Serua, Nila-Serua  More information.

Sula [szn] 20,000 (1983 SIL). North Maluku, Sula Islands, Sulabesi Island; scattered on east and west ends and north coast of Mangole Island, and northeast coast of Buru Island. Alternate names: Sanana.  Dialects: Fagudu, Falahu, Facei (Facé). Similar to Mangole [mqc].  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Central Malayo-Polynesian, Central Maluku, Sula  More information.

Tabaru [tby] 15,000 (1991 SIL). North Maluku, Ibu, Jailolo, and Oba districts. Alternate names: Tobaru.  Dialects: Adu, Nyeku. Northern dialect is the main one. Dialects mutually inherently intelligible.  Classification: West Papuan, North Halmahera, Galela-Loloda  More information.

Taliabu [tlv] 4,520 (2000). 500 to 1,500 in Mangei. North Maluku, Taliabu Island, northwest Mangole, Sula Islands. Alternate names: Taliabo.  Dialects: Padang (Samada), Mananga, Mangei (Mange’e, Mange, Mang, Soboyo, Sobojo). Dialects 90% or more lexically similar.  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Central Malayo-Polynesian, Central Maluku, Sula, Taliabo  More information.

Talur [ilw] 680 (1990 SIL). Southwest Maluku, south central Wetar Island north of East Timor, Hiay, Ilputih, Ilwaki villages. Alternate names: Galoleng, Iliwaki, Ilmedu, Ilwaki, Lir Talo.  Dialects: Ilputih, Ilwaki (Iliwaki), Hiay. Lexical similarity: 94%-98% between dialects, 86% with Galoli [gal] in East Timor, 57% with Aputai [apx], 52% with Tugun [tzn], 51% with Perai [wet] and Ili’uun [ilu].  Classification:

Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Central Malayo-Polynesian, Timor, Extra-Ramelaic, North, Wetar  More information.

Tarangan, East [tre] 3,780 (1987 Maluku Dalam Angka). South Maluku, south Aru Islands, Tarangan Island east coast, and villages in Maikor Strait (Sungai Maikor). 13 villages. Alternate names: East Trangan, Tarangan Timur.  Dialects: Lexical similarity: 71% with West Tarangan [txn].  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Central Malayo-Polynesian, Aru  More information.

Tarangan, West [txn] 6,480 (Maluku Dalam Angka). South Maluku, south Aru Islands, Tarangan Island west coast. Alternate names: Tarangan Barat, West Trangan.  Dialects: Southwestern Tarangan, North Central Tarangan. 2 sharply distinct dialect groups, with minor variation within them. Lexical similarity: 70% with East Tarangan [tre] and Manombai [woo].  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Central Malayo-Polynesian, Aru  More information.

Tela-Masbuar [tvm] 1,050 (2007 SIL). South Maluku, southwest Babar Island, Tela, Masbuar villages. Alternate names: Masbuar-Tela, Tela’a.  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Central Malayo-Polynesian, Babar, South, Southwest Babar  More information.

Teluti [tlt] 17,000 (1989 SIL). Central Maluku, south Seram Island, Teluti Bay. Alternate names: Silen, Taluti, Tehoru, Tihoru, Wolu.  Dialects: West Teluti (Haya, Wolu, Tehoru, Tehua), Laha Serani. Lexical similarity: 74%–89% among dialects, 69%–78% with Sepa [spb], 50% with Atamanu.  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Central Malayo-Polynesian, Central Maluku, East, Seram, Nunusaku, Piru Bay, East  More information.

Teor [tev] 1,100 (1986 SIL). South Maluku, Teor and Ut islands. Alternate names: Tio’or.  Dialects: Gaur Kristen, Ut. Self-report to understand Kur [kuv]. Lexical similarity: 79% between Gaur Kristen and Ut, 71%–83% with Kur, 41% with Watubela [wah], 38% with Geser [ges].  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Central Malayo-Polynesian, Teor-Kur  More information.

Ternate [tft] 42,000 (Wurm and Hattori 1981). North Maluku, Ternate, Kayoa, Bacan, Obi Islands, coastal communities on western north Halmahera. Dialects: Similar to Tidore [tvo].  Classification: West Papuan, North Halmahera, Ternate-Tidore  More information.

Ternateño [tmg] Extinct. North Maluku, Ternate Island, west of Halmahera Island. Alternate names: Ternatenyo.  Dialects: Spanish relexification. Historical relationship with Chavacano and dialects, still spoken in the

Philippines.  Classification: Creole, Portuguese based  More information.

Te’un [tve] 1,200 (1990 SIL), decreasing. Central Maluku, south central Seram Island transmigration area. 4 villages. Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Central Malayo-Polynesian, Timor, Extra-Ramelaic  More information.

Tidore [tvo] 26,000 (Wurm and Hattori 1981). North Maluku, Tidore, Maitara, Mare, north half of Moti Islands; Halmahera west coast areas. Dialects: Similar to Ternate [tft].  Classification: West Papuan, North Halmahera, Ternate-Tidore  More information.

Tobelo [tlb] 27,700 (2000). North Maluku, north Halmahera Island, Tobelo, Kao, and Jailolo districts; Halmahera Tengah, Maba and Wasile districts; Papua, Sorong, north half of Morotai, coastal areas of Kao Bay and inland, Patani, Weda, Gane, Bacan, Obi, Ambon, Raja Ampat islands. Dialects: Dodinga, Boëng, Tobelo (Heleworuru).  Classification: West Papuan, North Halmahera, Galela-Loloda  More information.

Tugun [tzn] 1,200 (1990 SIL). 1% monolinguals. Southwest Maluku, north of Timor, southeast end of Wetar Island, Mahuan, Masapun, Tomliapat, Ilpokil, Kahailin, Ilway, Arwala villages. Alternate names: Mahuan, Tutunohan.  Dialects: Mahuan, Masapua, Tomliapat, Ilpokil, Kahailin Ilway, Arwala. Lexical similarity: 92%–97% among dialects, 76% with Perai [wet], 74% with Aputai [apx], 73% with Ili’uun [ilu], 52% with Talur [ilw].  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Central Malayo-Polynesian, Timor, Extra-Ramelaic, North, Wetar  More information.

Tugutil [tuj] 2,590 (2000). North Maluku, north Halmahera Island, inland around Kusuri, inland in Kecamatan Tobelo, Taboulamo area in Kecamatan Kao, the pass between Lolobata and Buli in Kecamatan Wasilei, Dodaga and Tutuling rivers, Akelamo and Mabulan rivers in Kecamatan Maba, Tanjung Lili, villages of Miaf, Bebseli, and Marasibno. A few on Lili, Waisango, and Afu rivers. Dialects: Teluk Lili, Kusuri. Possibly several dialects separated by large distances. Inadequate intelligibility with Tobelo variety.  Classification: West Papuan, North Halmahera, Galela-Loloda  More information.

Tulehu [tlu] 18,800 (1987 SIL). Central Maluku, Ambon Island, northeast coast. 4 villages. Alternate names: Northeast Ambon.  Dialects: Tulehu, Liang, Tengah-Tengah, Tial. Each dialect is in a separate village. Eastern end of Ambon dialect chain. Lexical similarity: 84%–90% among dialects, 74% to 82% with Hitu [htu], 72%–76% with Haruku [hrk].  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Central Malayo-Polynesian, Central Maluku, East,

Seram, Nunusaku, Piru Bay, East, Seram Straits, Ambon  More information.

Ujir [udj] 980 (1995 J. Hughes). South Maluku, northwest Aru Islands, Ujir on Ujir Island, Samang on Wokam Island west peninsula tip. Alternate names: Udjir.  Dialects: Lexical similarity: 75% with Kola [kvv] in north Aru, and slightly less with Kola on the west coast of Kola Island.  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Central Malayo-Polynesian, Aru  More information.

Waioli [wli] 3,000 (Voorhoeve and Visser 1987). North Maluku, north Halmahera, between Sahu [saj] and Ibu [ibu] languages. Alternate names: Wajoli, Wayoli.  Dialects: Lexical similarity: 81% with Gamkonora [gak].  Classification: West Papuan, North Halmahera, Sahu  More information.

Watubela [wah] 4,000 (1990 SIL). East central Maluku, Watubela Islands, north of Kur Island. Alternate names: Esiriun, Kasiui, Kasui, Kesui, Matabello, Snabi Watubela, Wesi.  Dialects: Tamher Timur, Sulmelang. Lexical similarity: 77% between dialects, 51%–61% with Geser-Gorom [ges], 41% with Teor [tev] and Kur [kuv], 37% with Bobot [bty], 34% with Masiwang [bnf].  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Central Malayo-Polynesian, Central Maluku, East, Banda-Geser, Geser-Gorom  More information.

Wemale, North [weo] 4,930 (1982). Taniwel District along north coast, east of Taniwel, and westernmost East Seram District. 24 villages. Alternate names: Oemale.  Dialects: Horale, Kasieh, Uwenpantai. Kawe [kgb] may be a dialect. Lexical similarity: between east and central dialects is 80%, 72% with South Wemale [tlw], 59% with Hulung [huk].  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Central Malayo-Polynesian, Central Maluku, East, Seram, Nunusaku, Three Rivers, Wemale  More information.

Wemale, South [tlw] 3,730 (1987 SIL). Central Maluku, west Seram, Kairatu, mainly interior, and Amahai District westernmost coast. 15 villages. Alternate names: Honitetu, Tala.  Dialects: Dialect chain between Horale [weo], Kasieh [weo], Uwenpantai [weo], and Honitetu dialect. Kawe [kgb] may be a dialect. Lexical similarity: 80% between the Horale and Kasieh dialects of Wemale, North [weo], and between Uwenpantai dialect of Wemale, North and the Honitetu dialect, 72% with North Wemale, 66% with Hulung [huk], 47% with Yalahatan [jal].  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Central Malayo-Polynesian, Central Maluku, East, Seram, Nunusaku, Three Rivers, Wemale  More information.

Yalahatan [jal] 1,700 (2004 SIL). approximately 850 in each village. Central

Maluku, west Seram, Yalahatan, Haruru villages. Alternate names: Atamanu, Awaiya, Jahalatan, Jahalatane.  Dialects: Slight dialect differences reported between the 2 villages. Lexical similarity: 50%–52% with Sepa [spb], 49%–50% with Teluti [tlt].  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Central Malayo-Polynesian, Central Maluku, East, Seram, Nunusaku, Three Rivers  More information.

Yamdena [jmd] 25,000 (1991 SIL). Ethnic population: 35,000 to 40,000 (1991 SIL). Southeast Maluku, east coast of Yamdena, north tip of Selaru, Adaut village; southwest Yamdena, Latdalam village. 35 villages. Alternate names: Jamden, Jamdena.  Dialects: North Yamdena (Batjas, Watmuri), South Yamdena (Saumlaki, Amdassa). Dialect chain from north to south with 90% lexical similarity between extremes, but with considerable morphological and phonological differences. The southern dialect is more prestigious. Lexical similarity: 90% between the north and south dialects, 47% with Fordata [frd].  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Central Malayo-Polynesian, Southeast Maluku, Kei-Tanimbar, Yamdena  More information.

Languages of Indonesia (Nusa Tenggara)Indonesia (Nusa Tenggara). 7,961,540 (2000 census). 3,370,000 in West Nusa Tenggara (1993), 3,269,000 in East Nusa Tenggara (1993). Information mainly from C. Grimes, T. Therik, B. Grimes, and M. Jacob 1997. The number of individual languages listed for Indonesia (Nusa Tenggara) is 76. Of those, all are living languages.

Abui [abz] 16,000. Ethnic population: 16,000 (Wurm and Hattori 1981). Lesser Sundas, Central and west Alor. Alternate names: “Barawahing” , Barue, Namatalaki.  Dialects: Atimelang, Kobola, Alakaman. Much dialect diversity. Alakaman may be a dialect of Kamang [woi] (Woisika). May be more than 1 language.  Classification: Trans-New Guinea, West, West Timor-Alor-Pantar, Alor-Pantar, Alor  More information.

Adang [adn] 31,800 (2000). Lesser Sundas, Northwest (Bird’s Head) Alor Island. Alternate names: Alor.  Dialects: Aimoli. On the basis of linguistic differences and social identity, it is considered a separate language from Kabola [klz].  Classification: Trans-New Guinea, West, West Timor-Alor-Pantar, Alor-Pantar, Alor  More information.

Adonara [adr] 17,000 (2000). Adonara Island, east Solor Island, between Flores and Lembata. Alternate names: Nusa Tadon, Sagu, Vaiverang, Waiwerang.  Dialects: West Adonara, East Adonara, East Solor.  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Central Malayo-Polynesian, Timor, Flores-Lembata  More information.

Alor [aol] 25,000 (Grimes, Therik, Grimes, Jacob 1997). Alor, West and south of Bird’s Head, north Ternate Island, pockets along north Pantar, adjacent islands. Alternate names: Alorese.  Dialects: Oriented toward Lembata and Adonara [adr], but Alor is not inherently intelligible with those languages.  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Central Malayo-Polynesian, Timor, Flores-Lembata  More information.

Amarasi [aaz] 50,000 (Grimes, Therik, Grimes, Jacob 1997). Ethnic population: 60,000 (2001 C. Grimes). Southwest tip, Timor Island. Kotos is central and east, Ro’is is west, Ro’is Tais Nonof is south, Ro’is Hero surrounded by Helong [heg]. 24 townships. Alternate names: Timor Amarasi.  Dialects: Kotos, Ro’is, Ro’is Tais Nonof, Ro’is Hero (Kopa). Most similar to Uab Meto [aoz], but with differences in phonology, vocabulary, and discourse, with semantic shifts, structural differences, intelligibility problems. Ro’is Tais Nonof dialect has intonation like Ro’is dialect, vocabulary like Kotos dialect. There are speech differences when speaking to a king, nobility, or commoner.  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Central Malayo-Polynesian, Timor, Extra-Ramelaic, West  More information.

Anakalangu [akg] 14,000. Ethnic population: 14,000 (Wurm and Hattori 1981). Sumba Island, southwest coast, east of Wanukaka. Alternate names: Anakalang.  Dialects: Similar to Wejewa [wew], Mamboru, [mvd], Wanukaka [wnk], Lamboya [lmy].  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Central Malayo-Polynesian, Bima-Sumba  More information.

Bilba [bpz] 7,000 (2002 UKAW). Ethnic population: 7,000. Rote Island east, domains of Bilba, Diu, and Lelenuk. West of Ringgou. Communities on Semau Island and Timor mainland near Kupang. Alternate names: Belubaa, Bilbaa, Eastern Rote, Rote, Rote Timur, Roti, Rotinese.  Dialects: Bilba, Diu, Lelenuk.  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Central Malayo-Polynesian, Timor, Extra-Ramelaic, West  More information.

Bima [bhp] 500,000 (1989). Sunda Islands, east Sumbawa Island, east of the isthmus. Alternate names: Bimanese.  Dialects: Kolo, Sangar (Sanggar), Toloweri, Bima, Mbojo.  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Central Malayo-Polynesian, Bima-Sumba  More information.

Blagar [beu] 11,000 (Wurm and Hattori 1981). Ethnic population: 11,000. Lesser Sundas, East Pantar, north Pura, south Ternate islands. Alternate names: Belagar, Tarang.  Dialects: Apuri, Limarahing, Bakalang, Pura. The Retta variety on south Pura is thought to be a separate language by speakers of Alor [aol].  Classification: Trans-New Guinea, West, West Timor-Alor-Pantar, Alor-Pantar, Pantar 

More information. Bunak [bfn] 50,000 in Indonesia (Voegelin and Voegelin 1977). Ethnic

population: 50,000. Central interior Timor Island, south coast. Alternate names: Buna’, Bunake, Bunaq.  Classification: Trans-New Guinea, West, West Timor-Alor-Pantar, Bunak  More information.

Dela-Oenale [row] 7,000 (2002 UKAW). Ethnic population: 7,000. Rote Island west coast, Dela and Oe Nale domains. Alternate names: Delha, Oe Nale, Rote, Rote Barat, Roti, Rotinese, Western Rote.  Dialects: Dela (Delha), Oenale (Oe Nale). Dela-Oenale seems between Dengka [dnk] and Dhao [nfa].  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Central Malayo-Polynesian, Timor, Extra-Ramelaic, West  More information.

Dengka [dnk] 20,000 (2002 UKAW). Ethnic population: 20,000. Rote Island northwest, Dengka and Lelain domains, east of Dela-Oenale [row], west of Lole (Ba’a). Alternate names: Rote, Rote Barat, Roti, Rotinese, Western Rote.  Dialects: Western Dengka, Eastern Dengka, Lelain. Western Dengka dialect has marked intonation; some occurrences of ‘ngg’ in Eastern Dengka dialect become ‘nd’ in Western Dengka. Some vocabulary of Western Dengka is like Dhao [nfa]. Dengka and Dela-Oenale [row] are more divergent from other languages on Rote.  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Central Malayo-Polynesian, Timor, Extra-Ramelaic, West  More information.

Dhao [nfa] 5,000 (1997 A. Ranoh). Island of Ndao, scattered on Rote, and Timor. Alternate names: Dao, Ndao, Ndaonese, Ndaundau.  Dialects: Related to Sabu [hvn]. Difficult phonology.  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Central Malayo-Polynesian, Bima-Sumba  More information.

Ende [end] 87,000 (Wurm and Hattori 1981). 78,000 Ende, 9,000 Nga’o. Lesser Sundas, south central Flores, west of Sikka. Alternate names: Endeh.  Dialects: Ende (Endeh, Ja’o, Djau), Nga’o (Ngao, West Ende). A dialect subgroup. Li’o [ljl] may be a dialect of Ende.  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Central Malayo-Polynesian, Bima-Sumba, Ende-Lio  More information.

Hamap [hmu] 1,290 (2000). Kalabahi Bay, across from Kalabahi City, Moru town area. 2 villages. Migration in 1947 from Mo’eng, a few kilometers south. Still on their traditional land, but now in an interethnic community with the Kui [kvd]. Dialects: Said to be intelligible with the Adang-Aimoli dialect of Kabola [klz], but ‘Kabola’ is associated with the Bird’s Head area of Alor. Structural and lexical differences with Kabola.  Classification: Trans-New Guinea, West, West Timor-Alor-Pantar, Alor-Pantar, Alor  More information.

Helong [heg] 14,000 (Grimes, Therik, Grimes, Jacob 1997). Ethnic population: 15,000 to 20,000. West tip of Timor Island near port of Tenau. 4 villages. Kupang area, extending across the island to Amarasi region; most villages on Semau Island. Alternate names: Helon, Kupang, Semau.  Dialects: Helong Pulau (Semau, Island Helong), Helong Darat (Bolok), Funai (Land Helong). 2 groups which have minor dialect differences: Helong Darat on Timor mainland and Helong Pulau on Semau Island.  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Central Malayo-Polynesian, Timor, Extra-Ramelaic, West  More information.

Ile Ape [ila]  North Lembata (Lomblen Island), including Ile Ape volcanic peninsula and nearby mainland Lembata. North Ile Ape on the peninsula; South Ile Ape on the mainland. Alternate names: Nusa Tadon.  Dialects: North Ile Ape, South Ile Ape.  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Central Malayo-Polynesian, Timor, Flores-Lembata  More information.

Kabola [klz] 3,900 (1995 N. Johnston). Lesser Sundas, Northwest (Bird’s Head) Alor Island. Dialects: Pintumbang, Tang’ala, Meibuil, Otvai, Kebun Kopi. Dialect names and locations in Wurm and Hattori (1981) are disputed by native speakers. May be more than 1 language. Based on linguistic differences and social identity, best considered a separate language from Adang [adn].  Classification: Trans-New Guinea, West, West Timor-Alor-Pantar, Alor-Pantar, Alor  More information.

Kafoa [kpu] 1,000 (Wurm and Hattori 1981). Ethnic population: 1,000. Southwest Alor Island, north of Aluben, between Abui [abz] and Kelong [kyo] languages. Alternate names: Aikoli, Fanating, Pailelang, Ruilak.  Classification: Trans-New Guinea, West, West Timor-Alor-Pantar, Alor-Pantar, Alor  More information.

Kamang [woi] 16,500 (2000). Alor Island, east central, between Abui and Tanglapui, Woisika village. Kamang dialect is spoken there and in 2 other villages. Alternate names: Waisika, Woisika.  Dialects: Lembur (Limbur, Kawel), Sibo, Kamang, Tiayai, Watang, Kamana-Kamang. Probably more than 1 language.  Classification: Trans-New Guinea, West, West Timor-Alor-Pantar, Alor-Pantar, Alor  More information.

Kambera [xbr] 235,000 (2000). Lesser Sundas, east half of Sumba Island, south of Flores. Alternate names: East Sumba, East Sumbanese, Hilu Humba, Humba, Oost-Sumbaas, Sumba, Sumbanese.  Dialects: Kambera, Melolo, Uma Ratu Nggai (Umbu Ratu Nggai), Lewa, Kanatang, Mangili-Waijelo (Wai Jilu, Waidjelu, Rindi, Waijelo), Southern Sumba. Dialect network. Kambera dialect is widely understood. Lewa dialect and Uma Taru Nggai have difficulty understanding those from Mangili in many speech domains.  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-

Eastern, Central Malayo-Polynesian, Bima-Sumba  More information.

Kedang [ksx] 30,000 (1997 N. Johnston). Lesser Sundas, northeast Lembata (Lomblen) Island, villages on a ring road at the base of a volcano. Alternate names: Dang, Kdang, Kédang, Kedangese.  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Central Malayo-Polynesian, Timor, Flores-Lembata  More information.

Kelon [kyo] 6,000 (Grimes, Therik, Grimes, Jacob 1997). Lesser Sundas, southwest Alor Island. Alternate names: Kalong, Kelong.  Dialects: Probur, Halerman, Gendok, Panggar.  Classification: Trans-New Guinea, West, West Timor-Alor-Pantar, Alor-Pantar, Alor  More information.

Kemak [kem] 50,000 in Indonesia (Wurm and Hattori 1981). Ethnic population: 50,000. North central Timor Island, West and East Timor border area, mostly east side. Alternate names: Ema.  Dialects: Nogo (Nogo-Nogo), Kemak.  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Central Malayo-Polynesian, Timor, Ramelaic, West  More information.

Ke’o [xxk] 40,000 (2001 L. Baird). Ethnic population: 40,000. South central Flores, east of Ngad’a, south of Nage, south and southeast of Ebu Lobo volcano. Kecamatans Mauponggo and Nangaroro, Kabupaten Ngada. The Nage forms north border, Ngada is west, and Ende east. Alternate names: Nage-Keo.  Dialects: Distinct from but most similar to Nage [nxe]. Similar to Ngad’a [nxg], Ende [end], Lio [ljl], Palu’e [ple], Riung [riu].  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Central Malayo-Polynesian, Bima-Sumba, Ende-Lio  More information.

Kepo’ [kuk] 10,600 (2000). Central Flores, between Manggarai and Rembong, between Manggarai and Wae Rana, 1 area. Alternate names: Kepoq.  Dialects: May be inherently intelligible with surrounding languages.  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Central Malayo-Polynesian, Bima-Sumba  More information.

Kodi [kod] 40,000 (1987 UBS). Lesser Sundas, West Sumba. Alternate names: Kudi.  Dialects: Kodi Bokol, Kodi Bangedo, Nggaro (Nggaura). May be most similar to Wejewa [wew].  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Central Malayo-Polynesian, Bima-Sumba  More information.

Komodo [kvh] 700 (2000). Komodo Island and west coast of Flores. Dialects: Considered a separate language from Manggarai [mqy] (1982 J. Verheijen).  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Central Malayo-Polynesian, Bima-Sumba  More information.

Kui [kvd] 4,240 (2000). Ethnic population: 5,000 (Wurm and Hattori

1981). Alor Island, scattered enclaves. Kui on south coast in Lerabaing and Buraga, also in Moru in Kalabahi Bay, interspersed with Hamap [hmu]; Batulolong in Sibera and Kapebang. Alternate names: Lerabain.  Dialects: Kui (Lerabaing, Buraga), Kiramang (Kramang), Batulolong.  Classification: Trans-New Guinea, West, West Timor-Alor-Pantar, Alor-Pantar, Alor  More information.

Kula [tpg] 5,000 ( Grimes, Therik, Grimes, Jacob 1997). East quarter of Alor Island, between Kamang and Sawila. Most in higher elevations, but north coast Maukuru, Takala, Koilela, Peisaka, and Kiralela villagers also speak Kula. Alternate names: Kola, Lamtoka, Lantoka, Tanglapui.  Dialects: Iramang, Kula, Kulatela, Watena, Larena, Kula Watena, Sumang, Arumaka. Structurally similar to Sawila [swt], but intelligibility is marginal.  Classification: Trans-New Guinea, West, West Timor-Alor-Pantar, Tanglapui  More information.

Lamaholot [slp] 150,000 ( Grimes, Therik, Grimes, Jacob 1997). Lesser Sundas, east tip of Flores, east of the Sika [ski], and on west Solor; Adonara Lembata (except the Kedang area) and in enclaves on Pantar north coast, northwest Alor, and surrounding islands. Alternate names: Solor, Solorese.  Dialects: West Lamaholot (Muhang, Pukaunu), Lamaholot (Taka, Lewolaga, Ile Mandiri, Tanjung Bunda, Larantuka, Ritaebang), West Solor. Wide variation among dialects. Keraf (1978) reports 18 distinct languages. Probably as many as 10 languages.  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Central Malayo-Polynesian, Timor, Flores-Lembata  More information.

Lamalera [lmr]  South coastal Lembata (Lomblen) Island. About 4 villages. Alternate names: Kawela, Lebatukan, Mulan.  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Central Malayo-Polynesian, Timor, Flores-Lembata  More information.

Lamatuka [lmq]  Central Lembata (Lomblen) Island, between Ile Ape and Lewo Eleng. Several villages. Villages near the north coast are the result of recent government-induced migrations. Alternate names: Lamatoka.  Dialects: Lewo Eleng [lwe] is probably most closely related.  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Central Malayo-Polynesian, Timor, Flores-Lembata  More information.

Lamboya [lmy] 25,000 ( Grimes, Therik, Grimes, Jacob 1997). Sumba Island, southwest coast, southwest of Waikabubak. Dialects: Lamboya, Nggaura. Similar to Wejewa [wew], Mamboru [mvd], Wanukaka [wnk], Anakalangu [akg].  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Central Malayo-Polynesian, Bima-Sumba  More information.

Lamma [lev] 10,000. Ethnic population: 10,000. Lesser Sundas, southwest and

west Pantar. Alternate names: Lamma’, Lemma, Mauta.  Dialects: Kalondama, Tubal (Tube, Mauta), Biangwala.  Classification: Trans-New Guinea, West, West Timor-Alor-Pantar, Alor-Pantar, Pantar  More information.

Laura [lur] 10,000 ( Grimes, Therik, Grimes, Jacob 1997). Northwest Sumba, between Kodi and Mamboru. Alternate names: Laora.  Dialects: Laura, Mbukambero (Bukambero). Not intelligible with Kodi [kod].  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Central Malayo-Polynesian, Bima-Sumba  More information.

Lembata, South [lmf]  South Lembata (Lomblen) Island, between Lamalera and Lamatuka. Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Central Malayo-Polynesian, Timor, Flores-Lembata  More information.

Lembata, West [lmj]  West end of Lembata (Lomblen) Island, west of Levuka. Both mountain and coastal villages around the base of a volcano. Alternate names: Labalekan, Mingar.  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Central Malayo-Polynesian, Timor, Flores-Lembata  More information.

Levuka [lvu]  West central Lembata (Lomblen) Island, between Ile Ape and Lamalera. Alternate names: Lembata, Lewokukun, Lewuka, Painara.  Dialects: Levuka, Kalikasa.  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Central Malayo-Polynesian, Timor, Flores-Lembata  More information.

Lewo Eleng [lwe]  East central Lembata (Lomblen) Island, between Lamatuka and Kedang. Several villages. North coast villages are the result of recent government-induced migrations. Dialects: Lamatuka [slp] probably most closely related.  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Central Malayo-Polynesian, Timor, Flores-Lembata  More information.

Lewotobi [lwt] 289,000 (2000). Eastern Flores, south of Lamaholot, east of Sika. Alternate names: Southwest Lamaholot.  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Central Malayo-Polynesian, Timor, Flores-Lembata  More information.

Li’o [ljl] 130,000 (Wurm and Hattori 1981). Lesser Sundas, central Flores, west of Sikka, Paga and Dondo areas. Alternate names: Aku, Lio, Lionese, Tanah Kunu.  Dialects: Dialect subgroup with Ende [end]. Palu’e [ple] may be a dialect.  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Central Malayo-Polynesian, Bima-Sumba, Ende-Lio  More information.

Lole [llg] 20,000 (2002 UKAW). Ethnic population: 20,000. Rote Island west

central, Lole and Ba’a domains. North Lole covers north and central regions of Lole domain. Alternate names: Ba’a, Baä, Central Rote, Loleh, Rote, Rote Tengah, Roti, Rotinese.  Dialects: North Lole, South Lole, Ba’a. North Lole ‘na-hina’ becomes South Lole ‘ni-hina’.  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Central Malayo-Polynesian, Timor, Extra-Ramelaic, West  More information.

Malay, Kupang [mkn] 200,000 (1997 M. Jacob). West Timor, Kupang area. Alternate names: Basa Kupang, Kupang.  Dialects: Air Mata. 2 dialects.  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Malayo-Sumbawan, North and East, Malayic, Malay, Trade, East Indonesian  More information.

Malay, Larantuka [lrt] 20,000 (2007). East Nusa Tenggara Province, east end of Flores island, Larantuka City, Konga village; Adonara Island, Wure village. Alternate names: Nagi, Bahasa Nagi, Melayu Larantuka, Ende Malay.  Dialects: Most similar to Kupang Malay [mkn].  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Malayo-Sumbawan, North and East, Malayic, Malay, Trade  More information.

Mamboru [mvd] 16,000 (Wurm and Hattori 1981). Northwest Sumba Island, Memboro coastal area. Alternate names: Memboro.  Dialects: Related to Wejewa [wew], Wanukaka [wnk], Lamboya [lmy], Anakalangu [akg].  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Central Malayo-Polynesian, Bima-Sumba  More information.

Manggarai [mqy] 500,000 (1989). Lesser Sundas, west third of Flores Island. Dialects: Western Manggarai, Central Manggarai (Ruteng), West-Central Manggarai, Eastern Manggarai. Around 43 subdialects. Similar to Riung [riu].  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Central Malayo-Polynesian, Bima-Sumba  More information.

Nage [nxe] 50,000 (Forth 1993). Central Flores, northeast of Ngad’a, Ebu Lobo volcano north and west slopes. Alternate names: Nagé, Nage-Keo.  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Central Malayo-Polynesian, Bima-Sumba, Ende-Lio  More information.

Nasal [nsy] 6,000 (2008). Bengkulu Province, Kaur Regency, Tanjung Betuah, Gedung Menung, Tanjung Baru. Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Unclassified  More information.

Nedebang [nec] 1,380 (2000). North central Pantar, south and southwest of Kabir. Alternate names: Balungada, Nédebang.  Classification: Trans-New Guinea, West, West Timor-Alor-Pantar, Alor-Pantar, Pantar  More information.

Ngad’a [nxg] 60,000 (1995). South central Flores, between Manggarai and Ende

and Li’o. Alternate names: Badjava, Bajava, Bajawa, Nad’a, Nga’da, Ngada, Ngadha, Rokka.  Dialects: Central Ngada, Bajawa, South Ngada. Dialect diversity.  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Central Malayo-Polynesian, Bima-Sumba  More information.

Ngad’a, Eastern [nea] 5,000 (1994). South central Flores, Kabupaten Ngada, Kecamatan Golewa between Ngad’a and Nage, Sara Sedu, Taka Tunga, Sanga Deto administrative villages; Desa Rowa, Kecamatan Boawae. Alternate names: Southeast Ngada.  Dialects: Minor dialect variation.  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Central Malayo-Polynesian, Bima-Sumba  More information.

Palu’e [ple] 10,000 ( Grimes, Therik, Grimes, Jacob 1997). Palu Island, north of central Flores; north coast of Flores mainland, northwest of Maumere, Nangahure village. Alternate names: Lu’a, Palue, Paluqe.  Dialects: Dialect subgroup with Ende-Lio; marginal intelligibility with Li’o [ljl].  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Central Malayo-Polynesian, Bima-Sumba  More information.

Portuguese [por]  Flores Island, Sikka area. Classification: Indo-European, Italic, Romance, Italo-Western, Western, Gallo-Iberian, Ibero-Romance, West Iberian, Portuguese-Galician  More information.

Rajong [rjg] 4,240 (2000). Central Flores, Manggarai, Wae Rana, Ngad’a, and Rembong areas. 2 enclaves. Alternate names: Razong.  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Central Malayo-Polynesian, Bima-Sumba  More information.

Rembong [reb] 2,120 (2000). North central Flores, between Eastern Manggarai and Riung. Dialects: Rembong, Wangka, Namu.  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Central Malayo-Polynesian, Bima-Sumba  More information.

Retta [ret]  South Pura Island Kalabahi Bay mouth; south Ternate Island. Dialects: Not intelligible with languages on north Pura.  Classification: Trans-New Guinea, West, West Timor-Alor-Pantar, Alor-Pantar, Pantar  More information.

Ringgou [rgu] 10,000 (2002 UKAW). Ethnic population: 10,000. Rote Island east tip, Ringgou, Landu and Oepao areas. Alternate names: Eastern Rote, Rikou, Rote, Rote Timur, Roti, Rotinese.  Dialects: Ringgou, Landu, Oe Pao (Oepao).  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Central Malayo-Polynesian, Timor, Extra-Ramelaic, West  More information.

Riung [riu] 14,000 (Wurm and Hattori 1981). North central Flores Island, Lesser Sundas, Kabupaten Ngada, Kecamatan Riung. Alternate names: Far

Eastern Manggarai.  Dialects: Similar to Manggarai [mqy], but marginal intelligibility.  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Central Malayo-Polynesian, Bima-Sumba  More information.

Rongga [ror] 2,120 (2000). South central Flores, between Manggarai and Ngad’a, and south of Wae Rana. Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Central Malayo-Polynesian, Bima-Sumba  More information.

Sabu [hvn] 110,000 (1997). 15,000 to 25,000 outside of Sabu (Wurm and Hattori 1981). Kabupaten Kupang; south of Flores and west of Timor, Sawu and Raijua Islands; Sumba (especially Waingapu and Melolo); Flores Island, Ende; Timor. Alternate names: Havunese, Hawu, Savu, Savunese, Sawu, Sawunese.  Dialects: Seba (Heba), Timu (Dimu), Liae, Mesara (Mehara), Raijua (Raidjua). Similar to Waioli [wli], Gamkonora [gak]. Related to Dhao [nfa].  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Central Malayo-Polynesian, Bima-Sumba  More information.

Sasak [sas] 2,100,000 (1989). Lombok Island. Alternate names: Lombok.  Dialects: Kuto-Kute (North Sasak), Ngeto-Ngete (Northeast Sasak), Meno-Mene (Central Sasak), Ngeno-Ngene (Central East Sasak, Central West Sasak), Mriak-Mriku (Central South Sasak). Complex dialect network. Some ‘dialects’ have difficult mutual intelligibility. Related to Sumbawa [smw] and Bali [ban].  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Malayo-Sumbawan, North and East, Bali-Sasak-Sumbawa, Sasak-Sumbawa  More information.

Sawila [swt] 3,000 (Grimes, Therik, Grimes, Jacob 1997). East Alor Island, between Kula and Wersing. Alternate names: Tanglapui.  Dialects: Sawila, Lona, Salimana, Lalamana, Sileba. Marginal intelligibility but structurally similar to Kula [tpg]; distinct historical ethnic identities.  Classification: Trans-New Guinea, West, West Timor-Alor-Pantar, Tanglapui  More information.

Sika [ski] 175,000 (Lewis and Grimes 1995). Lesser Sundas, eastern Flores Island, between Li’o and Lamaholot. Alternate names: Krowe, Maumere, Sara Sikka, Sikka, Sikkanese.  Dialects: Sara Krowe (Central Sikka), Sikka Natar (South Coast Sikka, Kangaé), Tana Ai. Wide linguistic and cultural variation.  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Central Malayo-Polynesian, Timor, Flores-Lembata  More information.

So’a [ssq] 10,000 (1994). Central Flores, central Kabupaten Ngada, between Ngad’a and Riung. Alternate names: Soa.  Dialects: Similar to Ngad’a [nxg].  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Central Malayo-Polynesian, Bima-Sumba  More information.

Sumbawa [smw] 300,000 (1989). West end of Sumbawa Island, west of the isthmus.

Alternate names: Semawa, Sumbawarese.  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Malayo-Sumbawan, North and East, Bali-Sasak-Sumbawa, Sasak-Sumbawa  More information.

Tereweng [twg] 800 (1997). Ethnic population: 800 (Grimes, Therik, Grimes, Jacob 1997). Tereweng Island off southeast Pantar Island. 2 villages northern side, 1 on Pantar. Dialects: Whether this is a dialect of Blagar [beu] or a separate language is disputed.  Classification: Trans-New Guinea, West, West Timor-Alor-Pantar, Alor-Pantar, Pantar  More information.

Termanu [twu] 30,000 (2002 UKAW). Ethnic population: 30,000. Central Rote Island, Termanu, Keka, Talae, Korbafo, Bokai domains; Kupang, West Timor, and Jakarta. Alternate names: Central Rote, Pa’da, Rote, Rote Tengah, Roti, Rotinese.  Dialects: Pa’da (Termanu), Pa’da Kona (Keka-Talae, Southern Termanu), Korbafo (Korbaffo), Bokai. Seems more similar to Lole [llg] than to other varieties on Rote. Korbafo and Bokai may need to be separated for sociolinguistic reasons.  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Central Malayo-Polynesian, Timor, Extra-Ramelaic, West  More information.

Tetun [tet] 400,000 in Indonesia (2004). Population total all countries: 450,000. Central Timor corridor north, to south coasts, east of Atoni, west of Bunak (in Batagude); Batibo area, south coast, Viqueque and Soibada areas. Also in East Timor. Alternate names: Belo, Belu, Fehan, Teto, Tettum, Tetu, Tetum, Tetun Belu, Tetung.  Dialects: Eastern Tetun (Soibada, Natarbora, Lakluta, Tetun Loos, Tetun Los), Southern Tetun (Lia Fehan, Plain Tetun, Tasi Mane, Belu Selatan, South Belu, South Tetun), Northern Tetun (Lia Foho, Hill Tetun, Tasi Feto, Belu Utara, North Belu, Tetun Terik, Tetun Therik). Wide variation in morphology and syntax among major dialects; variation in social structure.  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Central Malayo-Polynesian, Timor, Extra-Ramelaic, Central  More information.

Tewa [twe] 5,000 (Wurm and Hattori 1981). Central Pantar. Dialects: Deing, Madar, Lebang.  Classification: Trans-New Guinea, West, West Timor-Alor-Pantar, Alor-Pantar, Pantar  More information.

Tii [txq] 20,000 (2002 UKAW). Ethnic population: 20,000. Rote Island southwest, Tii domain, east of Dela-Oenale, west of Lole, south of Dengka. Alternate names: Rote, Rote Barat, Roti, Rotinese, Thie, Ti, Western Rote.  Dialects: Minor variation, third singular verb prefix ‘na-fa’da’ varies with ‘i-fa’da’.  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Central Malayo-Polynesian, Timor, Extra-Ramelaic, West  More information.

Uab Meto [aoz] 586,000 ( Grimes, Therik, Grimes, and Jacob 1997). Western Timor

Island. Alternate names: Atoni, “Dawan” , Meto, Orang Gunung, “Rawan” , Timol, Timor, “Timor Dawan” , Timoreesch, Timoreezen, Timorese, Uab Atoni Pah Meto, Uab Pah Meto.  Dialects: Amfoan-Fatule’u-Amabi (Amfoan, Amfuang, Fatule’u, Amabi), Amanuban-Amanatun (Amanuban, Amanubang, Amanatun), Mollo-Miomafo (Mollo, Miomafo), Biboki-Insana (Biboki, Insanao), Kusa-Manlea (Kusa, Manlea). Much dialect variation. Ethnological and linguistic differences in nearly every valley. Similar to Amarasi [aaz].  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Central Malayo-Polynesian, Timor, Extra-Ramelaic, West  More information.

Wae Rana [wrx] 4,240 (2000). South central Flores, between Manggarai and Ngad’a. Alternate names: Waerana.  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Central Malayo-Polynesian, Bima-Sumba  More information.

Wanukaka [wnk] 10,000 (Wurm and Hattori 1981). Sumba Island, southwest coast, east of Lamboya. Alternate names: Wanokaka.  Dialects: Wanukaka, Rua. Similar to, but unintelligible to Wejewa [wew], Mamboru [mud], Lamboya [lmy], and Anakalangu [akg] speakers. Intelligibility with varieties in east Sumba and Kambera uncertain.  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Central Malayo-Polynesian, Bima-Sumba  More information.

Wejewa [wew] 65,000 ( Grimes, Therik, Grimes, Jacob 1997). Lesser Sundas, West Sumba Island interior. Alternate names: Veveva, Waidjewa, Wajewa, West Sumbanese, Wewewa, Wewjewa, Weyewa.  Dialects: Weyewa, Lauli (Loli), Tana Righu.  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Central Malayo-Polynesian, Bima-Sumba  More information.

Wersing [kvw] 3,700 ( Grimes, Therik, Grimes, Jacob 1997). Alor Island, Kolana east coast area, southeast coast, Pietoko and Pureman, 2 enclaves on north central north coast. Alternate names: Kolana, Kolana-Wersin, Warsina, Wersin.  Dialects: Kolana, Maneta, Langkuru (Pureman, Mademang). Similar to Kamang [woi].  Classification: Trans-New Guinea, West, West Timor-Alor-Pantar, Kolana  More information.

Languages of Indonesia (Papua)Indonesia (Papua). 2,220,934 (2000 census). Information mainly from M. Donohue 1998–1999; C. Roesler 1972; C. Voorhoeve 1975; SIL 1975–2003. The number of individual languages listed for Indonesia (Papua) is 276. Of those, 274 are living languages and 2 are second languages without mother-tongue speakers.

Abinomn [bsa] 300 (Clouse, Ma, and Donohue 2002). Sarmi Regency, Mamberamo Hulu subdistrict, Lakes Plain area, Baso River mouth east of Dabra at Idenburg River, to headwaters in Foya Mountains. Alternate names: Avinomen, “Baso” , Foja, Foya.  Dialects: Similar to Warembori [wsa].  Classification: Language isolate  More information.

Abun [kgr] 3,000 (1995 SIL). Sorong Regency; Ayamaru, Sausapor, Moraid subdistricts; North coast and interior of central Bird’s Head, north and south of Tamberau ranges. About 20 villages. Alternate names: A Nden, Karon, Manif, Yimbun.  Dialects: Abun Tat (Karon Pantai), Abun Ji (Madik), Abun Je.  Classification: Language isolate  More information.

Aghu [ahh] 3,000 (1987 SIL). Merauke Regency, Jair subdistrict, south coast area, Digul River west of Mandobo language. Alternate names: Djair, Dyair.  Classification: Trans-New Guinea, Ok-Awyu, Awyu-Dumut, Awyu  More information.

Airoran [air] 1,000 (1998 SIL). Jayapura Regency, Mamberamo Hilir, Pantai Barat subdistricts, Subu, Motobiak, Isirania, other villages; north coast area on lower Apauwer River. Alternate names: Adora, Aeroran, Iriemkena.  Classification: Tor-Kwerba, Greater Kwerba, Kwerba, West Coast  More information.

Ambai [amk] 10,100 (2000). Yapen Waropen Regency, Yapen Selatan and Yapen Timur subdistricts. On Ambai Island in Cenderawasih Bay, south of Serui Island, along the south coast of Serui Island. 10 villages. Alternate names: Ambai-Menawi.  Dialects: Randawaya, Ambai (Wadapi-Laut), Manawi. Closely related to Ansus [and], Woi [wbw], Pom [pmo], Wabo [wbb], Marau [mvr], Papuma [ppm], Munggui [mth], Kurudu [kjr]. Lexical similarity: 77% with Serui-Laut [seu], 71% with Wandamen [wad].  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Eastern Malayo-Polynesian, South Halmahera-West New Guinea, West New Guinea, Cenderawasih Bay, Yapen, Central-Western  More information.

Anasi [bpo] 2,000 (1993 R. Doriot). Jayapura Regency, Mamberamo Hilir subdistrict. North coast, lower west bank Mamberamo River. Alternate names: Bapu.  Classification: East Geelvink Bay  More information.

Ansus [and] 4,600 (1987 SIL). Yapen Waropen Regency, Yapen Barat subdistrict, Ansus, Kairawi, Aibondeni and Yenusi villages; Miosnum Island and Serui Island south coast. Dialects: Lexical similarity: 82% with Marau Papuma [ppm], 77% with Wandamen [wao].  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Eastern Malayo-Polynesian, South Halmahera-West New Guinea, West New Guinea, Cenderawasih Bay, Yapen, Central-Western 

More information. Anus [auq] 320 (2005 SIL). Jayapura Regency, Bonggo subdistrict, Coastal

area and island off north coast east of Biri River. Alternate names: Koroernoes, Koru.  Dialects: Similar to Podena [pdn].  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Eastern Malayo-Polynesian, Oceanic, Western Oceanic, North New Guinea, Sarmi-Jayapura Bay, Sarmi  More information.

Arandai [jbj] 1,000 (1987 SIL). Manokwari Regency, Bintuni subdistrict, South Bird’s Head, east and west of Wariaga River, Sebyar (Timoforo) River area. Alternate names: Dombano, Jaban, Sebyar, Sumuri, Yaban.  Dialects: Kemberano (Tomu), Dombano (Arandai). Related to Kais [kzm]. Lexical similarity: 71% between the Kemberano and Dombano dialects.  Classification: Trans-New Guinea, South Bird’s Head, South Bird’s Head Proper, Eastern  More information.

Arguni [agf] 150 (2000 S. Wurm). Northwest coast of Bomberai Peninsula on an island in the Maccluer Gulf. Alternate names: Argoeni.  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Central Malayo-Polynesian, North Bomberai  More information.

As [asz] 230 (2000 S. Wurm). West Bird’s Head, north coast, Asbakin (main center), Maklaumkarta, Mega villages. Dialects: Lexical similarity: 60% with some dialects on Misool Island.  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Eastern Malayo-Polynesian, South Halmahera-West New Guinea, West New Guinea, Cenderawasih Bay, Raja Ampat  More information.

Asmat, Casuarina Coast [asc] 9,000 (1991 SIL). 5,200 in Matia and 3,400 in Sapan. Mappi Regency, Pantai Kasuari and Edera subdistricts; Casuarina coast from Ewta River north to Kuti River south, and inland. Alternate names: Kaweinag.  Dialects: Matia, Sapan (Safan).  Classification: Trans-New Guinea, Asmat-Kamoro, Asmat  More information.

Asmat, Central [cns] 7,000 (Roesler 1972). Asmat Regency; Sawa-Erma, Agats, Atsy, and Pantai Kasuari subdistricts. South coast from Owap River northwest to Farec River southwest, inland toward the foothills and inland. Also Mappi Regency coast, Nambai and Edera subdistricts, south of Yaqay [jaq] language. Alternate names: Jas, Manowee, Yas.  Dialects: Simai (Simay), Misman, Ajam (Ayam). North Asmat most distinct dialect. Related to Sempan [xse] north of the rivers. Similar to Kamoro [kgq] and Citak [txt].  Classification: Trans-New Guinea, Asmat-Kamoro, Asmat  More information.

Asmat, North [nks] 1,000 (1991 SIL). Merauke Regency, Sawa-Erma subdistrict. Near Paterle Cocq River headwaters west to Unir River east to the

foothills. Alternate names: Keenok.  Classification: Trans-New Guinea, Asmat-Kamoro, Asmat  More information.

Asmat, Yaosakor [asy] 2,000 (1991 SIL). Asmat Regency, Agats and Atsy subdistricts. South coast along Sirac River. Alternate names: Yaosakor.  Classification: Trans-New Guinea, Asmat-Kamoro, Asmat  More information.

Atohwaim [aqm] 1,000 (1987 SIL). Mappi Regency, Pantai Kasuari subdistrict. South coast on Cook and Kronkel rivers, between Sawi [saw] and Kayagar [kyt]. Alternate names: Kaugat.  Classification: Trans-New Guinea, Kayagar  More information.

Auye [auu] 350 (1995 SIL). Ethnic population: 350 (2000 SIL). Paniai Regency, Napan subdistrict. Central Highlands, Siriwo River, mountains southeast of Cenderawasih Bay. Alternate names: Auwje.  Dialects: Related to Ekari [ekg].  Classification: Trans-New Guinea, West, Wissel Lakes  More information.

Awbono [awh] 100 (1999 SIL). 100% monolingual. Modera River, south of Kopkaka [opk] and northwest of Korowai [khe]. Alternate names: Kvolyab.  Dialects: Not related to Ok, Asmat, Awyu-Dumut, Momuna [mqf], or highland languages like Dani or Mek. Lexical similarity: 55% with Bayono [byl].  Classification: Bayono-Awbono  More information.

Awera [awr] 70 (2000 S. Wurm). Yapen Waropen Regency, Waropen Bawah subdistrict. East side of Cenderawasih Bay, Wapoga River mouth. 1 village. Classification: Lakes Plain, Awera  More information.

Awyi [auw] 350 (2000 S. Wurm). Jayapura Regency, Arso subdistrict, northeast near Papua New Guinea border, just south of Jayapura. Alternate names: Awje, Awji, Awye, Njao, Nyao.  Classification: Border, Taikat  More information.

Awyu, Asue [psa] 6,500 (2002 SIL). South coast area, southwest of Wildeman River, east of Kampong River, inland from Pirimapun. Alternate names: Miaro, Miaro Awyu, Pisa.  Dialects: Similar to Edera Awyu [awy], South Awyu [aws]. Distinct from Central Awyu [awu], Jair Awyu [awv].  Classification: Trans-New Guinea, Ok-Awyu, Awyu-Dumut, Awyu  More information.

Awyu, Central [awu] 7,500 (2002 M. Sohn). Mappi and Boven Digul Regencies; Obaa, Citak Mitak, Mandobo and Bimikia subdistricts. South coast east of Bipim, northwest of Yaqay [jaq], west of Tanamerah, southwest of Boma. Alternate names: Ajau, Auyu, Avio, Awju, Awya, Nohon.  Dialects: 4 dialects.  Classification: Trans-New Guinea, Ok-Awyu,

Awyu-Dumut, Awyu  More information.

Awyu, Edera [awy] 3,870 (2002 SIL). Southeast near coast, north of lower Digul River. Alternate names: Jenimu, Oser, Siagha, Sjiagha, Syiagha, Yenimu.  Classification: Trans-New Guinea, Ok-Awyu, Awyu-Dumut, Awyu  More information.

Awyu, Jair [awv] 2,300 (2002 SIL). South coast area, west of Mandobo Bawah [bwp], south of Aghu [ahh]. Classification: Trans-New Guinea, Ok-Awyu, Awyu-Dumut, Awyu  More information.

Awyu, North [yir] 1,500 (1987 SIL). South coast west side of Digul River, south of Kombai [tyn], east of Central Awyu [awu]. Alternate names: Awyu, Djair, Dyair, Jair, Yair.  Classification: Trans-New Guinea, Ok-Awyu, Awyu-Dumut, Awyu  More information.

Awyu, South [aws] 9,340 (2002 SIL). Southeast near coast, north of lower Digul River. Alternate names: Jenimu, Oser, Siagha, Sjiagha, Syiagha, Yenimu.  Classification: Trans-New Guinea, Ok-Awyu, Awyu-Dumut, Awyu  More information.

Bagusa [bqb] 300 (1987 SIL). Jayapura Regency, Mamberamo Tengah subdistrict. East of Mamberamo, Lake Rombebai, north of Kauwera [xau]. Alternate names: Kapeso, Suaseso.  Dialects: Lexical similarity: 64% with Kwerba [kwe].  Classification: Tor-Kwerba, Greater Kwerba, Kwerba, Nuclear  More information.

Baham [bdw] 1,100 (1987 SIL). Fakfak Regency; Kaimana, Fakfak and Kokas subdistricts. West Bomberai Peninsula east of the Iha [ihp] language. Alternate names: Patimuni.  Dialects: Similar to Iha.  Classification: Trans-New Guinea, West, West Bomberai, West Bomberai Proper  More information.

Barapasi [brp] 2,500 (1995 SIL). Yapen Waropen Regency, Waropen Atas subdistrict. East Cenderawasih Bay just east of the Waropen language [wrp], along Barapasi River and tributaries. Alternate names: Baropasi.  Dialects: Sipisi, Marikai. Lexical similarity: 67% with Kofei [kpi], 71% with Sauri [srt], 61% with Tefaro [tfo], 64% with Woria [wor].  Classification: East Geelvink Bay  More information.

Bauzi [bvz] 1,500 (1991 SIL). 1,350 monolinguals. Jayapura and Yapen Waropen regencies. Lake Holmes area near mid-Mamberamo River; Danau Bira area, northeast, Kasonoweja north of Kustera; Mamberamo Tengah and Waropen Atas subdistricts, Vakiadi, Noiadi, Danau Bira, Solom, Kustera, Neao, Itaba villages. Alternate names: Baudi, Baudji, Baudzi, Bauri.  Dialects: Gesda Dae, Neao, Aumenefa.  Classification:

East Geelvink Bay, Bauzi  More information.

Bayono [byl] 100 (1999 SIL). South of Awbono [awh] on Steenboom River. Dialects: Not related to language families like Ok, Asmat, Awyu-Dumut, Momuna, or highlands language families like Dani or Mek. Lexical similarity: 55% with Awbono.  Classification: Bayono-Awbono  More information.

Bedoanas [bed] 180 (2000 S. Wurm). Fakfak Regency, Kokas subdistrict, northwest coast, Bomberai Peninsula. Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Eastern Malayo-Polynesian, South Halmahera-West New Guinea, West New Guinea, Bomberai  More information.

Beneraf [bnv] 200 (2005 SIL). Sarmi Regency, Pantai Timur subdistrict. North coast area east of Tor River mouth, Beneraf and part of Nenke villages. Alternate names: Boneraf, Bonerif.  Classification: Tor-Kwerba, Orya-Tor, Tor  More information.

Berik [bkl] 1,200 (1994 SIL). Sarmi Regency, Tor Atas subdistrict; Bora Bora, Waf, Doronta, Beu, Togonfo, Dangken, Kondirjan, Somanente, Tenwer, Sewan, Safrontani and Taminambor villages. North coast area along mid and upper Tor River, inland from Sarmi. Alternate names: Berick, Berrik, Sewan Teteris, Upper Tor.  Dialects: Lexical similarity: 45% with Keijar [kdy], 13% with Orya [ury].  Classification: Tor-Kwerba, Orya-Tor, Tor  More information.

Betaf [bfe] 600 (2005 SIL). Sarmi Regency, Pantai Timur subdistrict. North coast area east of Sarmi. Alternate names: Tena.  Classification: Tor-Kwerba, Orya-Tor, Tor  More information.

Biak [bhw] 30,000 (2000 S. Wurm). Biak and Numfor Islands north, numerous small islands east and west of Bird’s Head, including Mapia Island. Biak Numfor Kabupaten. Alternate names: Biak-Numfor, Mafoor, Mafoorsch, Mefoor, Myfoorsch, Noefoor, Noefoorsch, Nufoor.  Dialects: Ariom, Bo’o, Dwar, Fairi, Jenures, Korim, Mandusir, Mofu, Opif, Padoa, Penasifu, Samberi, Sampori (Mokmer), Sor, Sorendidori, Sundei, Wari, Wadibu, Sorido, Bosnik, Korido, Warsa, Wardo, Kamer, Mapia, Mios Num, Rumberpon, Monoarfu, Vogelkop. Some consider Biak and Numfor dialect 2 languages.  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Eastern Malayo-Polynesian, South Halmahera-West New Guinea, West New Guinea, Cenderawasih Bay, Biakic  More information.

Biga [bhc] 300 (Remijsen 2001). Misool Island, Biga village. Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Eastern Malayo-Polynesian, South Halmahera-West New Guinea, West New Guinea,

Cenderawasih Bay, Raja Ampat  More information.

Biritai [bqq] 250 (1988 SIL). Lakes Plain just north of mid-Rouffaer River, Biri village. Alternate names: Aliki, Ati, Biri.  Dialects: Lexical similarity: 69% with Obokuitai [afz], 61% with Eritai [ert], 60% with Kwerisa [kkb], 69% with Kaiy [tcq].  Classification: Lakes Plain, Tariku, East  More information.

Bonggo [bpg] 790 (2006 SIL). Sarmi Regency, Bonggo subdistrict. Northeast coast, near Kaisau River, Taronta, Tarawasi, Armopa villages. Alternate names: Armopa, Bogu, Bongo.  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Eastern Malayo-Polynesian, Oceanic, Western Oceanic, North New Guinea, Sarmi-Jayapura Bay, Sarmi  More information.

Burate [bti] 100 (2000 S. Wurm). Yapen Waropen Regency, Waropen Bawah subdistrict, near Wapoga River mouth. 1 village. Dialects: Lexical similarity: 69% with Demisa [dei], 75% with Tunggare [trt].  Classification: East Geelvink Bay  More information.

Burmeso [bzu] 250 (1998 M. Donohue). Sarmi Regency, Mamberamo Tengah subdistrict, mid-Mamberamo River between Trimuris and Sikari northeast of Danau Bira (Lake Holmes). 1 village and isolated temporary houses along nearby rivers. Alternate names: Boromeso, Borumesso, Burumeso, Manau, Monao, Monau, Taurap.  Dialects: Less than 5% lexical similarity with other languages.  Classification: East Bird’s Head-Sentani, Burmeso  More information.

Burumakok [aip] 40 (1994 Kroneman). Jayawijaya Regency, Kurima subdistrict, village of Burumakok, south of Sumtanon, east of Siradala, lowlands area south of main ranges, southeast of Sumo and Dekai, south of Langda and Bomela. Classification: Trans-New Guinea, Ok-Awyu, Ok, Western  Nearly extinct. More information.

Buruwai [asi] 1,000 (2000). Fakfak Regency, Kaimana subdistrict, south Bomberai Peninsula, Kamrau Bay southwest, Yarona, Kuna, Esania, Marobia, Guriasa, Tairi, Hia, and Gaka villages. Alternate names: Asianara, Asienara, Karufa, Madidwana, Sabakor, Sebakoor.  Dialects: Lexical similarity: 60% with Kamberau [irx].  Classification: Trans-New Guinea, Asmat-Kamoro, Sabakor  More information.

Busami [bsm] 700 (1993 R. Doriot). Yapen Waropen Regency, Yapen Barat and Yapen Selatan subdistricts, South and north coast, Serui Island, Kamanap, Masiaroti, Kaonda villages. Dialects: 3 dialects. Lexical similarity: 71% with Ansus [and], 63% with Serui-Laut [seu].  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern,

Eastern Malayo-Polynesian, South Halmahera-West New Guinea, West New Guinea, Cenderawasih Bay, Yapen, Central-Western  More information.

Citak [txt] 8,000 (1985 M. Stringer). Mappi Regency, Citak-Mitak subdistrict, south coast area, west of upper Digul River, north of Awyu, east of Asmat, Senggo, and north. 19 villages. Alternate names: Asmat Darat, Cicak, Kaunak, Tjitak, Tjitjak.  Dialects: Senggo, Komasma, Bubis, Esaun, Pirabanak, Vakam, Tiau. Similar to Asmat.  Classification: Trans-New Guinea, Asmat-Kamoro, Asmat  More information.

Citak, Tamnim [tml] 290 (1993 R. Doriot). Mappi and Asmat Regencies, near Senggo, Tamnim, Epem, Zinak, Wowi villages. Alternate names: Asmat Darat, Tamnim.  Dialects: May be linguistically more similar to Asmat, but speakers want to be called Citak, not Asmat.  Classification: Trans-New Guinea, Asmat-Kamoro, Asmat  More information.

Dabe [dbe] 440 (2005 SIL). Sarmi Regency, Pantai Timur subdistrict, north coast east of Sarmi, Dabe village. Classification: Tor-Kwerba, Orya-Tor, Tor  More information.

Damal [uhn] 14,000 (2000 S. Wurm). Paniai Regency, Ilaga and Beoga subdistricts, central highlands west of Western Dani, east of Ekari, southeast of Kemandoga River source, throughout Puncak Jaya, north and south Carstens Mountains. Alternate names: Amung, Amung Kal, Amungme, Amuy, Enggipiloe, Hamung, Oehoendoeni, Uhunduni.  Dialects: Damal, Amung, Amongme, Enggipilu. Related to Ekari [ekg], Moni [mnz], Wolani [wod].  Classification: Trans-New Guinea, Damal  More information.

Dani, Lower Grand Valley

[dni] 20,000 (1996 SIL). Central highlands, Baliem Grand Valley, and upper gorge. Dialects: Lower Grand Valley Hitigima (Dani-Kurima, Kurima), Upper Bele, Lower Bele, Lower Kimbin (Kibin), Upper Pyramid.  Classification: Trans-New Guinea, West, Dani, Dani Proper 

More information. Dani, Mid Grand Valley [dnt] 50,000 (1990 UBS). Baliem Valley. Alternate names: Baliem

Valley Dani, Central Grand Valley Dani, Tulem.  Classification: Trans-New Guinea, West, Dani, Dani Proper  More information.

Dani, Upper Grand Valley

[dna] 20,000 (1996). Central highlands, Baliem Grand Valley, and upper gorge. Classification: Trans-New Guinea, West, Dani, Dani Proper  More information.

Dani, Western [dnw] 180,000 (1993 census). Central highlands, west of Baliem Grand Valley, east from upper Kemandoga Valley. Alternate names:

Dani Barat, Ilaga Western Dani, Laany, Lani, Oeringoep, Timorini.  Dialects: Western Dani of Pyramid, Western Dani of Bokondini. Other dialects not as distinct as those listed. Lexical similarity: 65% with Obokuitai [afz], 60% with Wano [wno].  Classification: Trans-New Guinea, West, Dani, Dani Proper  More information.

Dao [daz] 250 (1991 SIL). West central highlands, Paniai Regency, Napan subdistrict, east of Cenderawasih Bay along Dao River. Alternate names: Maniwo, “X-Ray”.  Dialects: Lexical similarity: 75% with Auye [auu].  Classification: Trans-New Guinea, West, Wissel Lakes  More information.

Dem [dem] 1,000 (1987 SIL). Western highlands along upper Rouffaer River north of Damal, northeast of Western Dani. Alternate names: Lem, Ndem.  Classification: Trans-New Guinea, Dem  More information.

Demisa [dei] 400 (2000 S. Wurm). Waropen Bawah subdistrict, Desawa and Muyere coastal villages, Botawa village inland along Wonoi River. Alternate names: Desawa.  Dialects: Lexical similarity: 69% with Burate [bti], 64% with Kofei [kpi], 60% with Sauri [srt], 65% with Tunggare [trt], 64% with Woria [wor].  Classification: East Geelvink Bay, Bauzi  More information.

Dera [kbv] 1,000 in Indonesia (1987 SIL). Population total all countries: 1,690. Northeast Papua, south of Jayapura, near Waris. 13 villages. Also in Papua New Guinea. Alternate names: Dra, Kamberataro, Mangguar.  Classification: Senagi  More information.

Diebroud [tbp] 140 (2000 S. Wurm). Sarmi Regency, Mamberamo Hulu subdistrict, Lakes Plain area south of Idenburg River east of Taiyeve. Alternate names: Taworta, Taworta-Aero, Taria, Dabra, Bok.  Classification: Lakes Plain, East  More information.

Dineor [mrx] 55 (2006 SIL). North coast near the Bonggo [bpg], Maremgi village. Alternate names: Maremgi, Marengge.  Dialects: Unintelligible to speakers in neighboring settlements including Bonggo.  Classification: Tor-Kwerba, Orya-Tor, Tor  More information.

Diuwe [diy] 100 (1999 SIL). Southwest of Sumo, east of Catalina River. Classification: Trans-New Guinea, Asmat-Kamoro, Diuwe  More information.

Doutai [tds] 70 (2000 S. Wurm). Ethnic population: 335 (1993 R. Doriot). Lakes Plain area, Toli-Dou village, west and south of Taiyeve. Alternate names: Taori, Taori-So, Tolitai.  Classification: Lakes Plain, Tariku, East  More information.

Duriankere [dbn] 30 (2000 S. Wurm). Ethnic population: 60. In the strait between Salawati Island and the west end of Bird’s Head, on a small island in Raja Ampat Islands. Alternate names: Duriankari, Esaro, Sailen.  Classification: Trans-New Guinea, South Bird’s Head, Inanwatan  Nearly extinct. More information.

Dusner [dsn] 6 (1978 SIL). Wandamen Bay area, west coast of Cenderawasih Bay, Dusner town area. 1 village. Alternate names: Dusnir.  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Eastern Malayo-Polynesian, South Halmahera-West New Guinea, West New Guinea, Cenderawasih Bay, Biakic  Nearly extinct. More information.

Duvle [duv] 930 (2000). Lakes Plain area south of Van Daalen River and north of Mulia, Paniai. Eastern dialect along Dagai River, western along Fedide and Wedi rivers. Alternate names: Duvde, Duve, Duvele, Duvre, Wiri.  Dialects: Eastern Duvle, Western Duvle. Few dialect differences.  Classification: Lakes Plain, Tariku, Duvle  More information.

Edopi [dbf] 1,000 (1995 SIL). Tariku (Rouffaer) and Kliki (Fou) rivers juncture area. Alternate names: Dosobou, Dou, Doufou, Elopi, Foi, Iau, Turu, Urundi, Ururi, Yau.  Classification: Lakes Plain, Tariku, Central  More information.

Eipomek [eip] 3,000 (1987 SIL). Eastern highlands area, Eipo River, east of Nalca [nlc]. Alternate names: Eipo, T-Valley.  Dialects: Lexical similarity: 75% with Una [mtg].  Classification: Trans-New Guinea, Mek, Eastern  More information.

Ekari [ekg] 100,000 (1985 Doble). West central highlands, Paniai. Alternate names: Ekagi, Kapauku, Me Mana, Mee Mana, Tapiro.  Dialects: Simori, Yabi (Jabi), Mapiya-Kegata, Mee. Most similar to Wolani [wol]. Slight dialect difference with Mapiya-Kegata.  Classification: Trans-New Guinea, West, Wissel Lakes  More information.

Elseng [mrf] 300 (1991 SIL). Jayapura and Keerom Regencies, Arso, Abepura, Kemtuk Gresi, Senggi subdistricts, south of Jayapura, northeast of Kaure [khp]. Alternate names: Djanggu, Janggu, “Morwap” , Sawa, Tabu.  Dialects: Not closely related to any other language.  Classification: Language isolate  More information.

Emem [enr] 2,000 (2005 SIL). Border area south of Jayapura. Alternate names: Emumu, Imimkal, Kiamerop.  Dialects: Lexical similarity: 25% with Yafi [wfg].  Classification: Pauwasi, Eastern  More information.

Eritai [ert] 530 (2000). Sarmi Regency, Mamberamo Tengah and

Mamberamo Hulu subdistricts. West of Mamberamo River, Lakes Plain area in low mountains just south of Danau Bira (Lake Holmes), around Kustera airstrip: Erai (east), Kustera, and Haya (south) villages. Alternate names: Aliki, Babiruwa, Babrua, Babruwa, Baburiwa, Barua, Editode Edai, Erai, Eri, Haya.  Dialects: The dialect in Obogwi village is similar but not the same. Also related to Kaiy [tcq], Doutai [tds], Biritai [bqq]. Lexical similarity: 76% with Obokuitai [afz], 50% with Sikaritai [tty].  Classification: Lakes Plain, Tariku, East  More information.

Erokwanas [erw] 200 (2000 S. Wurm). Northwest coast of Bomberai Peninsula, north of Baham [bdw]. Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Eastern Malayo-Polynesian, South Halmahera-West New Guinea, West New Guinea, Bomberai  More information.

Fayu [fau] 350 (2000 S. Wurm). West of juncture of Tariku (Rouffaer) and Kliki (Fou) rivers, west of Kirikiri [kiy]. Alternate names: Sehudate.  Classification: Lakes Plain, Tariku, West  More information.

Fedan [pdn] 280 (2005 SIL). Sarmi Regency, Bonggo subdistrict, coastal area and island off north coast of Biri River area. Alternate names: Podena, Fandanus.  Dialects: Similar to Anus [auq].  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Eastern Malayo-Polynesian, Oceanic, Western Oceanic, North New Guinea, Sarmi-Jayapura Bay, Sarmi  More information.

Foau [flh] 230 (1975 SIL). East Lakes Plain area just north of lower Idenburg River, Foa and Mudiay villages. Alternate names: Doa.  Dialects: Similar to Diebroud [tbp].  Classification: Lakes Plain, East  More information.

Gresi [grs] 2,500 (1987 SIL). West of Lake Sentani, southeast of Genyem, Hawa, Bring, Tabangkwari, Yansu, Ibub, Sunna, Klaysu villages. Alternate names: Geresi, Glesi, Gresik, Klesi.  Dialects: Lexical similarity: 80% with Kemtuik [kmt].  Classification: Nimboran  More information.

Hatam [had] 16,000 (1993 TEAM). Manokwari Regency; Warmare, Ransiki and Oransbari subdistricts. East Bird’s Head, northeast of Manikion, south and southwest of Manokwari. Alternate names: Adihup, Atam, Borai, Hattam, Mansim, Miriei, Moi, Tinam, Uran.  Dialects: Moi (Moire), Tinam, Miriei, Adihup, Uran.  Classification: Language isolate  More information.

Hupla [hap] 3,000 (1982 WT). Central highlands area east of Baliem gorge. Alternate names: Soba.  Dialects: Similar to Lower Grand Valley Dani [dni].  Classification: Trans-New Guinea, West, Dani, Dani Proper  More information.

Iau [tmu] 600 (2000 SIL), increasing. 500 monolinguals. Ethnic population: 600 or more. Puncak Jaya Regency, Faui, Lakes Plain area between Rouffaer and upper Van Daalen rivers, Barere, Fawi, Taiyai villages. Poi dialect on Rouffaer River; Turu dialect on Van Daalen River. Alternate names: Foi, Iaw, Turu, Urundi, Ururi, Yau.  Dialects: Foi, Turu, Iau. Similar to Edopi [dbf]. Distinct from Yawa [yva]. The varieties listed as dialects above may be separate languages.  Classification: Lakes Plain, Tariku, Central  More information.

Iha [ihp] 5,500 (1987 SIL).  Alternate names: Kapaur.  Dialects: Similar to Baham.  Classification: Trans-New Guinea, West, West Bomberai, West Bomberai Proper  More information.

Iha Based Pidgin [ihb]  Bomberai Peninsula, far west end around Fak Fak and north. Classification: Pidgin, Iha based  More information.

Irarutu [irh] 4,000 (1987 SIL). East Bomberai Peninsula southwest from Arguni Bay north to Bintuni Bay. 44 villages. Alternate names: Arguni Bay, Irahutu, Irutu, Kaitero, Kasira.  Dialects: 6 or 7 dialects. Lexical similarity: 90% with Kuri [nbn].  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Eastern Malayo-Polynesian, South Halmahera-West New Guinea, South Halmahera  More information.

Iresim [ire] 70 (2000 S. Wurm). South Cenderawasih Bay, west of Nabire and around Yamur Lake. Alternate names: Beduba, Yerisiam.  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Eastern Malayo-Polynesian, South Halmahera-West New Guinea, West New Guinea, Cenderawasih Bay, Iresim  More information.

Isirawa [srl] 1,800 (2000 S. Wurm). Jayapura, north coast, Sarmi area and west, Mararena, Kamenawari, Amsira, Siaratesa, Perkami, Martewar, Arsania, Nisero, Arabais, Webro, Wari, Nuerawar, Waim villages. Alternate names: Okwasar, Saberi, Saweri.  Dialects: Western Isirawa, Eastern Isirawa. Similar to Kwerba [kwe]. Dialects very similar.  Classification: Tor-Kwerba, Greater Kwerba, Isirawa  More information.

Itik [itx] 80 (2000 S. Wurm). Ethnic population: 200. North coast east of Tor River, along upper Biri River. Alternate names: Betef, Borto, Ittik, Ittik-Tor.  Dialects: Ittik, Ittik-Tor.  Classification: Tor-Kwerba, Orya-Tor, Tor  More information.

Iwur [iwo] 1,000 (1987 SIL). Iwur River valley border area, Ok Iwur, east to Ok Denom. Alternate names: Iwoer.  Classification: Trans-New Guinea, Ok-Awyu, Ok, Lowland  More information.

Jofotek-Bromnya [jbr] 200 (2007), increasing. Papua Province, Sarmi Regency, Pantai Timur subdistrict, Biridua village; Sarmi Regency, Bonggo subdistrict, Srum village. Classification: Tor-Kwerba, Orya-Tor, Tor  More information.

Kaburi [uka] 600 (1986 SIL). Manokwari Regency, Merdei and Inanwatan subdistricts, south Bird’s Head, north of Kokoda and Fakfak, east of Kemberano [bzp] and Arandai [jbj]. Classification: Trans-New Guinea, South Bird’s Head, South Bird’s Head Proper, Western  More information.

Kais [kzm] 700 (1993 R. Doriot). South Bird’s Head area inland along Kais River. 8 villages. Alternate names: Aiso, Atori, Kampung Baru, Mintamani.  Classification: Trans-New Guinea, South Bird’s Head, South Bird’s Head Proper, Western  More information.

Kaiy [tcq] 220 (2000 S. Wurm). Lakes Plain area around Kaiy airstrip on lower Rouffaer River, Kaiy and Kokou villages. Alternate names: Kai, Taori-Kaiy, Taori-Kei, Todi.  Dialects: Lexical similarity: 69% with Biritai [bqq].  Classification: Lakes Plain, Tariku, East  More information.

Kalabra [kzz] 3,290 (2000). West Bird’s Head, south of Madik [kgr] language, east of Moi [msf]. Alternate names: Beraur.  Dialects: Most similar to Tehit [kps]. Lexical similarity: 60% with Tehit.  Classification: West Papuan, West Bird’s Head  More information.

Kamberau [irx] 1,570 (1993 R. Doriot). Southeast Bomberai Peninsula, Kamrau Bay area, Ubia-Seramuku, Bahomia, Waho, Wamoma, Inari, Tanggaromi, Koi, Wamesa, Coa villages. Alternate names: Iria, Kamkbrau, Kamrau.  Dialects: Similar to Buruwai [asi]. Lexical similarity: 60% with Buruwai.  Classification: Trans-New Guinea, Asmat-Kamoro, Sabakor  More information.

Kamoro [kgq] 8,000 (1987 SIL). South coast, Etna Bay to Mukamuga River. Alternate names: Kamora, Kaokonau, Lakahia, Mimika, Mukamuga, Nafarpi, Nagramadu, Nefarpi, Neferipi, Umar, Umari.  Dialects: Tarya, Yamur, Nanesa. 4 other dialects.  Classification: Trans-New Guinea, Asmat-Kamoro, Kamoro  More information.

Kanum, Bädi [khd] 10 (1996 M. Donohue). South coast border area, east of Merauke, southeast of Marind [mrz], north and west of Smärky Kanum [kxq], Tomer and Onggaya villages. Alternate names: Enkelembu, Kenume, Knwne.  Dialects: Kanum varieties are separate languages, with difficult mutual intelligibility. Similar to Yei [jei]. Has also been classified as Australian, Pama-Nyungan.  Classification: South-Central Papuan, Morehead-Upper Maro, Tonda  Nearly extinct. More information.

Kanum, Ngkâlmpw [kcd] 150 (1996 M. Donohue). South coast border area, east of Merauke, southeast of Marind [mrz], north and west of Smärky Kanum [kxq], Yanggandur, Tomer, Onggaya villages. Alternate names: Enkelembu, Kenume, Knwne.  Dialects: Kanum varieties are separate languages, with difficult mutual intelligibility. Similar to Yei [jei]. Has also been classified as Australian, Pama-Nyungan.  Classification: South-Central Papuan, Morehead-Upper Maro, Tonda  More information.

Kanum, Smärky [kxq] 80 (1996 M. Donohue). South coast border area, east of Merauke, southeast of Marind [mrz] and the other Kanum language areas. Yanggandur, Tomer, Tomerau, Rawa Biru, and Kondo villages, bordering Papua New Guinea. Alternate names: Enkelembu, Kenume, Knwne.  Dialects: Kanum varieties are separate languages, with difficult mutual intelligibility. Similar to Yei [jei]. Has also been classified as Australian, Pama-Nyungan.  Classification: South-Central Papuan, Morehead-Upper Maro, Tonda  More information.

Kanum, Sota [krz] 100 (1996 M. Donohue). South coast border area, east of Merauke, southeast of Marind [mrz], south of Yei [jei], Sota village. Alternate names: Enkelembu, Kenume, Knwne.  Dialects: Kanum varieties are separate languages, with difficult mutual intelligibility. Similar to Yei [jei]. Has also been classified as Australian, Pama-Nyungan.  Classification: South-Central Papuan, Morehead-Upper Maro, Tonda  More information.

Kapauri [khp] 200 (2006 SIL). Upper Idenburg River, north bank, Pagai village, Kamikaru and Magri hamlets. Alternate names: Kapori.  Classification: Kaure, Kapore  More information.

Kaptiau [kbi] 230 (2006 SIL). Papua Province, Sarmi Regency, Bonggo subdistrict, Kaptiau village. Alternate names: Kaptiauw, Kapitiauw.  Dialects: Most similar to Tarpia [tpf].  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Eastern Malayo-Polynesian, Oceanic, Western Oceanic, North New Guinea, Sarmi-Jayapura Bay, Sarmi  More information.

Karas [kgv] 240 (1983 SIL). Karas Island, off southwest coast of Bomberai Peninsula, southeast from Fak Fak, Antalisa and Mas. Classification: Trans-New Guinea, West, West Bomberai, Karas  More information.

Karon Dori [kgw] 5,000 (1987 SIL). Central Bird’s Head north of Brat, Pef, Asses, Sunopi, Siakwa villages. Alternate names: Maiyach, Mari, Meon.  Dialects: Similar to Mai Brat [ayz].  Classification: Maybrat  More information.

Kaure [bpp] 450 (1995 SIL). Southwest of Lake Sentani, Nawa River, Lereh, Harna, Wes, Masta, Aurina villages. Alternate names: Kaureh. 

Classification: Kaure, Kaure Proper  More information.

Kauwera [xau] 400 (1987 SIL). East of mid-Mamberamo, north and south of Kasonaweja. Alternate names: Kabera, Kaowerawedj, Kauwerawec, Kauwerawetj, Kawera, Koassa, Tekutameso.  Classification: Tor-Kwerba, Greater Kwerba, Kwerba, Nuclear  More information.

Kawe [kgb] 600 (Remijsen 2001). Waigeo Island, west end off west coast of Bird’s Head, Raja Ampat Islands, Salio, Selepele, Bianci, Menyefun villages. Dialects: Related to Maya [slz], Maden [xmx], Matbat [xmt].  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Eastern Malayo-Polynesian, South Halmahera-West New Guinea, West New Guinea, Cenderawasih Bay, Raja Ampat  More information.

Kayagar [kyt] 10,000 (1993 WT), decreasing. South coast east of Atohwaim [aqm], south of Awyu Asue [psa] languages. Alternate names: Kajagar, Kaygi, Kaygir, Wiyagar.  Dialects: Most similar to Tamagario [tcg]; related to Atohwaim.  Classification: Trans-New Guinea, Kayagar  More information.

Kayupulau [kzu] 50 (2000 S. Wurm). Ethnic population: 573 (1978 SIL). Jayapura harbor, Kayubatu and Kayupulau villages. Alternate names: Kajupulau.  Dialects: Not a dialect of Tobati (Yotafa) [tti].  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Eastern Malayo-Polynesian, Oceanic, Western Oceanic, North New Guinea, Sarmi-Jayapura Bay, Jayapura Bay  Nearly extinct. More information.

Kehu [khh] 25 (2002 SIL). Wapoga River between Auye [auu] and Dao [nfa] in the foothills. Classification: Unclassified  Nearly extinct. More information.

Keijar [kdy] 370 (2005 SIL). North coast east of Tor River mouth. Alternate names: Keder.  Dialects: Lexical similarity: 45% with Berik [bkl].  Classification: Tor-Kwerba, Orya-Tor, Tor  More information.

Kemberano [bzp] 1,500 (1987 SIL). South Bird’s Head coast, east of Komundan River, south of Arandai [jbj]; northwest Bomberai Peninsula, south from Kalitami across Bintuni Bay, several villages. Alternate names: Arandai, Barau, Kalitami, Wariagar.  Dialects: Barau, Weriagar. Lexical similarity: 85% with Arandai [jbj], 60% with Kokoda [xod].  Classification: Trans-New Guinea, South Bird’s Head, South Bird’s Head Proper, Eastern  More information.

Kembra [xkw] 20 (2000 S. Wurm). Ethnic population: 50. Jayawijaya Regency, Okbibab subdistrict, east of Sogber River. Classification: Unclassified  Nearly extinct.

More information. Kemtuik [kmt] 2,500 (1987 SIL). West of Lake Sentani, Mamdayawang,

Meikari, Merem, Yanim, Braso, Aib, Sabransamon, Mamda, Sabeyap, Sabeyap Kecil, Sekorup, Aimbe, Sabron Yaru villages. East of Gresi [grs]. Alternate names: Kamtuk, Kemtuk.  Dialects: Lexical similarity: 80% with Gresi.  Classification: Nimboran  More information.

Ketengban [xte] 9,970 (2000). Near Papua New Guinea border, east highland slopes scattered, east of Eipomek [eip] and west of Ngalum [szb]. Alternate names: Kupel, Oktengban.  Dialects: Okbap, Omban, Bime, Onya. Lexical similarity: 69% with Una [mtg].  Classification: Trans-New Guinea, Mek, Western  More information.

Ketum [ktt] 900 (2003 SIL). 99% monolinguals. Northeast of Wambon [wms]. Alternate names: Kitum, Wambon-Ketum.  Dialects: Related to Wambon, Mandobo. Lexical similarity: 49% with Wambon.  Classification: Trans-New Guinea, Ok-Awyu, Awyu-Dumut, Dumut  More information.

Kimaghima [kig] 3,000 (1987 SIL). West of southeast Papua, Kolopom (Frederik Hendrik) Island, east of Marauke, Ngolar II. Alternate names: Kimaghama, Kaladdarsch, Teri-Kalwasch, Kimaama.  Classification: Trans-New Guinea, Kolopom  More information.

Kimki [sbt] 500 (2004 SIL). Pegunungan Bintang Regency, Batom subdistrict, border area where Sepik River enters Papua. Alternate names: Aipki, Kimgi, Sukubatom, Sukubatong.  Classification: Sepik, Biksi  More information.

Kirikiri [kiy] 250 (1982 SIL). Most monolingual. Tariku (Rouffaer) and Kliki (Fou) rivers juncture west, Dofu Wahuka, Paniai villages. Alternate names: Kirira.  Dialects: Kirikiri, Faia.  Classification: Lakes Plain, Tariku, West  More information.

Kofei [kpi] 100 (2000 S. Wurm). East side of Geelvink Bay, recently moved to Sauri-Sirami village. Possibly seminomads in the interior. Dialects: Lexical similarity: 67% with Barapasi [brp], 64% with Demisa [dei], 76% with Sauri [srt], 63% with Woria [wor].  Classification: East Geelvink Bay  More information.

Kokoda [xod] 3,700 (1991 SIL). Bird’s Head, south coast on Maccluer Gulf, east of Inanwatan. Alternate names: Kasuweri, Komudago, Nebes, Oderago, Samalek, Tarof.  Dialects: Kasuweri (Komudago), Negri Besar (Negeri Besar), Tarof. Wurm and Hattori (1981) list Kasuweri and Tarof as separate languages. Komudago and Tarof dialects are most similar. Lexical similarity: 60% with Kemberano [bzp]; Kasuweri

dialect 86% with Tarof dialect; Negri Besar 82% with Tarof.  Classification: Trans-New Guinea, South Bird’s Head, South Bird’s Head Proper, Central  More information.

Kombai [tyn] 4,000 (1991 SIL). South coast area east of Senggo, Boma area. Alternate names: Komboy.  Dialects: Central Kombai, Tayan. Most similar to Wanggom [wng].  Classification: Trans-New Guinea, Ok-Awyu, Awyu-Dumut, Dumut  More information.

Komyandaret [kzv] 300 (2000 SIL). East of Korowai [khe], north of Tsaukambo [kvz] and Wanggom [wng]. Dialects: Similar to Tsaukambo.  Classification: Trans-New Guinea, Ok-Awyu, Ok, Ngalum  More information.

Konda [knd] 500 (1988 SIL). Southwest Bird’s Head, Teminabuan subdistrict, lower Waromge River south of Teminabuan, Konda village. Alternate names: Ogit, Yabin, Yabin-Konda.  Dialects: Lexical similarity: 61% with Yahadian [ner].  Classification: Trans-New Guinea, South Bird’s Head, Konda-Yahadian  More information.

Koneraw [kdw] 1,200 (2001 SIL). Frederik Hendrik Island south coast. Alternate names: Konorau.  Classification: Trans-New Guinea, Mombum  More information.

Kopkaka [opk] 400 (2002 SIL). Jayawijaya Regency, Kurima subdistrict, Siradala, Burungmakok villages. Lowlands area south of the main ranges, southeast of Sumo and Dekai, south of Langda and Bomela. Alternate names: Kopka.  Dialects: Marub, Tokuni. Similar to Kwer [kwr].  Classification: Trans-New Guinea, Ok-Awyu, Ok, Western  More information.

Korowai [khe] 3,500 (2007 P. de Vries). 3,000 monolinguals. South coast area, north of Boma, northeast of Senggo, southeast of Siradela, southwest of Awimbon. Alternate names: Kolufaup.  Dialects: North Korowai, South Korowai.  Classification: Trans-New Guinea, Ok-Awyu, Awyu-Dumut, Korowai  More information.

Korupun-Sela [kpq] 8,000 (1996 E. Young). Jayawijaya Regency, Kurima subdistrict, Siradala, Burungmakok villages. East highlands on upper reaches of Erok River, southwest of Nalca, east of Yali of Ninia. Alternate names: Kimyal of Korupun, Korapun.  Dialects: Korupun (Duram), Dagi, Sisibna (Gobugdua), Deibula, Sela. Related to Nalca [nlc]. Lexical similarity 60% with Nipsan [nps].  Classification: Trans-New Guinea, Mek, Eastern  More information.

Kosare [kiq] 250 (1993 R. Doriot). Hulu Atas, west of Nawa and Idenburg rivers juncture. Alternate names: Kosadle.  Classification: Kaure,

Kaure Proper  More information.

Kowiai [kwh] 600 (2000 SIL). Bomberai Peninsula; southwest coast, Kaimana; Kamrau Bay on several islands, Keroi, Adijaya, Namatota, Waikala, Kayumerah villages. Alternate names: Adi, Aiduma, Kaiwai, Kajumerah, Kayumerah, Koiwai, Kuiwai, Namatota, Namatote.  Dialects: Keroi, Adijaya, Namatota, Waikala. Central Malayo-Polynesian (1991 R. Blust).  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Central Malayo-Polynesian, South Bomberai  More information.

Kuri [nbn] 500 (1982 SIL). Southwest Bomberai Peninsula, Nabi (Kuri) River area west from Wandamen Bay. 16 villages. Alternate names: Modan, Nabi.  Dialects: Similar to Irarutu [irh]. Lexical similarity: 90% with Irarutu.  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Unclassified  More information.

Kurudu [kjr] 2,180 (1993 R. Doriot). Kurudu Island between east tip of Serui Island and mainland of Papua east, Kaipuri, Poiwai villages. Dialects: Lexical similarity: 71% with Wabo [wbb], 46% with Western Serui. Kaipuri dialect has highest lexical similarity with Yapen group.  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Eastern Malayo-Polynesian, South Halmahera-West New Guinea, West New Guinea, Cenderawasih Bay, Yapen, East  More information.

Kwer [kwr] 100 (1998 M. Donohue). Jayawijaya Regency, Kurima subdistrict, Kwer village. Lowlands area south of the main ranges, southeast of Sumo and Dekai, south of Langda and Bomela. Dialects: Similar to Kopkaka [opk].  Classification: Trans-New Guinea, Ok-Awyu, Ok, Western  More information.

Kwerba [kwe] 2,500 (1996 SIL). Upper Tor River area, northeast, headwaters of Apauwer River inland from Sarmi east to Berik language, Aurime, Munukania, Wamariri, Tatsewalem around Apiaweti villages. Alternate names: Airmati, Armati, Koassa, Mataweja, Naibedj, Segar Tor, Serikenam, Tekutameso.  Dialects: Serikenam, Sasawa, Nogukwabai. Lexical similarity: 64% with Bagusa [bqb].  Classification: Tor-Kwerba, Greater Kwerba, Kwerba, Nuclear  More information.

Kwerba Mamberamo [xwr] 300 (1993 R. Doriot). East of Mamberamo River, south of Kasonaweja, in mountains above Kwerba, Edifalen, Marinafalen, villages. Alternate names: Napok, Nobuk, Nogukwabai, Nopuk, Nopukw, Tatsewalem.  Classification: Tor-Kwerba, Greater Kwerba, Kwerba, Nuclear  More information.

Kwerisa [kkb] 32 (2000 S. Wurm). Ethnic population: 130. Lower Rouffaer

River, Kaiy village. Alternate names: Taogwe.  Dialects: Lexical similarity: 60% with Biritai [bqq].  Classification: Lakes Plain, Tariku, East  Nearly extinct. More information.

Kwesten [kwt] 2,000 (1987 SIL). Lower Tor River, north coast area east of Sarmi, Holmhaven, Mafenter, Arare, Omte villages. Dialects: Lexical similarity: 40% with Berik [bkl].  Classification: Tor-Kwerba, Orya-Tor, Tor  More information.

Kwinsu [kuc] 500 (2007). Papua Province, Sarmi Regency, Pantai Timur subdistrict, Ansudu village. Alternate names: Ansudu.  Classification: Tor-Kwerba, Orya-Tor, Tor  More information.

Legenyem [lcc] 250 (2000 S. Wurm). Raja Ampat Islands, Waigeo Island in northwest end of main bay and on south coast, Beo, Lempintol, Wawiai villages. Alternate names: Laganyan.  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Eastern Malayo-Polynesian, South Halmahera-West New Guinea, West New Guinea, Cenderawasih Bay, Raja Ampat  More information.

Lepki [lpe] 530 (1991 SIL). Jayawijaya Regency, Okbibab subdistrict, on Sogber River, east and north of the Ketengban. Dialects: Possible genetic similarities with Murkim [rmh].  Classification: Unclassified  More information.

Liki [lio] 11 (2005 SIL), decreasing. Ethnic population: 320. Sarmi Regency, Sarmi subdistrict, Islands off north coast of Sarmi. Alternate names: Moar.  Dialects: Similar to Sobei [sob].  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Eastern Malayo-Polynesian, Oceanic, Western Oceanic, North New Guinea, Sarmi-Jayapura Bay, Sarmi  Nearly extinct. More information.

Maden [xmx] 600 (Remijsen 2001). Raja Ampat Islands, west Salawati Island. Alternate names: Palamul, Saparan, Sapran.  Dialects: Kawait.  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Eastern Malayo-Polynesian, South Halmahera-West New Guinea, West New Guinea, Cenderawasih Bay, Raja Ampat  More information.

Mai Brat [ayz] 20,000 (1987 SIL). Central Bird’s Head around Ayamaru Lakes. About 40 villages. Alternate names: Ajamaru, Atinjo, Ayamaru, Brat, Maibrat, Maite, Majbrat, Maybrat, Mey Brat.  Dialects: Maisawiet, Maiyah, Maimaka, Maite, Maisefa. Lexical similarity: 10% with Tehit [kps], Mpur [akc], Abun [kgr], its most similar neighbors.  Classification: Maybrat  More information.

Mairasi [zrs] 3,300 (1996 SIL). Bomberai Peninsula, southwest coast of neck,

east and northeast from Kaimana, Wasior, Triton Bay. Alternate names: Faranyao, Kaniran.  Dialects: Northeastern Mairasi. Similar to Semimi [etz]. Northeastern Mairasi may be a separate language. Lexical similarity: 69% with Semimi, 61% with Mer [mnu].  Classification: Mairasi  More information.

Maklew [mgf] 120. South coast area, east side of Marianne strait, west of Marind [mrz] and east of Yelmek [jel] languages. Alternate names: Makleu.  Dialects: Similar to Yelmek.  Classification: South-Central Papuan, Yelmek-Maklew  More information.

Malay, Papuan [pmy] 500,000, increasing. Papua. Dialects: Similar to both Ambonese Malay [abs] and Manado Malay [xmm].  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Malayo-Sumbawan, North and East, Malayic, Malay, Trade, East Indonesian  More information.

Mander [mqr] 20 (1991 SIL). Upper Tor River tributary of upper Bu River, north coast area. Classification: Tor-Kwerba, Orya-Tor, Tor  Nearly extinct. More information.

Mandobo Atas [aax] 1,000 (2002 SIL). Fly River border area east of Digul River between Tanahmerah and Mindiptanah. Alternate names: Dumut, “Kaeti” , Kambon, Kwem, Mandobbo, Nub, Wambon.  Classification: Trans-New Guinea, Ok-Awyu, Awyu-Dumut, Dumut  More information.

Mandobo Bawah [bwp] 2,000 (2002 SIL). Fly River border area east of Digul River between Tanahmerah and Mindiptanah, Getentiri, Anggai, Butiptiri, Subur, Aiwat, Kaisah villages. Alternate names: Dumut, “Kaeti” , Kambon, Mandobbo, Nub.  Classification: Trans-New Guinea, Ok-Awyu, Awyu-Dumut, Dumut  More information.

Manem [jet] 400 in Indonesia (1978 SIL). South of Jayapura, northeast border area, Wembi, Yeti, Kiba villages. Alternate names: Jeti, Skofro, Wembi, Yeti.  Classification: Border, Waris  More information.

Manikion [mnx] 12,000 (1987 SIL). East Bird’s Head, east of Meyah, south of Manokwari. About 50 villages. Alternate names: Mantion, Sogh, Sougb.  Dialects: 4 dialects.  Classification: East Bird’s Head-Sentani, East Bird’s Head, Mantion  More information.

Mapia [mpy] 1. Mapia Islands, about 290 kms. north of Manokwari. Alternate names: Mapian.  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Eastern Malayo-Polynesian, Oceanic, Central-Eastern Oceanic, Remote Oceanic, Micronesian, Micronesian Proper, Ponapeic-Trukic, Trukic  Nearly extinct.

More information. Marau [mvr] 1,700 (1987 SIL). Serui Island south coast. 5 villages. Dialects:

Warabori (Natabui, Warembori). Lexical similarity: 82% with Pom [pmo], Munggui [mth], Papuma [ppm], Ansus [and].  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Eastern Malayo-Polynesian, South Halmahera-West New Guinea, West New Guinea, Cenderawasih Bay, Yapen, Central-Western  More information.

Marind [mrz] 7,000 (1987 SIL). Merauke south coast area, and north and west. Alternate names: Gawir, Holifoersch, Southeast Marind, Tugeri.  Dialects: Gawir, Southeast Marind, Tugeri, Halifoersch. Significant differences between inland and coastal dialects, but speakers report intelligibility.  Classification: Trans-New Guinea, Marind, Nuclear Marind  More information.

Marind, Bian [bpv] 2,900 (2002 M. Sohn). Merauke Regency, Muting subdistrict, Upper Bian River area, Maro River, Sanayu village. Alternate names: Bian, Boven-Mbian, Northwest Marind.  Dialects: Not inherently intelligible with Marind [mrz].  Classification: Trans-New Guinea, Marind, Nuclear Marind  More information.

Masimasi [ism] 10 (2005 SIL). Sarmi Regency, Pantai Timur subdistrict, Island off north coast east of Tor River mouth. Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Eastern Malayo-Polynesian, Oceanic, Western Oceanic, North New Guinea, Sarmi-Jayapura Bay, Sarmi  Nearly extinct. More information.

Massep [mvs] 25 (2000 S. Wurm). Ethnic population: 85. North coast east of Mamberamo River mouth and west of Sarmi, near Apauwer River. Alternate names: Masep, Potafa, Wotaf.  Classification: Language isolate  Nearly extinct. More information.

Matbat [xmt] 1,250 (Remijsen 2001). Raja Ampat Islands, Misool Island, Segaf Islands. Alternate names: Me.  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Eastern Malayo-Polynesian, South Halmahera-West New Guinea, West New Guinea, Cenderawasih Bay, Raja Ampat  More information.

Mawes [mgk] 850 (2006 SIL). Sarmi Regency, Bonggo subdistrict, northeast coast east of Sarmi, Mawes Wres, Mawes Dai, Mawes Mukti villages. Classification: Tor-Kwerba, Greater Kwerba, Mawes  More information.

Ma’ya [slz] 4,000 (Remijsen 2001). Raja Ampat Islands, central Waigeo Island and central Salawati Island. Alternate names: Sailolof, Salawati, Samate.  Dialects: Ma’ya, Banlol, Batanta Island.  Classification:

Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Eastern Malayo-Polynesian, South Halmahera-West New Guinea, West New Guinea, Cenderawasih Bay, Raja Ampat  More information.

Mekwei [msf] 1,200 (1987 SIL). West of Lake Sentani, Maribu, Waibrong, Kendate, Sabron Dosay villages. Alternate names: Demenggong-Waibron-Bano, Menggei, Menggwei, Moi, Mooi, Munggai, Mungge, Munkei, Waipu.  Dialects: Lexical similarity: 60% with Kemtuik [kmt].  Classification: Nimboran  More information.

Meoswar [mvx] 250 (1993 R. Doriot). Meoswar Island, west Cenderawasih Bay. Alternate names: War.  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Eastern Malayo-Polynesian, South Halmahera-West New Guinea, West New Guinea, Cenderawasih Bay, Biakic  More information.

Mer [mnu] 85 (2000). Central Bird’s Head, Wosimi and Uremo river headwaters. Alternate names: Miere, Muri.  Dialects: Lexical similarity: 63% with Semimi [etz], 61% with Mairasi [zrs].  Classification: Mairasi  More information.

Meyah [mej] 14,800 (2000). East Bird’s Head, north coast, west of Manokwari, north of Hattam [had]; scattered. Alternate names: Arfak, Mansibaber, Meah, Meax, Mejach, Mejah, Meyach.  Dialects: Most similar to Manikion [mnx].  Classification: East Bird’s Head-Sentani, East Bird’s Head, Meax  More information.

Mlap [kja] 300 (2000 S. Wurm). West of Lake Sentani, just north of Gresi [grs]. Alternate names: Kuangsu-Bonggrang, Kwangsu-Bonggrang, Kwansu, Kwansu-Bonggrang.  Dialects: Lexical similarity: 60% with Kemtuik [kmt].  Classification: Nimboran  More information.

Mo [wkd] 550 (2005 SIL). Sarmi Regency, Pantai Timur subdistrict, coastal area and Wakde Island off the north coast just east of Tor River. Alternate names: Wakde.  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Eastern Malayo-Polynesian, Oceanic, Western Oceanic, North New Guinea, Sarmi-Jayapura Bay, Sarmi  More information.

Moi [mxn] 4,600 (1993 R. Doriot). Salawati Island, west Bird’s Head around Sorong. 9 villages. Alternate names: Mekwei, Mooi, Mosana.  Dialects: Mosemah.  Classification: West Papuan, West Bird’s Head  More information.

Molof [msl] 200 (1978 SIL). South of Jayapura, west of Senggi, Molof and Waley villages. Alternate names: Ampas, Poule.  Dialects: Not closely

related to any other language.  Classification: Unclassified  More information.

Mombum [mso] 250 (1993 R. Doriot). Island next to southeast coast of Fredrik Hendrik Island. Alternate names: Kemelom, Kemelomsch, Komolom.  Dialects: Most similar to Koneraw [kdw].  Classification: Trans-New Guinea, Mombum  More information.

Momina [mmb] 200 (1998 M. Donohue). Lowlands just south of main ranges southeast of Una [mtg], Samboka village. Classification: Somahai  More information.

Momuna [mqf] 2,000 (2000 S. Wurm). 2,000 monolinguals. Lowlands just south of main ranges, from south of Silimo east to south of Korupun-Sela [kpq]. Alternate names: Somage, Somahai, Sumohai.  Classification: Somahai  More information.

Moni [mnz] 20,000 (1991 SIL). Central highlands, northeast Lake Paniai area. Alternate names: Djonggunu, Jonggunu, Migani.  Dialects: Awembak (Awembiak).  Classification: Trans-New Guinea, West, Wissel Lakes  More information.

Mor [mhz] 700 (1987 SIL). Mor Islands, east Cenderawasih Bay near Nabire. Alternate names: Austronesian Mor.  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Eastern Malayo-Polynesian, South Halmahera-West New Guinea, West New Guinea, Cenderawasih Bay, Mor  More information.

Mor [moq] 25 (2000 S. Wurm). Northwest Bomberai Peninsula, Bintuni Bay coast. Alternate names: Mor2.  Classification: Trans-New Guinea, Mor  Nearly extinct. More information.

Moraid [msg] 1,000 (1988 SIL). South coast border area 20 kms. east of Merauke, east of Marind, west of Kanum. Classification: West Papuan, West Bird’s Head  More information.

Morori [mok] 50 (1998 M. Donohue). Ethnic population: 250 (1998 M. Donohue). South coast border area 20 km east of Merauke, east of Marind, west of Kanum. Alternate names: Marori, Moaraeri, Moraori, Morari.  Dialects: Menge dialect remembered as the language of ceremony, though the last Menge speaker died in 1997.  Classification: Trans-New Guinea, Moraori  Nearly extinct. More information.

Moskona [mtj] 8,000 (1996 SIL). Southeast Bird’s Head, south of Meyah, west of Manikion. Alternate names: Meninggo, Meningo, Meyah, Sabena.  Dialects: Lexical similarity: 85% with Meyah [mej]. Also related to Manikion [mnx].  Classification: East Bird’s Head-Sentani, East

Bird’s Head, Meax  More information.

Mpur [akc] 7,000 (1993 R. Doriot). North coast of Bird’s Head, west of Manokwari, and Kebar Valley. Alternate names: Amberbaken, Dekwambre, Ekware, Kebar.  Dialects: Sirir, Ajiw.  Classification: Language isolate  More information.

Munggui [mth] 800 (1982 SIL). North coast of Serui Island, Munggui, Windesi, Murui, Asei Puramati villages. Alternate names: Natabui.  Dialects: Lexical similarity: 82% with Marau [mvr] and Papuma [ppm].  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Eastern Malayo-Polynesian, South Halmahera-West New Guinea, West New Guinea, Cenderawasih Bay, Yapen, Central-Western  More information.

Murkim [rmh] 290 (2004 SIL). Pegunungan Bintang Regency, Batom subdistrict, southeast of Yetfa [yet], Mot and Milki villages. Dialects: Possible genetic relationship to Lepki [lpe].  Classification: Unclassified  More information.

Muyu, North [kti] 8,000 (2002 SIL). South coast border area, north of South Muyu [kts] and east of Wambon [wms]. Alternate names: Kataut, Kati-Ninanti, Moejoe, Niinati, Ninatie, North, North Kati, Yonggom, Yongkom, Yongom.  Dialects: Kanggewot, Toemoetoe (Are).  Classification: Trans-New Guinea, Ok-Awyu, Ok, Lowland  More information.

Muyu, South [kts] 4,000 (2002 SIL). South coast, just north of Fly River border between Papua, Indonesia, and Papua New Guinea. Alternate names: Digoel, Digul, Kati Metomka, Metomka, Moejoe, Ok Bari, South, South Kati, Yonggom, Yongkom, Yongom.  Dialects: Metomka.  Classification: Trans-New Guinea, Ok-Awyu, Ok, Lowland  More information.

Nafri [nxx] 1,630 (1975 SIL). Jayapura area, southeast end of Yotafa Bay, Nafri village. Classification: East Bird’s Head-Sentani, Sentani, Sentani Proper  More information.

Nakai [nkj] 700 (1999 M. Donohue). East of upper Digul River, Awimbom village in the center of 5 other villages extending toward Ok Sibil northeast, and southwest toward Iwur. Alternate names: Na’ai, Na’i, Nagai.  Dialects: Probably 3 dialects, two of these may constitute a separate language called Nagi.  Classification: Trans-New Guinea, Ok-Awyu, Ok, Mountain  More information.

Nalca [nlc] 11,100 (2000). Northeast of Korupun and southeast of Nipsan, north slopes, east highlands area. Alternate names: Hmanggona, Hmonono, Kimjal, Kimyal, Naltje, Naltya.  Dialects: Lexical

similarity: 59% with Kosarek Yale [kkl].  Classification: Trans-New Guinea, Mek, Eastern  More information.

Namla [naa] 30 (2005 SIL). Senggi Subistrict, Keerom Regency, Namla village. Dialects: Possible genetic relationship to Tofanma [tlg].  Classification: Unclassified  Nearly extinct. More information.

Narau [nxu] 85 (2000 S. Wurm). Jayapura area, Kecamatan Kaureh. Classification: Kaure, Kaure Proper  More information.

Ndom [nqm] 1,200 (2002 SIL). Kolopom (Frederik Hendrik) Island. Dialects: Most similar to Kimaghima [kig], Riantana [ran].  Classification: Trans-New Guinea, Kolopom  More information.

Nduga [ndx] 10,000 (1985 M. Owen). Jayawijaya, Tiom, central highlands, south of high ranges, south of Western Dani, north of Asmat. Scattered. Alternate names: Dauwa, Dawa, Ndauwa, Ndugwa, Pesecham, Pesechem, Pesegem.  Dialects: Sinak Nduga, Hitadipa Nduga.  Classification: Trans-New Guinea, West, Dani, Ngalik  More information.

Ngalum [szb] 10,000 in Indonesia (1987 SIL). Population total all countries: 18,000. Northeast of Nakai, valleys of Ok Sibil, Ok Tsop, perhaps Ok Bon, main range border area north of Muyu [kts] (Yongkom) and Iwur [iwo]. Also in Papua New Guinea. Alternate names: Sibil.  Dialects: Ngalum, Apmisibil, Sibil.  Classification: Trans-New Guinea, Ok-Awyu, Ok, Ngalum  More information.

Nggem [nbq] 4,400 (2005). North of Wamena, middle Haflifoeri River. Dialects: Similar to Walak [wlw]. Lexical similarity: 67% with Yali (Pass Valley) [yac], 62% with Walak, and 50% with Western Dani [dnw].  Classification: Trans-New Guinea, West, Dani, Dani Proper  More information.

Nimboran [nir] 2,000 (1987 SIL). Ethnic population: 3,500 (1987 SIL). North Papua, due west of Lake Sentani. About 26 villages. Alternate names: Nambrong.  Dialects: Lexical similarity: 40% with Kemtuik [kmt].  Classification: Nimboran  More information.

Ninggerum [nxr] 1,000 in Indonesia. Border area and in Papua New Guinea between Ok Birim and Ok Tedi rivers. Alternate names: Kasiwa, Kativa, Muyu, Ninggeroem, Ninggirum, Ninggrum, Orgwo.  Classification: Trans-New Guinea, Ok-Awyu, Ok, Lowland  More information.

Nipsan [nps] 2,500 (1993 R. Doriot). Jayawijaya, Kurima, just west of Hmanggona. Alternate names: Southern Jale, Yale-Nipsan.  Dialects: Lexical similarity: 78% with Kosarek Yale [kkl], 59% with Nalca

[nlc].  Classification: Trans-New Guinea, Mek, Eastern  More information.

Nisa [njs] 500 (1987 SIL). East side of Geelvink Bay inland, Danau Nisa area. Alternate names: Bonefa, Kerema.  Classification: East Geelvink Bay  More information.

Obokuitai [afz] 120 (2000 S. Wurm). Lakes Plain just north of mid-Rouffaer River, Obogwi village. Alternate names: Aliki, Ati, Obogwitai.  Dialects: Related to Doutai [tds], Biritai [bqq], Sikaritai [tty]. Lexical similarity: 78% with Eritai [ert], 69% with Biritai.  Classification: Lakes Plain, Tariku, East  More information.

Onin [oni] 500 (2000 S. Wurm). North and northwest Bomberai Peninsula. Alternate names: Onim, Sepa.  Dialects: Nikuda, Ogar, Patipi, Sepa.  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Central Malayo-Polynesian, North Bomberai  More information.

Onin Based Pidgin [onx]  Onin Peninsula. Classification: Pidgin, Onin based  More information.

Ormu [orz] 500 (2000 S. Wurm). North coast area just west of Jayapura, north of Cyclops Mountains, Ormu Besar, Ormu Kecil villages. Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Eastern Malayo-Polynesian, Oceanic, Western Oceanic, North New Guinea, Sarmi-Jayapura Bay, Jayapura Bay  More information.

Orya [ury] 1,600 (1985 SIL). No monolinguals. 900 in Unurum-Guay, 100 in Bonggo subdistrict, 600 in Lereh subdistrict. Unurum-Guay, Bonggo subdistrict, Lereh subdistrict, Taja, Witi, and Wamho (formerly of Orya) villages. Alternate names: Oria, Uria, Warpok, Warpu.  Dialects: Barat (West Orya), Timur (East Orya), Yapsi-Taja. Slight dialect differences.  Classification: Tor-Kwerba, Orya-Tor, Orya  More information.

Papasena [pas] 400 (1982 SIL). Lakes Plain area, lower Idenburg River just east of Rouffaer River juncture. Dialects: Lexical similarity: 23% with Sikaritai [tty].  Classification: Lakes Plain, Tariku, East  More information.

Papuma [ppm] 600 (1982 SIL). Serui Island south coast, Papuma village. Dialects: Lexical similarity: 82% with Munggui [mth], Marau [mvr], Ansus [and].  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Eastern Malayo-Polynesian, South Halmahera-West New Guinea, West New Guinea, Cenderawasih Bay, Yapen, Central-Western  More information.

Pom [pmo] 2,000 (1987 SIL). Miosnum Island, west Serui Island, Pom,

Serewen, Mias Endi villages. Dialects: Jobi.  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Eastern Malayo-Polynesian, South Halmahera-West New Guinea, West New Guinea, Cenderawasih Bay, Yapen, Central-Western  More information.

Puragi [pru] 700 (1991 SIL). Southwest Bird’s Head along Maccluer Gulf, inland Matamani River area. Alternate names: Mogao.  Classification: Trans-New Guinea, South Bird’s Head, South Bird’s Head Proper, Western  More information.

Rasawa [rac] 200 (1987 SIL). Waropen Bawah subdistrict, south coast. 2 villages. Classification: Lakes Plain, Rasawa-Saponi  More information.

Riantana [ran] 1,100 (Voegelin and Voegelin 1977). Frederik Hendrik Island. Alternate names: Kimaam.  Classification: Trans-New Guinea, Kolopom  More information.

Roon [rnn] 1,100 (1993 R. Doriot). Roon Island west of Cenderawasih Bay, north of Wandamen Peninsula. Alternate names: Ron.  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Eastern Malayo-Polynesian, South Halmahera-West New Guinea, West New Guinea, Cenderawasih Bay, Yapen, Central-Western  More information.

Samarokena [tmj] 400 (1982 SIL). North coast inland just east of Apawar River, west of Sarmi, Karfasia, Samarkena, Maseb, Tamaya villages. Alternate names: Karfasia, Samarkena, Tamaja, Tamaya.  Classification: Tor-Kwerba, Greater Kwerba, Kwerba, West Coast  More information.

Saponi [spi] 4 (2000 S. Wurm). Interior Waropen Bawah subdistrict, Botawa village. Classification: Lakes Plain, Rasawa-Saponi  Nearly extinct. More information.

Sauri [srt] 100 (1987 SIL). East side of Cenderawasih Bay near Waropen [wrp], Sauri-Sirami village, near Sirami River. Dialects: Lexical similarity: 71% with Barapasi [brp], 60% with Demisa [dei], 76% with Kofei [kpi], 63% with Tefaro [tfo].  Classification: East Geelvink Bay 

More information. Sause [sao] 250 (2000 S. Wurm). Southwest of Sentani, northwest of Lereh,

Ures, Mubararon, Sause-Bokoko, Witti-Yadow, Lidya, Puaral villages. Alternate names: Seuce.  Classification: Tor-Kwerba, Orya-Tor, Sause  More information.

Saweru [swr] 300 (1991 SIL). Serui Waropen Regency, Yapen Selatan subdistrict, central Serui Island, an island south of Yapen Island near Serui. Alternate names: Sarwar Use.  Classification: West Papuan,

Yapen  More information.

Sawi [saw] 3,500 (1993 R. Doriot). Asmat Regency, Pantai Kasuari and Fayit subdistricts, near south coastal lowland, between Kronkel and Ayip rivers and upper Fayit River area, Kamur, Esebor, Wiagas, Minahai, Comoro villages. Alternate names: Aejauroh, Sawuy.  Dialects: Most similar to Awyu languages.  Classification: Trans-New Guinea, Ok-Awyu, Awyu-Dumut, Sawi  More information.

Seget [sbg] 1,200 (1988 SIL). West Bird’s Head southwest of Sorong, west and southwest of Moi [mxn], Walian, Sailolof, Segum, Seget villages. Classification: West Papuan, West Bird’s Head  More information.

Sekar [skz] 450 (Voegelin and Voegelin 1977). Northwest Bomberai Peninsula coast and one small island. Alternate names: Seka.  Dialects: Lexical similarity: highest with Arguni [agf].  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Central Malayo-Polynesian, North Bomberai  More information.

Semimi [etz] 1,000 (1991 SIL). Bomberai Peninsula near Kaniran, south part of neck extending west to Triton Bay. Alternate names: Etna Bay, Muri, Wesrau.  Dialects: Lexical similarity: 69% with Mairasi [zrs], 63% with Mer [mnu].  Classification: Mairasi  More information.

Sempan [xse] 1,000 (1987 SIL). Middle south coast, between Kokonao and Agats, east of Kamoro [kgq], west of Asmat languages. Alternate names: Nararapi.  Dialects: Similar to Kamoro [kgq].  Classification: Trans-New Guinea, Asmat-Kamoro, Sempan  More information.

Sentani [set] 30,000 (1996 SIL), increasing. Few monolinguals. Lake Sentani area, about 30 villages. Scattered in Papua and other parts of Indonesia. Alternate names: Buyaka.  Dialects: East Sentani, West Sentani, Central Sentani. Lexical similarity: 30% with Tabla [tnm].  Classification: East Bird’s Head-Sentani, Sentani, Sentani Proper  More information.

Serui-Laut [seu] 1,200 (1987 SIL). South central Serui Island, Nau Island south of Serui. 5 villages. Alternate names: Arui.  Dialects: Lexical similarity: 82% with Ansus [and], 77% with Ambai [amk].  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Eastern Malayo-Polynesian, South Halmahera-West New Guinea, West New Guinea, Cenderawasih Bay, Yapen, Central-Western  More information.

Sikaritai [tty] 800 (1993 R. Doriot). Lakes Plain area, Idenburg and Rouffaer River junctions north, Mamberamo River, Sikari, Haya, Iri villages. Alternate names: Aikwakai, Araikurioko, Ati, Sikari, Tori, Tori

Aikwakai.  Dialects: Lexical similarity: 86% with Eritai [ert].  Classification: Lakes Plain, Tariku, East  More information.

Silimo [wul] 5,000 (1987 SIL). 50% monolinguals. Central highlands south of the range immediately west of Baliem River, Amo, Kiniage valleys. Alternate names: Paiyage, South Ngalik, Usak, Wulik.  Dialects: Lower Samenage.  Classification: Trans-New Guinea, West, Dani, Ngalik  More information.

Skou [skv] 700 (1999 M. Donohue). East of Jayapura, north coast border area, Tami River mouth, Sko-Yambe, Sko-Mabu, Sko-Sai villages. Alternate names: Sekol, Sekou, Sko, Skouw, Skow, Sukou, Te Mawo, Tumawo.  Dialects: Related to Vanimo [vam], Wutung [wut], Margu [mhg].  Classification: Sko, Vanimo  More information.

Sobei [sob] 1,000 (2000 S. Wurm). Ethnic population: 1,850 (2000 D. Tryon). Sarmi Regency, Sarmi subdistrict, north coast area east of Sarmi. Alternate names: Biga, Imasi, Liki.  Dialects: Comprehension of, Liki [lio], Papuan Malay [pmy].  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Eastern Malayo-Polynesian, Oceanic, Western Oceanic, North New Guinea, Sarmi-Jayapura Bay, Sarmi  More information.

Sowanda [sow] 210 in Indonesia (2002 SIL). South of Jayapur, northeast border area. Alternate names: Waina, Waina-Sowanda, Wanja, Wanya, Wina.  Classification: Border, Waris  More information.

Sowari [dmy] 1,300 (2000), decreasing. North coast west of Tanamerah Bay, Muris Besar, Muris Kecil, Ambora, Yougafsa villages. Alternate names: Demta, Muris.  Classification: East Bird’s Head-Sentani, Sentani, Demta  More information.

Suabo [szp] 1,100 (1987 SIL). South Bird’s Head along Maccluer Gulf. 15 villages. Alternate names: Iagu, Inanwatan, Mirabo, Suabau.  Dialects: Most similar to Duriankere [dbn].  Classification: Trans-New Guinea, South Bird’s Head, Inanwatan  More information.

Sunum [ymn] 560 (2005 SIL). Sarmi Regency, Pantai Timur subdistrict, coastal area and an island off north coast, east of Tor River. Alternate names: Yamna.  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Eastern Malayo-Polynesian, Oceanic, Western Oceanic, North New Guinea, Sarmi-Jayapura Bay, Sarmi  More information.

Tabla [tnm] 3,750 (1990 UBS). Jayapura, Demta, Depapre, 13 villages on north coast east and west of Tanahmerah Bay. Alternate names: Jakari,

Tabi, Tanah Merah, Tanahmerah 2, Tepera.  Dialects: Yokari, Tepera, Yewena-Yongsu. Yokari dialect understood by other dialects at 80% to 95%, others have 95%–100% mutual intelligibility. Lexical similarity: 30% with Sentani [set].  Classification: East Bird’s Head-Sentani, Sentani, Sentani Proper  More information.

Taikat [aos] 500 (2000 S. Wurm). Straight south of Jayapura, northeast border area. Alternate names: Arso, Tajkat.  Dialects: Most similar to Awyi [auw].  Classification: Border, Taikat  More information.

Tamagario [tcg] 3,500 (1987 SIL). South coast area, south and east of Kayagar [kyt] and west of Yaqay [jaq]. Alternate names: Buru, Tamaraw, Wagow, Wiyagar.  Dialects: Most similar to Kayagar [kyt], also related to Atohwaim [aqm].  Classification: Trans-New Guinea, Kayagar  More information.

Tanahmerah [tcm] 500 (1978 SIL). North Bomberai Peninsula, Gondu and Bapai rivers. Alternate names: Sumeri, Sumerine.  Classification: Trans-New Guinea, Tanah Merah  More information.

Tandia [tni] 2 (1991 SIL). Bird’s Head neck area just south of Wandamen Peninsula, Wohsimi River. Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Eastern Malayo-Polynesian, South Halmahera-West New Guinea, West New Guinea, Cenderawasih Bay, Tandia  Nearly extinct. More information.

Tangko [tkx] 100 (2000 SIL). West of Nakai [nkj], Kawemaot village. Classification: Trans-New Guinea, Ok-Awyu, Ok, Tangko  More information.

Tarpia [tpf] 630 (2006 SIL). Province of Papua, Jayapura Regency, Demta subdistrict, Tarpia village. Alternate names: Tarfia, Sufrai.  Dialects: Most similar to Kaptiau [kbi] and Bonggo [bgp].  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Eastern Malayo-Polynesian, Oceanic, Western Oceanic, North New Guinea, Sarmi-Jayapura Bay, Sarmi  More information.

Tause [tad] 300 (2000 S. Wurm). West Lakes Plain (Paniai), southwest of Danau Bira, Deraposi area, northeast of Fayu [fau], northwest of Edopi [dbf]. Alternate names: Darha, Doa.  Dialects: Tause, Weirate, Deirate. Related to Fayu, Kirikiri [kiy].  Classification: Lakes Plain, Tariku, West  More information.

Tebi [dmu] 220 (2005 SIL). Border area south of Jayapura, south of Yafi [wfg], east of Emem [enr], north of Towei [ttn], Dubu, Jembatan Web, Affi villages. Alternate names: Dubu.  Classification: Pauwasi,

Western  More information.

Tefaro [tfo] 100 (1987 SIL). East side of Cenderawasih Bay, Tefaro and Demba villages. Alternate names: Demba.  Dialects: Lexical similarity: 61% with Barapasi [brp], 63% with Sauri [srt], 70% with Tunggare [trt].  Classification: East Geelvink Bay  More information.

Tehit [kps] 10,000 (2000 R. Hesse). 500 monolinguals. Southwest Bird’s Head, Regency Sorong, most of Teminabuan subdistrict, half of Sawiat subdistrict. About 31 villages. Alternate names: Kaibus, Tahit, Tehid, Teminabuan.  Dialects: Tehit Jit, Mbol Fle, Saifi, Imyan, Sfa Riere, Fkar, Sawiat Salmeit. Most similar to Kalabra [kzz]. Lexical similarity: 60% with Kalabra.  Classification: West Papuan, West Bird’s Head  More information.

Tobati [tti] 350 (1998 M. Donohue). Jayapura Bay, near Jayapura, Tobati, Enggros, Entrop, Kota Raja, Tanah Hitam villages. Alternate names: Enggros, Humboldt Jotafa, Jayapura, Jotafa, Tobwadic, Yautefa, Yotafa.  Dialects: Formerly classified as Papuan.  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Eastern Malayo-Polynesian, Oceanic, Western Oceanic, North New Guinea, Sarmi-Jayapura Bay, Jayapura Bay  More information.

Tofanma [tlg] 250 (2005 SIL). South Jayapuraborder area, Keerom Regency, Senggi subdistrict, Tofanma Satu, Tofanma Dua, and most of Namla villages. Alternate names: Tofamna.  Dialects: Not closely related to any other language.  Classification: Unclassified  More information.

Towei [ttn] 120 (1975 SIL). Border area south of Jayapura, Towe Hitam village, south of Dubu [dmu], west of Emem [enr]. Alternate names: Towe.  Classification: Pauwasi, Western  More information.

Trimuris [tip] 300 (1999 SIL). Jayapura Regency, Mamberamo Tengah subdistrict, Mamberamo River east bank, between Kauwera [xau] and Bagusa [bqb]. Dialects: Low intelligibility of Kwerba [kwe]. Lexical similarity: 70% with Kauwera and 60% with Kwerba.  Classification: Tor-Kwerba, Greater Kwerba, Kwerba, Nuclear  More information.

Tsaukambo [kvz] 780 (2000 SIL). West side of upper Digul River, north of Wanggom, south of Komyandaret. Alternate names: Kotogüt, Tsokwambo, Tsakwambo.  Dialects: Most similar to Komyandaret [kzv]. Also related to Korowai [khe], Wanggom [wng], Kombai [tyn].  Classification: Trans-New Guinea, Ok-Awyu, Ok, Ngalum  More information.

Tunggare [trt] 500 (1993 R. Doriot). North central, west of Mamberamo River, east Geelvink Bay near Nabire, inland from Waropen [wrp]. Alternate

names: Tarunggare, Turunggare.  Dialects: Most closely related to Bauzi [bvz]. Lexical similarity: 70% with Bauzi, 75% with Burate [bti], 65% with Demisa [dei], 70% with Tefaro [tfo], 69% with Woria [wor].  Classification: East Geelvink Bay  More information.

Una [mtg] 4,000 (1991 SIL). East highlands on south slopes of main ranges east of Sela Valley, west of Ngalum, Bidabuh, east Weip Valley, Yay Valley, around Langda, Bomela, Sumtamon. Alternate names: Goliath, Langda, Mt. Goliath, Oranje-Gebergte.  Dialects: Lexical similarity: 75% with Eipomek [eip], 69% with Ketengban [xte].  Classification: Trans-New Guinea, Mek, Eastern  More information.

Uruangnirin [urn] 400 (1983 SIL). Karas Island and 2 small islands between Karas Island and mainland of southwest Bomberai Peninsula. Alternate names: Faur, Tubiruasa.  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Central Malayo-Polynesian, North Bomberai  More information.

Usku [ulf] 110 (2004 SIL). South of Jayapura, Usku village; west of Namla [naa], south of Molof [msl] areas. Alternate names: Afra.  Dialects: Not closely related to any other language.  Classification: Unclassified 

More information. Viid [snu] 250 (2005 SIL). Border area south of Jayapura, Senggi village.

Alternate names: Senggi.  Classification: Border, Waris  More information.

Vitou [vto] 630 (2007). Papua Province, Sarmi Regency, Pantai Timur subdistrict, Takar village. Alternate names: Takar.  Classification: Tor-Kwerba, Orya-Tor, Tor  More information.

Wabo [wbb] 1,500 (1987 SIL). Serui Island, north and south coast of east end. 6 villages. Alternate names: Nusari, Woriasi.  Dialects: Lexical similarity: 71% with Kurudu [kjr], 46% with Western Serui.  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Eastern Malayo-Polynesian, South Halmahera-West New Guinea, West New Guinea, Cenderawasih Bay, Yapen, East  More information.

Waigeo [wgo] 300 (1978 SIL). North central Waigeo Island off western Bird’s Head, Sorong Regency, Waigeo Selatan subdistrict, Warsanbin, Selegop, Waifoi, Go, Kabilol, Kabare, and Nyandesawai villages. Alternate names: Ambel, Amber, Amberi, Waigiu.  Dialects: Metnyo, Metsam.  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Eastern Malayo-Polynesian, South Halmahera-West New Guinea, West New Guinea, Cenderawasih Bay, Raja Ampat  More information.

Walak [wlw] 1,500 (1993 R. Doriot). Ilugwa, Wodo, Bugi, Mogonik, Wurigelebut villages. Alternate names: Lower Pyramid, Wodo.  Classification: Trans-New Guinea, West, Dani, Dani Proper  More information.

Wambon [wms] 3,000 (1987 SIL). South coast area north of Mandobo [aax], [bwp] area. Dialects: Kenon, Kenyam.  Classification: Trans-New Guinea, Ok-Awyu, Awyu-Dumut, Dumut  More information.

Wandamen [wad] 5,000 (1993 R. Doriot). Wasior, Manokwari, west Cenderawasih Bay along Wandamen Bay extending west to east end of Bintuni Bay. Alternate names: Bentoeni, Bentuni, Bintuni, Wamesa, Wandamen-Windesi, Windesi, Windessi.  Dialects: Windesi, Bintuni, Wamesa, Wasior, Ambumi, Dasener, Aibondeni, Steenkool, Waruritinao.  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Eastern Malayo-Polynesian, South Halmahera-West New Guinea, West New Guinea, Cenderawasih Bay, Yapen, Central-Western  More information.

Wanggom [wng] 1,180 (2002 SIL). Upper Digul River area. East of Kombai [tyn], west of Wambon [wms] areas. Alternate names: Wanggo, Wangom.  Dialects: Most similar to Kombai [tyn].  Classification: Trans-New Guinea, Ok-Awyu, Awyu-Dumut, Dumut  More information.

Wano [wno] 7,000 (2001 SIL), decreasing. Ethnic population: 7,000. Central highlands area, upper Rouffaer River basin north of Damal, northwest of Dem, south of Kirikiri, Iau and Duvele, east of Moni, west of Western Dani. Alternate names: Waano.  Dialects: East, Central, West. Similar to Western Dani [dnw], Nggem [nbq], Walak [wlw]. Lexical similarity: 65% with Western Dani.  Classification: Trans-New Guinea, West, Dani, Wano  More information.

Warembori [wsa] 600 (1998 SIL). North coast, Mamberamo River mouth and west to Poiwai, Warembori, Tamakuri, Bonoi villages. Alternate names: Waremboivoro, Warenbori.  Dialects: Bonoi Buroro. Similar to Yoke [yki]. Lexical similarity: 33% with Yoke and 30% with Austronesian.  Classification: Lower Mamberamo  More information.

Wares [wai] 200 (1993 R. Doriot). North coast area inland from Kwesten language on upper Biri River, south side, Maweswares village. Classification: Tor-Kwerba, Orya-Tor, Tor  More information.

Waris [wrs] 1,500 in Indonesia. Northeast Papua, Keerom Regency, Waris subdistrict, south of Jayapura. Alternate names: Walsa.  Classification: Border, Waris  More information.

Waritai [wbe] 150 (2000 S. Wurm). Lakes Plain area around Taiyeve.

Alternate names: Wari, Weretai.  Dialects: Related to Doutai [tds].  Classification: Lakes Plain, Tariku, East  More information.

Warkay-Bipim [bgv] 300 (1993 R. Doriot). South coast area bordering Asmat to east and Sawi to west, lower Eilanden River. 3 villages. Alternate names: Bipim, Bipim As-So.  Classification: Trans-New Guinea, Marind, Yaqay  More information.

Waropen [wrp] 6,000 (1987 SIL). South coast of Serui Island, East Cenderawasih Bay. Alternate names: Aropen, Wonti, Worpen.  Dialects: Waropen Kai, Napan, Mo’or.  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Eastern Malayo-Polynesian, South Halmahera-West New Guinea, West New Guinea, Cenderawasih Bay, Waropen  More information.

Wauyai [wuy] 300 (Remijsen 2001). Southwest Waigeo Island, Wauyai village. Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Eastern Malayo-Polynesian, South Halmahera-West New Guinea, West New Guinea, Cenderawasih Bay, Raja Ampat  More information.

Woi [wbw] 1,300 (1987 SIL). Miosnum and west Serui Islands, Wooi and Wainap villages. Alternate names: Wo’oi.  Dialects: Lexical similarity: 77% with Pom [pmo], Marau [mvr], Ansus [and].  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Eastern Malayo-Polynesian, South Halmahera-West New Guinea, West New Guinea, Cenderawasih Bay, Yapen, Central-Western  More information.

Wolani [wod] 5,000 (1992 UBS). West central highlands, Kemandoga and Mbiyandogo rivers, north of Ekari [ekg] northeast of Lake Paniai, north of Wissel Lakes and northwest of Moni [mnz]. Alternate names: Woda, Woda-Mo, Wodani.  Classification: Trans-New Guinea, West, Wissel Lakes  More information.

Woria [wor] 6 (2000 S. Wurm). Interior Waropen Bawah, Botawa village. Dialects: Lexical similarity: 64% with Barapasi [brp], 64% with Demisa [dei], 63% with Kofei [kpi], 69% with Tunggare [trt].  Classification: East Geelvink Bay  Nearly extinct. More information.

Yahadian [ner] 500 (1991 SIL). South Bird’s Head, along Maccluer Gulf between lower Mintamani and Sekak rivers. Alternate names: Jahadian, Nerigo, Yabin Yahadian.  Dialects: Lexical similarity: 60% with Konda [knd].  Classification: Trans-New Guinea, South Bird’s Head, Konda-Yahadian  More information.

Yale, Kosarek [kkl] 2,300 (1993 R. Doriot). Nearly 100% are monolingual. Ethnic

population: 2,300. Eastern highlands, just east of Yali of Ninia, northwest of Nipsan, east of Dani, north of Yali [yli] of Angguruk. Alternate names: In-lom, Kosarek, Wanam, Yale-Kosarek.  Dialects: Kosarek, Gilika (Kilika), Tiple. Similar to Nipsan [nps], Nalca [nlc], and the Gilika dialect. Lexical similarity: 78% with Nipsan, 59% with Nalca.  Classification: Trans-New Guinea, Mek, Eastern  More information.

Yali, Angguruk [yli] 15,000 (1991 UBS). Central highlands area northwest of Nalca, east of Grand Valley Dani. Alternate names: Angguruk, Northern Yali, Yalimo.  Dialects: Related to Yali of Ninia [nlk], Yali of Pass Valley [yac].  Classification: Trans-New Guinea, West, Dani, Ngalik  More information.

Yali, Ninia [nlk] 10,500 (1999 J. Wilson). Central highlands area south of Angguruk, east of Soba, west of Korupun, Ninia, Holuwon, and Lolat villages; Elelim, transmigrated by government in 1989 following earthquake. More than 50 villages. Alternate names: Jalè, Jaly, Ninia, North Ngalik, Southern Yali, Yali Selatan.  Dialects: Different from Yali of Pass Valley [yac], Yali of Angguruk [yli], Hupla [hap].  Classification: Trans-New Guinea, West, Dani, Ngalik  More information.

Yali, Pass Valley [yac] 5,000 (1988 SIL). Central highlands, east of Angguruk and northwest of Naltya, Jayawijaya, Kurulu, and Kurima. Alternate names: Abendago, North Ngalik, Pass Valley, Western Yali, Yaly.  Dialects: Pass Valley, Landikma, Apahapsili. Related to Yali of Ninia [nlk], Yali of Angguruk [yli].  Classification: Trans-New Guinea, West, Dani, Ngalik  More information.

Yaqay [jaq] 10,000 (1987 SIL). South coast Obaa River area, southeast of Kayagar [kyt] and southwest of Central Awyu [awu]. Alternate names: Jakai, Jaqai, Mapi, Sohur, Yaqai.  Dialects: Oba-Miwamon, Nambiomon-Mabur, Bapai.  Classification: Trans-New Guinea, Marind, Yaqay  More information.

Yarsun [yrs] 200 (1991 SIL). Sarmi Regency, Bonggo subdistrict, Island off north coast east of Biri River. Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Eastern Malayo-Polynesian, Oceanic, Western Oceanic, North New Guinea, Sarmi-Jayapura Bay, Sarmi  More information.

Yaur [jau] 350 (1978 SIL). Lower end of Cenderawasih Bay, west of Iresim. Alternate names: Jaur.  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Eastern Malayo-Polynesian, South Halmahera-West New Guinea, West New Guinea, Cenderawasih Bay, Yaur  More information.

Yawa [yva] 6,000 (1987 SIL). Central Serui Island, Serui Waropen, Serui Selatan, Timur Barat, 8 north coast villages, 2 interior villages, 18

south coast villages. Alternate names: Iau, Mantembu, Mora, Turu, Yapanani, Yava.  Dialects: Central Yawa (Mora), West Yawa, South Yawa, North Yawa, East Yawa.  Classification: West Papuan, Yapen  More information.

Yei [jei] 2,390 (2001 SIL). South coast border area, east of Marind along Maro River. 6 villages. Alternate names: Je, Jei, Yei-Nan, Yey.  Dialects: Upper Yei, Lower Yei. Dialects are mutually inherently intelligible only with difficulty.  Classification: South-Central Papuan, Morehead-Upper Maro, Yey  More information.

Yelmek [jel] 400 (1978 SIL). South coast area, east side of Marianne Strait between Kolopom (Frederik Hendrik) Island and mainland. Alternate names: Jab, Jabsch, Jelmek, Jelmik.  Dialects: Most similar to Maklew [mgf].  Classification: South-Central Papuan, Yelmek-Maklew  More information.

Yeretuar [gop] 350 (2000). Lower Cenderawasih Bay, south of Wandamen [wad]. Alternate names: Goni, Umar, Umari.  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Eastern Malayo-Polynesian, South Halmahera-West New Guinea, West New Guinea, Cenderawasih Bay, Yeretuar  More information.

Yetfa [yet] 1,000 in Indonesia (1996). Population total all countries: 1,200. Pegunungan Bintang Regency, Okbibab subdistrict, border area east and north of Sobger River, south of Ji Mountain. Also in Papua New Guinea. Alternate names: Biaksi, Biksi, Inisine.  Dialects: Yetfa and Biksi are 2 ethnic groups, speaking the same language.  Classification: Sepik, Biksi  More information.

Yoke [yki] 200 (1998 M. Donohue). Sarmi Regency, east of Warembori east of Mamberamo River, Mantarbori village. Recently moved to coast from interior. Alternate names: Bitovondo, Jauke, Pauwi, Yauke, Yoki.  Dialects: Lexical similarity: 33% with Warembori [wsa].  Classification: Lower Mamberamo  More information.

Zorop [wfg] 230 (2005 SIL). Northeast Papua, border area south of Jayapura, Warlef village, Yabanda Satu. Alternate names: Yafi, Jafi, Yaffi, Wagarindem, Wargarindem, Jafi Wagarindem, Warlef.  Dialects: Lexical similarity: 25% with Emem [enr].  Classification: Pauwasi, Eastern  More information.

Languages of Indonesia (Sulawesi)Indonesia (Sulawesi). 14,111,444 (2000 census). 6 provinces. Information mainly from J. Anceaux 1978; B. H. Bhurhanuddin 1979; R. Blust 1991; Donohue 2004; T. Friberg 1987; T.

Friberg and T. Laskowske 1989; C. and B. Grimes 1987; N. Himmelmann 2001; S. Kaseng 1979, 1983; M. Martens 1989; D. Mead 1998, 1999, 2003; S. Merrifield and M. Salea 1996; Noorduyn 1991a; T. Sebeok 1971; J. Sneddon 1983, 1989, 1993; R. van den Berg 1988, 1996. The number of individual languages listed for Indonesia (Sulawesi) is 114. Of those, all are living languages.

Andio [bzb] 1,700 (1991 SIL). Central Sulawesi, Banggai District, Lamala subdistrict, east peninsula, Taugi and Tangeban villages. Alternate names: Andio’o, Imbao’o, Masama.  Dialects: Related to Balantak [blz], Saluan [loe]. Lexical similarity: 44% with Bobongko [bgb], 62% with Coastal Saluan, 66% with Balantak.  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Celebic, Eastern, Saluan-Banggai, Western  More information.

Aralle-Tabulahan [atq] 12,000 (1984 SIL). West Sulawesi, Mambi subdistrict, between Mandar and Kalumpang. Dialects: Aralle, Tabulahan, Mambi. Aralle has 84%–89% lexical similarity with other dialects listed, 75%–80% with Bambam [ptu], Pannei [pnc], Ulumandak [ulm] dialects.  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, South Sulawesi, Northern, Pitu Ulunna Salu  More information.

Bada [bhz] 10,000 (1991 SIL). South central portion of central Sulawesi, Lore Selatan subdistrict, 14 villages; Pamona Selatan subdistrict, 2 mixed villages; Poso Pesisir subdistrict, 4 mixed villages; Parigi subdistrict, some in Lemusa village; Ampibabo subdistrict. Ako in northern Mamuju District, Pasangkayu subdistrict. 23 villages or parts of villages. Alternate names: Bada’, Tobada’.  Dialects: Bada, Ako. Lexical similarity: 85% between Bada and Behoa [bep], 91% between Behoa and Napu [npy], 80% between Bada and Napu [npy]. The three are geographically, politically, culturally separate.  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Celebic, Kaili-Pamona, Southern, Badaic  More information.

Bahonsuai [bsu] 200 (1991 SIL). Central Sulawesi, Bungku Tengah subdistrict, Bahonsuai village on the east coast. Dialects: Lexical similarity: 71% with Tomadino [tdi], 68% with Mori Atas [mzq], Mori Bawah [xmz], and Padoe [pdo].  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Celebic, Eastern, Southeastern, Bungku-Tolaki, Eastern, East Coast  More information.

Bajau, Indonesian [bdl] 150,000 (2007 SIL). 5,000 or more in North Maluku (Grimes 1982), 8,000 to 10,000 in South Sulawesi (Grimes 1987), 7,000 in North Sulawesi and Gorontalo, 36,000 in Central Sulawesi, 40,000 in Southeast Sulawesi (Mead and Lee 2007), and several thousand in Nusa Tenggara (Wurm and Hattori 1981, Verhiejen 1986). North Maluku on Bacan, Obi, Kayoa and Sula Islands; South Sulawesi, Selayar, Bone, and Sinjai districts; Gorontalo Province, Popayato and Tilamuta subdistricts; North Sulawesi, Wori, Tumpaan and Belang subdistricts. Widespread throughout Central and Southeast Sulawesi

and islands of the East Sunda Sea. Alternate names: Badjaw, Badjo, Bajao, Bajo, Bayo, Gaj, Luaan, Lutaos, Lutayaos, Orang Laut, Sama, Turije’ne’.  Dialects: Jampea, Same’, Matalaang, Sulamu, Kajoa, Roti, Jaya Bakti, Poso, Togian 1, Togian 2, Wallace.  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Greater Barito, Sama-Bajaw, Sulu-Borneo, Borneo Coast Bajaw  More information.

Balaesang [bls] 3,200 (Himmelmann 2001). Central Sulawesi, Balaesang subdistrict, Manimbayu Peninsula. 5 villages. Alternate names: Balaesan, Balaisang, Pajo.  Dialects: Not closely related to any other language.  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Celebic, Tomini-Tolitoli, Tomini, Southern  More information.

Balantak [blz] 30,000 (2000 SIL). 3,000 are monolingual. East central Sulawesi, Banggai District, eastern peninsula, Luwuk, Balantak, Tinangkung, and Lamala subdistricts. 49 villages, or parts of villages. Alternate names: Kosian.  Dialects: Related to Andio [bzb], Coastal Saluan [loe]. Lexical similarity: 66% with Andio, 51% with Coastal Saluan, 39% with Bobongko [bgb].  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Celebic, Eastern, Saluan-Banggai, Eastern  More information.

Bambam [ptu] 22,000 (1988 SIL). West Sulawesi, west Polmas District, Mambi subdistrict, Maloso and Mapilli rivers watershed, into Majene and Mamuju districts. Alternate names: Pitu-Ulunna-Salu.  Dialects: Bambam Hulu, Salu Mokanam, Bumal, Mehalaan, Pattae’, Matangnga, Issilita’, Pakkau. Complex dialect chain. Lexical similarity: 83%–94% with Bumal; 85%–80% with dialects of Aralle-Tabulahan [atq], Pannei [pnc], and Ulumanda [ulm].  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, South Sulawesi, Northern, Pitu Ulunna Salu  More information.

Banggai [bgz] 125,000 (2000). Central Sulawesi, off eastern peninsula, Banggai Islands. 157 villages, or parts of villages. Dialects: East Banggai, West Banggai.  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Celebic, Eastern, Saluan-Banggai, Eastern  More information.

Bantik [bnq] 11,000 (Wurm and Hattori 1981). Sulawesi; northern peninsula, northeast section. 11 villages around Manado. Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Philippine, Sangiric, Southern  More information.

Baras [brs] 250 (1987 SIL). 50 households. South Sulawesi, Mamuju District, south Pasangkayu and north Budong-Budong subdistricts, between Lariang and Budong-Budong rivers, a few villages mainly in Desa Baras. Alternate names: Ende.  Dialects: Lexical similarity: 84% with Da’a Kaili [kzf], 85% with Inde dialect of Kaili, Da’a [kzf], 80% or more with other Kaili varieties, 64% with Uma [pkk].  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Celebic, Kaili-

Pamona, Northern, Kaili  More information.

Batui [zbt] 2,900 (2007). Central Sulawesi Province, Banggai Regency, Batui subdistrict, Balantang, Tolando, Sisipan, Batui villages. Alternate names: Baha.  Dialects: Lexical similarity: 74% with Saluan, 60% with Ando [bzb], 54% with Bobongko [bgb], 46% with Balantak [blz], 38% with Banggai [bgz].  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Celebic, Eastern, Saluan-Banggai, Western, Saluanic  More information.

Behoa [bep] 8,000 (2000 SIL). Central Sulawesi, Lore Utara subdistrict, Napu Valley. 8 villages. Alternate names: Besoa.  Dialects: Geographically, politically, culturally, and lexically distinct from Bada [bhz] and Napu [npy].  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Celebic, Kaili-Pamona, Southern, Badaic  More information.

Bentong [bnu] 25,000 (1987 SIL). South Sulawesi, northwest corner of the southern tip of the peninsula; inland parts of Maros, Bone, Pangkep, and Barru districts. Alternate names: Dentong.  Dialects: Most similar to Konzo.  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, South Sulawesi, Makassar  More information.

Bintauna [bne] 12,000 (2004 SIL). North Sulawesi, around Bintauna. Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Philippine, Greater Central Philippine, Gorontalo-Mongondow, Gorontalic  More information.

Boano [bzl] 2,700 (Himmelmann 2001). Central Sulawesi, Montong subdistrict, Bolano village, on the south coast. Alternate names: Bolano, Djidja.  Dialects: Lexical similarity: 83% with Totoli [txe].  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Celebic, Tomini-Tolitoli, Tolitoli  More information.

Bobongko [bgb] 1,500 (2001 SIL). 1,100 in Lembanato and 400 in Tumbulawa. Central Sulawesi, Togian Islands, Lembanato village; Batu Daka Island, Kilat Bay north, Tumbulawa village on northwest coast. Dialects: Related to Saluan. Different from Andio [bzb]. Lexical similarity: 53% with Coastal Saluan [loe], 44% with Andio, and 30% with Gorontalo [gor], 25%–30% with Gorontalo-Mongondow languages.  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Celebic, Eastern, Saluan-Banggai, Western, Saluanic  More information.

Bolango [bld] 18,500 (2004 SIL). 5,000 in Bolango, 15,000 in Atinggola. North Sulawesi Province, south coast of the peninsula, Bolaang Mongondow District, around Molibagu; Gorontalo Province, north coast around Atinggola, between Kaidipang and Gorontalo. Alternate names: Bulanga, Bulanga-Uki, Diu.  Dialects: Bolango, Atinggola.  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Philippine, Greater

Central Philippine, Gorontalo-Mongondow, Gorontalic  More information.

Bonerate [bna] 9,500 (1987 SIL). South Sulawesi, Bonerate, Madu, Kalaotoa, and Karompa islands. Dialects: Bonerate, Karompa. Lexical similarity: 79%–81% with Tukang Besi South [bhq], 31% with Kalao [kly], 25% with Laiyolo [lji].  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Celebic, Eastern, Southeastern, Muna-Buton, Tukangbesi-Bonerate  More information.

Budong-Budong [bdx] 70 (1988). Mamuju District, Budong-Budong subdistrict, Tongkou village, on Budong-Budong River. Alternate names: Tangkou, Tongkou.  Dialects: Similar to Aralle-Tabulahan [atq], Ulumandak [ulm]. Lexical similarity: 56% with Mamuju [mqx] and Seko Padang [skx], 61% with Seko Tengah [sko], 72% with Panasuan [psn].  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, South Sulawesi, Seko, Panasuan  More information.

Bugis [bug] 3,500,000 in Indonesia (1991 SIL). Western coast of southeast Sulawesi in Kolaka, Wundulako, Rumbia, and Poleang districts. Also in major towns of Sulawesi. Large enclaves also in other provinces of Sulawesi, Kalimantan, Maluku, Papua, and Sumatra; coastal swamp areas such as Bulukumba, Luwu, Polewali in Polmas, Pasangkayu in Mamuju districts. Also in Malaysia (Sabah). Alternate names: Boegineesche, Boeginezen, Bugi, Buginese, De’, Rappang Buginese, Ugi.  Dialects: Bone (Palakka, Dua Boccoe, Mare), Pangkep (Pangkajene), Camba, Sidrap (Sidenrang, Pinrang Utara, Alitta), Pasangkayu (Ugi Riawa), Sinjai (Enna, Palattae, Bulukumba), Soppeng (Kessi), Wajo, Barru (Pare-Pare, Nepo, Soppeng Riaja, Tompo, Tanete), Sawitto (Pinrang), Luwu (Luwu’, Bua Ponrang, Wara, Malangke-Ussu). Bone or Soppeng dialects are central.  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, South Sulawesi, Bugis  More information.

Bungku [bkz] 21,500 (1995 SIL). 100 Routa, 16,400 Bungku, 2,500 Torete, 1,000 Tulambatu, 800 Landawe, 650 Waia. Central Sulawesi, Bungku Utara, Bungku Tengah, and Bungku Selatan subdistricts, along east coast; 45 villages or parts of villages. Tulambatu in northern Southeast Sulawesi, Konawe District, Asera, Soropia, and Lasolo subdistricts, with difficult access. Alternate names: “Nahina”.  Dialects: Bungku, Routa, Tulambatu, Torete (To Rete), Landawe, Waia. Lexical similarity: 81% with Torete, Waia, Tulambatu, and Landawe dialects, 38% with Pamona dialects [pmf], 88%, with Landawe dialect, 84% with Waia dialect, 82% with Torete dialect, 74% with Wawonii [wow], 66% with Taloki [tlk], Kulisusu [vkl], and Koroni [xkq], 65% with Moronene [mqn], 54% with the Mori and Tolaki groups, 82% with the Routa dialect.  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Celebic, Eastern, Southeastern, Bungku-Tolaki, Eastern, East Coast 

More information. Buol [blf] 75,000 (1989). Central Sulawesi; Paleleh, Bunobogu, Bokat,

Momunu, Biau, Baolan subdistricts; north coast near Gorontalo Province border. 68 villages. Alternate names: Bual, Bwo’ol, Bwool, Dia.  Dialects: Lexical similarity: 61% with Totoli [txe].  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Philippine, Greater Central Philippine, Gorontalo-Mongondow, Gorontalic  More information.

Busoa [bup] 2,300 (2000 SIL). Southeast Sulawesi, southwest coast of Buton island, Batauga subdistrict, Busoa and Laompo villages. Alternate names: Bosoa.  Dialects: Lexical similarity: 84% with Kambe-Kambero (probably a dialect of Kaimbulawa [zka]), 70%–79% with Muna dialects, 71% with Muna [mnb], 76% with Lantoi [zka].  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Celebic, Eastern, Southeastern, Muna-Buton, Nuclear Muna-Buton, Munan  More information.

Campalagian [cml] 30,000 (1986 SIL). West Sulawesi, Majene District, Polmas, south coast. Alternate names: Tallumpanuae, Tasing, Tjampalagian.  Dialects: Campalagian, Buku. Lexical similarity: 50%–58% with Mandar [mdr], 50%–62% with Bugis [bug], 55% with Bugis Bone [bug], 62% with Bugis Pangkajene [bug], Bugis Sidrap [bug].  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, South Sulawesi, Bugis  More information.

Cia-Cia [cia] 79,000 (2005 SIL). Southeast Sulawesi, south Buton Island, Binongko Island, Batu Atas Island. Alternate names: Boetoneezen, Buton, Butonese, Butung, South Buton, Southern Butung.  Dialects: Kaesabu, Sampolawa (Mambulu-Laporo), Wabula, Masiri. Wabula dialect has further subvarieties: Wabula, Burangasi, Wali, Takimpo, Kondowa, Holimombo. Lexical similarity: 93% with Masiri dialect, 74% with Kambe-Kambero dialect of Kaimbulawa [zka], 69% with Busoa [bup], 67% with Lontoi dialect of Kaimbulawa [zka], 66% with Liabuku [lix], 61% with Wolio [wlo], 60% with Muna [mnb].  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Celebic, Eastern, Southeastern, Muna-Buton, Nuclear Muna-Buton, Buton, West Buton  More information.

Dakka [dkk] 1,500 (1986 SIL). West Sulawesi, Polewali-Mamasa District, Wonomulyo subdistrict. Dialects: Lexical similarity: 72%–77% with Pannei [pnc] and Bambam [ptu].  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, South Sulawesi, Northern, Pitu Ulunna Salu  More information.

Dampelas [dms] 10,300 (Himmelmann 2001). Central Sulawesi; Dampelas Sojol and Balaesang subdistricts. 8 villages. Alternate names: Dampal, Dampelasa, Dian.  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Celebic, Tomini-Tolitoli, Tomini, Southern  More information.

Dondo [dok] 13,000 (Himmelmann 2001). Central Sulawesi; Tolitoli Buol District, Tolitoli Utara, Baolan, Dondo, Galang, and Dampal Utara subdistricts on the north coast. 25 villages, or parts of villages. Dialects: Consider Dondo a separate language from Totoli [txe]. Probably separate from Tomini [txm].  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Celebic, Tomini-Tolitoli, Tomini, Northern  More information.

Duri [mvp] 95,000 (1991 SIL). 90,000 in Enrekang District. South Sulawesi, north Enrekang District, Makassar City, elsewhere in South Sulawesi. Alternate names: Masenrempulu, Massenrempulu.  Dialects: Cakke, Kalosi.  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, South Sulawesi, Northern, Masenrempulu  More information.

Enrekang [ptt] 50,000 (1991 SIL). South Sulawesi, Enrekang, and Pinrang districts. Alternate names: Endekan, Endekan Timur.  Dialects: Enrekang, Ranga, Pattinjo (Letta-Batulappa-Kassa).  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, South Sulawesi, Northern, Masenrempulu  More information.

Gorontalo [gor] 900,000 (1989). Sulawesi, Gorontalo Province, north peninsula. Alternate names: Gorongtalo, Guarantala, Gunongtello, Holontalo, Hulontalo.  Dialects: East Gorontalo, Gorontalo Kota, West Gorontalo (Kwandang), Tilamuta, Limboto (Limbotto).  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Philippine, Greater Central Philippine, Gorontalo-Mongondow, Gorontalic  More information.

Kaidipang [kzp] 25,700 (2004 SIL). North Sulawesi, north coast, both sides of Bolaangitang. Alternate names: Dio, Kaidipan, Kodipang.  Dialects: Kaidipang, Kodipang, Bolaang Itang (Bolang Itang).  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Philippine, Greater Central Philippine, Gorontalo-Mongondow, Gorontalic  More information.

Kaili, Da’a [kzf] 35,000, increasing. Da’a and Inde. 3,000 to 5,000 Da’a and Inde are in south Sulawesi. Central Sulawesi, South Sulawesi provinces in Marawola, Dolo, Sigi-Biromaru, Palolo, Banawa subdistricts. ‘Bunggu’ used for Da’a and Inde in south Sulawesi, Mamuju District, Pasangkayu subdistrict, near Palu. Alternate names: Bunggu, Da’a.  Dialects: Da’a (Pekawa, Pekava, Pakawa), Inde. Some intelligibility with Ledo dialect of Kaili, Ledo [lew] and other Kaili varieties, but with major sociolinguistic differences. Lexical similarity: 98% between the Da’a and Inde dialects.  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Celebic, Kaili-Pamona, Northern, Kaili  More information.

Kaili, Ledo [lew] 234,000 (Barr, Barr and Salombe 1979). 128,000 Ledo, Doi, Ado, and Edo together, 7,500 Ija and Taa together, 55,000 Rai and Raio together, 43,000 Tara (Barr, Barr and Salombe 1979). 8,000 to

10,000 are in south. Central and south Sulawesi. Alternate names: Ledo, Paloesch, Palu.  Dialects: Ledo (Palu), Doi, Ado (Pakuli), Edo, Tado (Ri Io, To ri Io, Torio, Toriu), Tara (Parigi), Rai (Sindue-Tawaili, Tawaili-Sindue), Raio (Kori), Ija (Sigi), Taa (Palolo), Ta’a (Sausu, Dolago-Sausu). Doi dialect is intelligible with Ledo, Edo; Ado next most intelligible; Tado a little less. Some intelligibility with Da’a [kzf], but major sociolinguistic differences. Lexical similarity: 80%–88% between Ledo and the Ado, Edo, Doi, and Lindu dialects.  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Celebic, Kaili-Pamona, Northern, Kaili  More information.

Kaili, Unde [unz] 20,000 ( Barr, Barr and Salombe 1979). Central Sulawesi, Banawa, Palu and Tawaeli subdistricts; south Sulawesi, Pasangkayu subdistrict. Alternate names: Banava, Banawa.  Dialects: Lole, Ganti.  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Celebic, Kaili-Pamona, Northern, Kaili  More information.

Kaimbulawa [zka] 2,200 (2005 SIL). Southeast Sulawesi, Siompu Island southwest of Baubau. 2 villages. Dialects: Lontoi, Kambe-Kambero. Not a dialect of Muna [mnb] or Cia-Cia [cia]. Lexical similarity: 96% with Lontoi dialect, 75% with Busoa [bup], 64%–74% with Muna dialects, 64% with Muna, 70% with Liabuku [lix], 66% with Cia-Cia, 58% with Wolio [wlo], 45% with Kaledupa dialect of Tukang Besi North [khc].  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Celebic, Eastern, Southeastern, Muna-Buton, Nuclear Muna-Buton, Munan, Munic  More information.

Kalao [kly] 500 (1988 SIL). South Sulawesi, east Kalao Island, south of Selayar Island. Alternate names: Kalaotoa.  Dialects: Lexical similarity: 76% with Laiyolo [lji] and Wotu [wtw].  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Celebic, Wotu-Wolio, Kalao  More information.

Kalumpang [kli] 12,000 (1991 SIL). West Sulawesi, southeast Mamuju District, Kalumpang subdistrict. Alternate names: Galumpang, Ma’ki, Maki, Makki, Mangki, Mangkir.  Dialects: Karataun, Mablei, Mangki (E’da), Bone Hau (Ta’da). Small dialects not listed. Lexical similarity: 78% with Mamasa [mqj], 78% with Tae’ [rob], 74% with Toraja-Sa’dan [sda]. Between Karataun and Bone Hau dialects: average 82%.  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, South Sulawesi, Northern, Toraja-Sa’dan  More information.

Kamaru [kgx] 3,500 (2005 SIL). Southeast Sulawesi, southeast Buton Island. Dialects: Lexical similarity: 68% with Lasalimu [llm], 67% with Wolio [wlo], 54% with Cia-Cia [cia], 51% with Pancana [pnp], 49% with Tukang Besi [khc], 45% with Muna [mnb].  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Celebic, Wotu-Wolio, Wolio-Kamaru 

More information. Kioko [ues] 1,000 (1991 SIL). Southeast Sulawesi, Kulisusu subdistrict,

Buton Island. Dialects: Kioko, Kambowa. Possibly dialect of the Pancana [pnp] language. Lexical similarity: 82% with Kambowa dialect, 81% with Laompo dialect of Muna [mnb], 74% with Muna, 75% with Liabuku [lix] and Busoa [bup].  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Celebic, Eastern, Southeastern, Muna-Buton, Nuclear Muna-Buton, Munan, Munic, Western  More information.

Kodeoha [vko] 1,500 (1991 SIL). Southeast Sulawesi, North Kolaka District, Lasusua subdistrict, Kolaka west coast. 4 villages. Alternate names: Kondeha.  Dialects: Lexical similarity: 75% with Rahambuu [raz]; 70% with Tolaki [lbw], Mekongga, and Waru [wru]; 54% with the several Mori and Bungku [bkz] groups.  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Celebic, Eastern, Southeastern, Bungku-Tolaki, Western, West Coast  More information.

Konjo, Coastal [kjc] 125,000 (1991 SIL). 50,000 Kajang, 10,000 Tiro. South Sulawesi, southeast corner, southern tip of the peninsula; parts of Sinjai, Bulukumba, and Bantaeng districts. Alternate names: Kondjo, Tiro.  Dialects: Konjo Pesisir (Ara, Bira), Tana Toa (Tana Towa, Black Konjo, Kajang, Kadjang), Bantaeng (Bonthain). Tana Toa is north end of dialect subgroup. Lexical similarity: 76% with Makassar [mak]. Tana Toa dialect is within 10% lexical similarity with other coastal dialects.  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, South Sulawesi, Makassar  More information.

Konjo, Highland [kjk] 150,000 (1991 SIL). South Sulawesi, central mountain area, Sinjai, Bone, Gowa, Bulukumba districts. Alternate names: Konjo Pegunungan, Konyo.  Dialects: Lexical similarity: 75% with Coastal Konjo [kjc].  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, South Sulawesi, Makassar  More information.

Koroni [xkq] 500 (1991 SIL). Central Sulawesi, Bungku Tengah subdistrict, Unsongi village on east coast south of Bungku town. Dialects: Lexical similarity: 75% with Taloki [tlk] and Kulisusu [vkl], 66% with Wawonii [wow], Bungku [bkz], Tulambatu dialect of Bungku [bkz]; 65% with Moronene [mqn].  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Celebic, Eastern, Southeastern, Bungku-Tolaki, Eastern, East Coast, Kulisusu  More information.

Kulisusu [vkl] 22,000 (1995 SIL). Southeast Sulawesi, Kulisusu and Bonegunu subdistricts, northeast corner of Buton Island. Alternate names: Kalisusu, Kolensusu, Kolinsusu.  Dialects: Lexical similarity: 81% between dialects, 77% with Taloki [lbw], 75% with Koroni [xkq], 66% with Wawonii [wow] and Bungku [bkz] group, 65% with Moronene

[mqn], 54% with the Mori languages and Tolaki.  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Celebic, Eastern, Southeastern, Bungku-Tolaki, Eastern, East Coast, Kulisusu  More information.

Kumbewaha [xks] 3,400 (2005 SIL). Southeast Sulawesi Province, Buton District, Lasalimu subdistrict, southeast Buton Island, Kumbewaha and Wajah Jaya villages. Alternate names: Umbewaha.  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Celebic, Eastern, Southeastern, Muna-Buton, Nuclear Muna-Buton, Buton, East Buton  More information.

Laiyolo [lji] 800 (1997 SIL). 250 Laiyolo, 550 Barang-Barang. South Sulawesi, Laiyolo in villages of Lembang Mate’ne in Desa Laiyolo, and a few in Kilotepo’ and Sangkeha’. Barang-Barang village in Desa Lowa, southern tip of Selayar Island. Alternate names: Barang-Barang, Da’ang.  Dialects: Barang-Barang (Loa, Loa’, Lowa), Laiyolo (Lajolo, Layolo). Barang-Barang dialect may need separate literature. Lexical similarity: 86% between Laiyolo and Barang-Barang dialect, 76% with Kalao [kly], 65% with Buton, 53% with Wotu [wtw], 39% with Muna [mnb].  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Celebic, Wotu-Wolio, Kalao  More information.

Lasalimu [llm] 1,700 (2000 SIL). Southeast Sulawesi, Southeast Buton Island, Lasalimu subdistrict. Dialects: Lexical similarity: 68% with Kamaru [kgx], 64% with Cia-Cia [cia], 57% with Tukang Besi, 51% with Pancana [pnp], 50% with Wolio [wlo] and Muna [mnb].  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Celebic, Eastern, Southeastern, Muna-Buton, Nuclear Muna-Buton, Buton, East Buton  More information.

Lauje [law] 44,000 (Himmelmann 2001). Central Sulawesi, Dampelas Sojol, Dondo, Tinombo, Tomini, and Ampibabo subdistricts, along Tomini Bay, Sidoan River area. Alternate names: Ampibabo-Lauje, Laudje, Tinombo.  Dialects: Ampibabo. Ampibabo dialect may be a separate language.  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Celebic, Tomini-Tolitoli, Tomini, Northern  More information.

Lemolang [ley] 2,000 (1995 SIL). South Sulawesi, Luwu Utara District, inland from the northeast coast, centered in Sassa and Salassa villages, scattered in Sabbang subdistrict, and possibly Baebunta. Alternate names: Baebunta, Limola.  Dialects: Lexical similarity: 41% with Mori Bawah [xmz], 39% with Mori Atas [mzq], 38% with Bungku [bkz], 39% with Buton, 31% with Seko Padang [skx], 30% with Rampi [lje], 29% with Toraja-Sa’dan [sda], 26% with Muna [mnb], 25% with Wotu [wtw], 24% with Bugis [bug].  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, South Sulawesi, Lemolang  More information.

Liabuku [lix] 75 (2004 SIL), decreasing. Southeast Sulawesi, Bungi subdistrict,

south Buton Island, part of Liabuku village north of Bau-Bau. Dialects: Quite divergent from other Muna varieties. Lexical similarity: 82% with the Burukene dialect of Muna [mnb], 72%–76% with other Muna dialects, 72% with Muna, 75% with Kioko [ues].  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Celebic, Eastern, Southeastern, Muna-Buton, Nuclear Muna-Buton, Munan, Munic, Western  More information.

Lindu [klw] 2,000 (1990 SIL). Central Sulawesi, Lindu subdistrict; Anca, Tomado, Langko villages near Lake Lindu. Alternate names: Linduan, Tado.  Dialects: Lindu is very similar to Moma [myl]; considered by some a Moma dialect.  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Celebic, Kaili-Pamona, Northern, Kaili  More information.

Lolak [llq] 3,000 (2004 SIL). North Sulawesi, Bolaang Mongondow District, Lolak, Mongkoinit, and Motabang villages. Dialects: Structurally related to Gorontalo [gor], but with heavy lexical borrowing from Mongondow [mog]. Lexical similarity: 79% with Mongondow, 66% with Ponosakan [pns], 63% with Kaidipang [kzp].  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Philippine, Greater Central Philippine, Gorontalo-Mongondow, Gorontalic  More information.

Maiwa [wmm] 50,000 (1990 SIL). South Sulawesi, Enrekang and Sidenrang districts. Alternate names: Masenrempulu.  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, South Sulawesi, Northern, Masenrempulu  More information.

Makasar [mak] 1,600,000 (1989). South Sulawesi, southwest corner of the peninsula, most of Pangkep, Maros, Gowa, Bantaeng, Jeneponto, and Takalar districts. Alternate names: Goa, Macassar, Macassarese, Makassa, Makassaarsche, Makassar, Makassarese, Mangasara, Mengkasara, Taena, Tena.  Dialects: Gowa (Goa, Lakiung), Turatea (Jeneponto), Maros-Pangkep. Gowa dialect is prestigious. Dialects form a chain.  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, South Sulawesi, Makassar  More information.

Malay, Makassar [mfp] 1,880,000 (2000). South Sulawesi, Makassar port area. Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Malayo-Sumbawan, North and East, Malayic, Malay, Trade  More information.

Malay, Manado [xmm] 850,000 (2001). North Sulawesi, Minahasa District, west coast, Manado port area. Alternate names: Manadonese Malay, Minahasan Malay.  Dialects: Most similar to North Moluccan Malay [max]. Also similar to Sri Lankan Malay [sci].  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Malayo-Sumbawan, North and East, Malayic, Malay, Trade, East Indonesian 

More information. Malimpung [mli] 5,000 (1995 SIL). South Sulawesi, Pinrang District, Patampanua

subdistrict, Malimpung area. Dialects: Lexical similarity: 80% with Maiwa [wmm], 70% with Enrekang [ptt].  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, South Sulawesi, Northern, Masenrempulu  More information.

Mamasa [mqj] 100,000 (1991 SIL). West Sulawesi, Polmas District, Polewali subdistrict, along Mamasa River. Dialects: Northern Mamasa, Central Mamasa, Pattae’ (Southern Mamasa, Patta’ Binuang, Binuang, Tae’, Binuang-Paki-Batetanga-Anteapi). Lexical similarity: 78% with Toraja-Sa’dan [ska].  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, South Sulawesi, Northern, Toraja-Sa’dan  More information.

Mamuju [mqx] 60,000 (1991 SIL). 50,000 in Mamuju dialect. West Sulawesi, Mamuju District, Mamuju, Kalukku, and Budong-Budong subdistricts on the coast. Alternate names: Mamoedjoe, Mamoedjoesch, Mamudju, Udai.  Dialects: Mamuju, Sumare-Rangas, Padang, Sinyonyoi. Mamuju dialect is prestigious.  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, South Sulawesi, Northern, Mamuju  More information.

Mandar [mdr] 200,000 (1985). West Sulawesi, Majene and Polewali-Mamasa districts, Mamuju District, a few settlements; Pangkep District islands, and Ujung Lero near Pare-Pare. Alternate names: Andian, Mandharsche, Manjar.  Dialects: Majene, Balanipa (Napo-Tinambung), Malunda, Pamboang, Sendana (Cenrana, Tjendana). A complex dialect grouping, there may be more dialects than those listed. Balanipa and Sendana may each be more than 1 dialect. Balanipa is the prestige dialect. Mandar, Mamuju [mqx], and Bambam [ptu] are separate languages in a language chain.  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, South Sulawesi, Northern, Mandar  More information.

Moma [myl] 5,500 (1985 SIL). Central Sulawesi, Kulawi subdistrict, primarily Kulawi and Toro town areas. Alternate names: Kulawi.  Dialects: Historically a varietyof Kaili, but strong lexical influences from Uma [ppk].  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Celebic, Kaili-Pamona, Northern, Kaili  More information.

Mongondow [mog] 900,000 (1989). North Sulawesi, between Tontemboan and Gorontalo. Alternate names: Bolaang Mongondow, Minahassa, Mongondou.  Dialects: Lolayan, Dumoga, Pasi.  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Philippine, Greater Central Philippine, Gorontalo-Mongondow, Mongondowic  More information.

Mori Atas [mzq] 16,100 (2000). Central Sulawesi, southeast peninsula neck, Mori Atas, Lembo, and Petasia subdistricts; south Sulawesi. 25 villages or

parts of villages. Alternate names: Upper Mori, West Mori.  Dialects: Aikoa. Lexical similarity: 73%–86% with Mori Bawah [xmz] and Padoe [pdo].  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Celebic, Eastern, Southeastern, Bungku-Tolaki, Western, Interior  More information.

Mori Bawah [xmz] 16,100 (2000). Central Sulawesi, southeast peninsula neck; Petasia and Lembo subdistricts, 24 villages, or parts of villages; south Sulawesi. Alternate names: East Mori, Lower Mori, “Nahina”.  Dialects: Tambe’e, Nahina, Petasia, Soroako, Karonsie. Lexical similarity: 73%–86% with Mori Atas [mzq], 75% with Padoe [pdo].  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Celebic, Eastern, Southeastern, Bungku-Tolaki, Eastern, East Coast  More information.

Moronene [mqn] 37,000 (2000 D. Andersen), increasing. 5% are monolingual. 23,000 in Moronene, 14,000 in Tokotu’a. Includes about 3,500 now living in cities. Second or third generations in cities no longer speak Moronene. Southeast Sulawesi, Bombana District. Tokotu’a on Kabaena Island; Wita Ea on the mainland portion of Bombana District opposite Kabaena, with Rumbia subdialect in Rumbia subdistrict, and Poleang subdialect in Poleang, Poleang Timur, and Watubangga subdistrict of Kolaka District. Alternate names: Maronene, “Nahina”.  Dialects: Wita Ea (Rumbia, Poleang), Tokotu’a (Kabaena). Lexical similarity: 80 % of Wita Ea dialect 80% with Tokotu’a dialect; 68% with Menui dialect of Wawonii [wow], 66% with Kulisusu [vkl], 65% with Taloki [tlk], Koroni [xkq], Tulambatu dialect of Bungku [bkz], 64% with Bungku [bkz], and 57% with Tolaki [lbw].  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Celebic, Eastern, Southeastern, Bungku-Tolaki, Eastern, Southwest  More information.

Muna [mnb] 300,000 (van den Berg 1989). 600 in Ambon (1985 SIL). Off southwest Sulawesi, Muna Island, northwest coast of Buton Island; Central Maluku, Ambon. Dialects: Standard Muna (Northern Muna), Tiworo (Eastern Muna), Gu, Lakudo, Mawasangka, Kadatua, Siompu, Katobengke, Burukene, Laompo, Kapontori. Subvarieties of Standard Muna are: Tungkuno, Kabawo, Lawa, Katobu, Tobea Besar; of Gulamas are: Gu, Mawasangka, Lakudo, Wale-Ale, Lawama, Kadatua, Lowu-Lowu, Kalia-Lia, Katobengke, Topa, Salaa, Lawela, Laompo, Burukene. Lexical similarity: 71% with Pancana [pnp], 62% with Cia-Cia [cia], 52% with Wolio [wlo], 50% with Lasalimu [llm], 47% with Tukang Besi [khc] or [bhq], 45% with Kamaru [kgx].  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Celebic, Eastern, Southeastern, Muna-Buton, Nuclear Muna-Buton, Munan, Munic, Western  More information.

Napu [npy] 6,000 (1995). Central Sulawesi, Lore Utara subdistrict, Napu Valley. 10 villages. Alternate names: Pekurehua.  Dialects: Most similar to Behoa [bep].  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-

Polynesian, Celebic, Kaili-Pamona, Southern, Badaic  More information.

Padoe [pdo] 6,000 (1991 D. Andersen). South Sulawesi, east Luwu Utara District in Nuha, Malili, Mangkutana subdistricts; Central Sulawesi, Banggai District, Mori Atas subdistrict, 2 villages, Pamona Utara subdistrict, 1 village. Alternate names: Alalao, Padoé, South Mori.  Dialects: 2 dialects. Lexical similarity: 73%–86% with Mori Atas [mzq], 75% with Mori Bawah [xmz].  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Celebic, Eastern, Southeastern, Bungku-Tolaki, Western, Interior  More information.

Pamona [pmf] 106,000 (Barr, Barr and Salombe 1979). Central and South Sulawesi provinces, Poso District, Poso Kota, Poso Pesisir, Parigi, Lage, Pamona Utara, Pamona Selatan, Tojo, Ulubongko, Ampana Kota, Ampanatete, Una-Una, Mori Atas, Petasia, Bungku Utara, Bungku Tengah subdistricts; 193 villages. South Sulawesi, Luwu Utara District, Mangkutana, north Wotu and Bone-Bone subdistricts. Alternate names: Bare’e, Baree, Poso.  Dialects: Pamona, Laiwonu (“Iba” ), Rapangkaka (“Aria” ), Tomoni, Tobau (Tobao, Tobalo, “Bare’e” ), Tokondindi, Topada, Taa (Wana, Topotaa). Related to Tombelele [ttp]. Laiwonu and Rapangkaka dialects may be separate languages. Lexical similarity: 76% (Taa)–90% among dialects, except for Tombelala, which has 66%–76% with other Bungku Tengah dialects, and is considered a separate language.  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Celebic, Kaili-Pamona, Northern, Pamona  More information.

Panasuan [psn] 800 (2004 SIL). Ethnic population: 800 or more. West Sulawesi, Mamuju District, northeast of Kalumpang [kli], west of Seko area. 2 villages. Alternate names: To Pamosean, To Panasean.  Dialects: Lexical similarity: 67% with Seko Tengah [sko], 63% with Seko Padang [skx], 72% with Tangkou [tkx].  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, South Sulawesi, Seko, Panasuan  More information.

Pancana [pnp] 6,000 (2005 SIL). Southeast Sulawesi, central Buton Island. Alternate names: “Akido” , Pantjana.  Dialects: Kapontori (“Akido” ), Kalende (Lawele), Labuandiri. Dialect names are also place names. May be more than 1 language. Lexical similarity: 71% with Muna [mnb], 57% with Cia-Cia [cia].  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Celebic, Eastern, Southeastern, Muna-Buton, Nuclear Muna-Buton, Munan, Munic, Western  More information.

Pannei [pnc] 9,000 (1986 SIL). South Sulawesi, Polewali-Mamasa District, Wonomulyo subdistrict. Alternate names: Tapango.  Dialects: Tapango, Bulo. Lexical similarity: 87%–93% between the Bulo dialect and other varieties, 75%–80% with dialects of Ulumanda’ [ulm],

Bambam [ptu], Aralle-Tabulahan [atq].  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, South Sulawesi, Northern, Pitu Ulunna Salu  More information.

Pendau [ums] 4,500 (Quick 2003). Central Sulawesi, centered in Balaesang subdistrict, Walandano, Sibayu and other villages; about half live scattered north to the Totoli [txe], with some near Balaesang subdistrict. Alternate names: Ndaoe, Ndau, Umalasa.  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Celebic, Tomini-Tolitoli, Tomini, Southern  More information.

Ponosakan [pns] 3,000 (Wurm and Hattori 1981). North Sulawesi, Belang area. Alternate names: Ponasakan.  Dialects: Lexical similarity: 75% with Mongondow [mog], 66% with Lolak [llq].  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Philippine, Greater Central Philippine, Gorontalo-Mongondow, Mongondowic  More information.

Rahambuu [raz] 5,000 (1991 SIL). Southeast Sulawesi, North Kolaka District, Pakue subdistrict, west coast north of the Kodeoha. Alternate names: Wiau, Wiaoe, “Noihe”.  Dialects: Lexical similarity: 87% between dialects, 75% with Kodeoha [vko], 70% with Tolaki [lbw], Mekongga dialect of Tolaki [lbw], and Waru [wru]; 54% with Mori [mzq] or [xmz] and Bungku [bkz] groups.  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Celebic, Eastern, Southeastern, Bungku-Tolaki, Western, West Coast  More information.

Rampi [lje] 8,000 (1991 SIL). 2,300 in South Sulawesi, 5,700 in Central Sulawesi. South Sulawesi, Luwu Utara District, Masamba subdistrict. 6 isolated mountain villages; Central Sulawesi, Poso, Donggala districts, Sabbang Limbong, Wotu, and Mangkutana subdistricts. 15 villages. Rato have moved elsewhere. Alternate names: Ha’uwa, Leboni, Rampi-Leboni.  Dialects: Rampi (Lambu), Rato. Leboni is prestige dialect.  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Celebic, Kaili-Pamona, Southern  More information.

Ratahan [rth] 30,000 (1989). Sulawesi, north peninsula, northeast section, Ratahan area to southeast coast. Alternate names: Bentenan, Pasan.  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Philippine, Sangiric, Southern  More information.

Saluan [loe] 74,000 (Barr, Barr and Salombe 1979). East central Sulawesi; Luwuk, Balantak, Lamala, Buko, Totikum, Kintom, Batui, Pagimana, Bunta subdistricts. 136 villages. Loinang in mountains. Alternate names: Loinang, Loindang, Mondono, “Madi”.  Dialects: Loinang (Coastal Saluan, Lingketeng), Baloa’ Kohumamahon, Kahumamahon, Luwuk, Kintom-Pagimana-Boalemo. Related to Balantak [blz], Andio [bzb]. Lexical similarity: 74% with Batui [zbt], 53% with Bobongko

[bgb], 62% with Andio, 51% with Balantak.  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Celebic, Eastern, Saluan-Banggai, Western, Saluanic  More information.

Sangir [sxn] 200,000 in Indonesia (1995 Indonesian Consul, Davao, Philippines). 50,000 Siau. Population total all countries: 255,000. North Sulawesi, Great Sangir Island; north Maluku. Also in Philippines. Alternate names: Sangi, Sangih, Sangihé, Sangirese.  Dialects: Siau, Manganitu, Tamako, North Tabukang (Tabukang, Tabukan), South Tabukang, Central Tabukang, Kandar, Taruna, Tagulandang (Tahulandang).  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Philippine, Sangiric, Northern  More information.

Sarudu [sdu] 4,000 (1990 SIL). West Sulawesi, south Pasangkayu District, Mamuju subdistrict. Alternate names: Doda’.  Dialects: Nunu’, Kulu (Lariang). Lexical similarity: 75% with Uma [ppk], 80% with Benggaulu dialect of Uma [ppk].  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Celebic, Kaili-Pamona, Southern  More information.

Sedoa [tvw] 600 (Barr, Barr and Salombe 1979). East central Sulawesi, Lore Utara, and Poso Pesisir subdistricts; Sedoa and parts of Tambarona Pinedapa villages. Alternate names: Tawaelia, Tawailia, Topobaria.  Dialects: Not a dialect of nearby Napu [npy] or of the Kaili languages. Most closely related to Moma [myl] in Palolo Valley.  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Celebic, Kaili-Pamona, Northern, Kaili  More information.

Seko Padang [skx] 5,000 (1991 SIL). 2,300 in the Seko area. South Sulawesi, Luwu Utara District, Limbong subdistrict, northeast section; half resettled Central Sulawesi, Palolo Valley. Alternate names: Seko, Sua Tu Padang, Wono.  Dialects: Lodang, Hono’ (Wono).  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, South Sulawesi, Seko  More information.

Seko Tengah [sko] 2,500 (1995 SIL). Northern south Sulawesi, west Limbong subdistrict along Betue River. Alternate names: Pewanean, Pewaneang, Pohoneang, Seko.  Dialects: Lexical similarity: 71% with Seko Padang [skx], 67% with Panasuan [psn].  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, South Sulawesi, Seko  More information.

Selayar [sly] 90,000 (1983 SIL). South Sulawesi, Selayar Island. Alternate names: Salajar, Salayar, Salayer, Saleier, Siladja, Silajara.  Dialects: Lexical similarity: 69% with Makassar [mak].  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, South Sulawesi, Makassar  More information.

Suwawa [swu] 21,000 (2004 SIL). Northeast Sulawesi, Suwawa and Pinogu area, east of Gorontalo town, Lake Limboto. Alternate names: Bonda,

Bunda, Bune, Suwawa-Bunda.  Dialects: Bunda.  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Philippine, Greater Central Philippine, Gorontalo-Mongondow, Gorontalic  More information.

Tae’ [rob] 250,000 (1992 SIL), increasing. South Sulawesi, Kabupaten Luwu from Larompong District through Sabbang, and scattered pockets. Rongkong in Luwu District, southeast Limbong and Sabbang subdistricts. Also an enclave in Wasuponda, Nuha subdistrict near Soroako town. Alternate names: East Toraja, Luwu, Rongkong, Rongkong Kanandede, Sada, Sangangalla’, Tae’ Tae’, Taeq, To Rongkong, Toraja Timur, Toware.  Dialects: Rongkong, Northeast Luwu, South Luwu, Bua, Toala’, Palili’. Lexical similarity: 92% among dialects, over 86% with the northern dialects, 80% with Toraja-Sa’dan.  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, South Sulawesi, Northern, Toraja-Sa’dan  More information.

Taje [pee] 350 (Himmelmann 2001). Central Sulawesi, Ampibabo subdistrict, Tanampedagi village; Sindue subdistrict near Sipeso. Alternate names: Petapa.  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Celebic, Tomini-Tolitoli, Tomini, Southern  More information.

Tajio [tdj] 12,000 (Himmelmann 2001). Central Sulawesi; Ampibabo, Tinombo, and Sindue subdistricts. 21 villages, or parts of villages. Alternate names: Adjio, Kasimbar, Ta’adjio, Tadjio.  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Celebic, Tomini-Tolitoli, Tomini, Southern  More information.

Talaud [tld] 60,000 (1981 UBS). North Sulawesi, Talaud Islands northeast of Sangihe Islands. Alternate names: Talaut, Talodda.  Dialects: Kaburuang, South Karakelong (Karakelong, Karakelang), Nenusa-Maingas, Essang, Arangka’a, Dapalan (Riung), Awit, Beo, Lirang (Salibabu, Salebabu).  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Philippine, Sangiric, Southern  More information.

Taloki [tlk] 500 (1995 SIL). Southeast Sulawesi, northwest coast Buton Island, Wakorumba subdistrict, Maligano village; possibly south Buton Island, Kapontori subdistrict, Wakalambe village. Alternate names: Taluki.  Dialects: Lexical similarity: 77% with Kulisusu [vkl]; 75% with Koroni [xkq]; 66% with Wawonii [wow], Bungku [bkz], Tulambatu dialect of Bungku [bkz]; 65% with Moronene [mqn].  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Celebic, Eastern, Southeastern, Bungku-Tolaki, Eastern, East Coast, Kulisusu  More information.

Talondo’ [tln] 400 (2004 SIL). Ethnic population: 400. West Sulawesi, Talondo and Pedasi villages; Mamuju District, Kalumpang subdistrict. 1 village. Dialects: May be in the Seko subgroup (Padang [skx] or

Tengah [sko]). Lexical similarity: 80% with Kalumpang [kli].  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, South Sulawesi, Northern, Toraja-Sa’dan  More information.

Toala’ [tlz] 30,000 (1983 SIL). South Sulawesi, Luwu District from Masamba to south tip of the district. Toala’ from foothills to the divide. Palili’ on a narrow coastal strip overlapping with Bugis Luwu. Alternate names: East Toraja, Luwu’, Sada, Sangangalla’, Toala, Toala-Palili, Toraja Timur, Toware.  Dialects: Toala’, Palili’. Probably at least 4 dialects. Lexical similarity: 74% with Toraja-Sa’dan [sda].  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, South Sulawesi, Northern, Toraja-Sa’dan  More information.

Tolaki [lbw] 281,000 (1991 SIL). 230,000 Konawe, 50,000 Mekongga, 650 Asera, fewer than 100 Wiwirano, 200 Laiwui. Southeast Sulawesi, Konawe, South Konawe, Kolaka and North Kolaka districts. Mekongga in Mekongga Mountains, near west edge Soroako. Alternate names: Tololaki, To’olaki, Lolaki, Laki, Tokia.  Dialects: Wiwirano (“Nohina” ), Asera (Asera Wanua, “Noie” ), Konawe (Kendari, “Tambuoki” , “Kioki” ), Mekongga (Kolaka, Bingkokak, “Norio” , “Tamboki” , “Konio” ), Laiwui. Lexical similarity: 88% between Wiwirano and Asera dialects, 84% with Konawe, 85% with Mekongga, 81% with Laiwui, 78% with Waru, 70% with Rahambuu and Kodeoha, 54% with the Mori and Bungku groups. Mekongga has 86% with Konawe, 80% with Laiwui.  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Celebic, Eastern, Southeastern, Bungku-Tolaki, Western, West Coast  More information.

Tomadino [tdi] 600 (1991 SIL). Central Sulawesi, Bungku Tengah subdistrict, Sakita village on east coast, outskirts of Bungku town. Dialects: Lexical similarity: 71% with Bahonsuai [bsu], 68% with Mori Atas [mzq], Mori Bawah [xmz], and Padoe [pdo].  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Celebic, Eastern, Southeastern, Bungku-Tolaki, Western, Interior  More information.

Tombelala [ttp] 1,100 (1995 SIL). Central Sulawesi, Bungku Tengah subdistrict. 4 villages. Alternate names: Mbelala, Belala, Bela, “Baria”.  Dialects: Lexical similarity: 66%–76% with Pamona [pmf] varieties and 38% with Bungku [bkz].  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Celebic, Kaili-Pamona, Northern, Pamona  More information.

Tombulu [tom] 60,000 (Wurm and Hattori 1981). Northeast Sulawesi, Tanawangko and Tomohon areas. Alternate names: Minahasa, Minhasa, Tombalu, Tombula, Tombulu’, Toumbulu.  Dialects: Taratara, Tomohon. Most similar to Tondano [tdn], Tonsea [txs].  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Philippine,

Minahasan, North, Northeast  More information.

Tomini [txm] 30,000 (Himmelmann 2001). Central Sulawesi; Moutong, Tomini, Tinombo subdistricts along Tomini Bay. 42 villages. Alternate names: Mouton, Tiadje, Tialo.  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Celebic, Tomini-Tolitoli, Tomini, Northern  More information.

Tondano [tdn] 80,000 in Indonesia (1991 Noorduyn). Northeast Sulawesi, Tondano area and north peninsula; southeast coast, Toulour District. Also in United States. Alternate names: Tolou, Tolour, Tondanou, Toulour.  Dialects: Tondano, Kakas (Ka’kas), Remboken. Most similar to Tombulu [tom], Tonsea [txs].  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Philippine, Minahasan, North, Northeast  More information.

Tonsawang [tnw] 20,000 (Wurm and Hattori 1981). Northeast Sulawesi, Tombatu area. Alternate names: Tombatu.  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Philippine, Minahasan  More information.

Tonsea [txs] 90,000 (1989). Northeast tip of Sulawesi. Alternate names: Tonsea’.  Dialects: Maumbi, Airmadidi, Likupang, Kauditan, Kalabat Atas.  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Philippine, Minahasan, North, Northeast  More information.

Tontemboan [tnt] 150,000 (1990). Minahasa Peninsula northeast coast, Sonder to Motoling and Tompasobaru areas. Alternate names: Pakewa, Tompakewa, Tountemboan.  Dialects: Langoan, Tompaso (Makelai, Makela’i-Maotow), Sonder (Matanai, Matana’i-Maore’).  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Philippine, Minahasan, North  More information.

Topoiyo [toy] 2,000 (1988 SIL). West Sulawesi, Mamuju District, Budong-Budong subdistrict inland along Budong-Budong River. Dialects: Lexical similarity: 66% with Sarudu [sdu] and Da’a [kzf], 56% with Ledo [lew], 54% with the Parigi dialect of Kaili [lew].  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Celebic, Kaili-Pamona, Northern, Kaili  More information.

Toraja-Sa’dan [sda] 500,000 (1990 UBS). South Sulawesi, Tana Toraja District, large groups in Luwu District, Makassar City; southeast Sulawesi, west coast, Kolaka and Wundulako districts. Alternate names: Sa’dan, Sa’dansche, Sadan, Sadang, South Toraja, Ta’e, Tae’, Toradja, Toraja.  Dialects: Makale (Tallulembangna), Rantepao (Kesu’), Toraja Barat (West Toraja, Mappa-Pana). Rantepao is prestige dialect.  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, South Sulawesi, Northern, Toraja-Sa’dan  More information.

Totoli [txe] 25,000 (Himmelmann 2001). Central Sulawesi, north coast, Tolitoli Utara, Galang, Baolan, Dondo, subdistricts. 29 villages, or parts of villages. Alternate names: Gage, Tolitoli, Tontoli.  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Celebic, Tomini-Tolitoli, Tolitoli  More information.

Tukang Besi North [khc] 120,000 in Indonesia (1995 SIL). 60,000 in Maluku. Tukang Besi Archipelago north islands, Kaledupa and Wanci, off Southeast Sulawesi; Singapore and Baubau City; Maluku, Bacan, Taliabu, Mongole, Buru, Sulabesi, Seram, and Ambon islands; Papua; Sumbawa. Also in Singapore. Alternate names: Buton, Wakatobi.  Dialects: Kaledupa (Kahedupa), Wanci (Wanji, Wantji, Wanje, Wangi- Wangi). Lexical similarity: 80% between Kaledupa and Wanci, and may be separate languages. 70%–75% with Tukang Besi South [bhq], 48% with Lasalimu [llm], 47% with Cia-Cia [cia], 40% with Kamaru [kgx], an average of 35% with other nearby languages.  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Celebic, Eastern, Southeastern, Muna-Buton, Tukangbesi-Bonerate  More information.

Tukang Besi South [bhq] 130,000 (1995 SIL). 100,000 in Maluku. Tukang Besi archipelago south islands, Binongko and Tomea islands off Sutheast Sulawesi; Maluku, Taliabu, Mongole, Sulabesi, Buru, Seram, Ambon, and Alor islands. Bonerate dialect in Bonerate, Madu, Kalaotoa, and Karompa islands in Selayar District, South Sulawesi; numerous settlements throughout western Papua. Alternate names: Buton, Tukang-Besi, Wakatobi.  Dialects: Binongko, Bonerate, Tomea (Tomia). Lexical similarity: 70%–75% with Tukang Besi North [khc], 48% with Cia-Cia [cia], 49% with Lasalimu [llm], average of 35% with other nearby languages. Lexical similarity 85% between Binongko and Tomea, 81% with Bonerate, 79% between Tomea and Bonerate.  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Celebic, Eastern, Southeastern, Muna-Buton, Tukangbesi-Bonerate  More information.

Ulumanda’ [ulm] 30,000 (1986 SIL). 18,000 in Polmas and Majene. West Sulawesi, Majene, Mamuju, and Polewali-Mamasa districts. Alternate names: Awo-Sumakuyu, Botteng-Tappalang, Kado, Oeloemanda, Tubbi, Ulumandak, Ulunda.  Dialects: Sondoang, Tappalang, Botteng. About 6 dialects. Lexical similarity: 75%–80% with dialect of Bambam [ptu], Aralle-Tabulahan [atq], Pannei [pnc].  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, South Sulawesi, Northern, Pitu Ulunna Salu  More information.

Uma [ppk] 20,000 (1990 SIL), increasing. 15,000 in the region, 5,000 outside (1990 SIL), 500 in Benggaulu. Central Sulawesi, Donggala District, South Kulawi and Pipikoro subdistricts, Pipikoro, ‘banks of the Koro’ and Lariang ‘Koro’ rivers. 32 villages. Bana in South

Sulawesi, Luwu Utara District, enclave within the Seko Padang [skx] dialect area; Benggaulu in South Sulawesi, south Pasangkayu District, Mamuju subdistrict; some migrated to Gimpu and Palolo valleys, Palu and Pani’i, north of Palu. Alternate names: Pipikoro, Koro, Oema.  Dialects: Winatu (Northern Uma), Tobaku (Western Uma, Dompa, Ompa), Tolee’ (Eastern Uma), Kantewu (Central Uma), Southern Uma (Aria), Benggaulu (Bingkolu), Bana. Literature exists in Kantewu dialect, but many would prefer to read their own dialect.  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Celebic, Kaili-Pamona, Southern  More information.

Waru [wru] 350 (1991 SIL). Southeast Sulawesi, Konawe District, Asera subdistrict, Mopute village by Lindu River. Alternate names: Mapute, Mopute.  Dialects: Waru, Lalomerui. Lexical similarity: 86% between the Waru and Lalomerui dialects, 79% with Tolaki [lbw] dialects and Mekongga (dial Tolaki [lbw]), 70% with Rahambuu [raz] and Kodeoha [vko], 54% with the Mori [mzq] or [xmz] and Bungku [bkz] groups.  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Celebic, Eastern, Southeastern, Bungku-Tolaki, Western, West Coast  More information.

Wawonii [wow] 22,000 (1991 SIL). 14,000 Wawonii, 7,500 Menui. Southeast Sulawesi, Wawonii and Menui islands near Kendari. Alternate names: Wowonii.  Dialects: Wawonii, Menui. Lexical similarity: 75% with Bungku [bkz] and Tulambatu dialect of Bungku [bkz], 66% with Taloki [lbw], Kulisusu [vkl], and Koroni [xkq], 65% with Moronene [mqn].  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Celebic, Eastern, Southeastern, Bungku-Tolaki, Eastern, East Coast  More information.

Wolio [wlo] 65,000 in Indonesia (2005 SIL). Population does not include L2 speakers and those in other provinces. Southeast Sulawesi, southwest Buton Island, Bau-Bau. Also in Malaysia (Sabah). Alternate names: Baubau.  Dialects: Lexical similarity: 61% with Cia-Cia [cia], 60% with Masiri dialect of Cia-Cia [cia] and Lantoi dialect of Kaimbulawa [zka].  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Celebic, Wotu-Wolio, Wolio-Kamaru  More information.

Wotu [wtw] 5,000 (1987 SIL). South Sulawesi, Luwu Utara District, Wotu subdistrict, Wotu town. Dialects: Lexical similarity: 58% with Wolio [wlo], 53% with Laiyolo [lji], average 43% with South Sulawesi subgroup, 43% with Kaili-Pamona subgroup, 41% with Seko Padang [skx], 39% with Tae’ Luwu [rob], 36%–43% with Bungku-Tolaki subgroup, 37% with Toraja-Sa’dan [sda], 33% with Bugis [bug], 31% with Rampi [lje], 25% with Lemolang [ley].  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Celebic, Wotu-Wolio  More information.

Languages of Indonesia (Sumatra)Indonesia (Sumatra). 43,309,707 (2000 census). 7 provinces. Information mainly from P. Voerhoeve 1955; D. Walker 1976. The number of individual languages listed for Indonesia (Sumatra) is 33. Of those, all are living languages.

Aceh [ace] 3,500,000 (2000 census). Aceh Province (north tip of Sumatra), coastal areas. Alternate names: Achinese, Achehnese.  Dialects: Banda Aceh, Baruh, Bueng, Daja, Pase, Pidie (Pedir, Timu), Tunong.  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Malayo-Sumbawan, North and East, Chamic, Achenese  More information.

Bangka [mfb] 340,000 (2000 census). Sumatra, Bangka Island. Dialects: Urban (Jakarta), North, Central, South, Lom (Belom, Mapor).  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Malayo-Sumbawan, North and East, Malayic, Malay  More information.

Batak Alas-Kluet [btz] 195,000 (2000). Northern, northeast of Tapaktuan and around Kutacane. Alternate names: Alas-Kluet Batak.  Dialects: Alas, Kluet, Singkil (Kade-Kade).  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Northwest Sumatra-Barrier Islands, Batak, Northern  More information.

Batak Angkola [akb] 750,000 (1991 UBS). North central, Sipirok area. Alternate names: Anakola, Angkola.  Dialects: Similar to Mandailing Batak [btm], but distinct sociolinguistically.  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Northwest Sumatra-Barrier Islands, Batak, Southern  More information.

Batak Dairi [btd] 1,200,000 (1991 UBS). Northern, southwest of Lake Toba around Sidikalang. Alternate names: Dairi, Pakpak, Pakpak Dairi.  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Northwest Sumatra-Barrier Islands, Batak, Northern  More information.

Batak Karo [btx] 600,000 (1991 UBS). Central and north, west and northwest of Lake Toba. Alternate names: Karo Batak.  Dialects: Singkil.  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Northwest Sumatra-Barrier Islands, Batak, Northern  More information.

Batak Mandailing [btm] 1,100,000 (2000 census). North. Alternate names: Batta, Mandailing Batak.  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Northwest Sumatra-Barrier Islands, Batak, Southern  More information.

Batak Simalungun [bts] 1,200,000 (2000). North, northeast of Lake Toba. Alternate names: Simelungan, Timur.  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Northwest Sumatra-Barrier Islands, Batak, Simalungan  More information.

Batak Toba [bbc] 2,000,000 (1991 UBS). North Sumatra, Samosir Island and east, south, and west of Toba Lake. Alternate names: Batta, Toba Batak.  Dialects: Similar to Angkola Batak [akb].  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Northwest Sumatra-Barrier Islands, Batak, Southern  More information.

Col [liw] 145,000 (2000 census). Interior south Sumatra, Lubuklinggau area and east of Bengkulu; Muaraklingi area, south, east, and north. Alternate names: Cul, Sindang.  Dialects: Lembak Delapan, Sindang Kelingi, Beliti; Lubuk Linggau.  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Malayo-Sumbawan, North and East, Malayic, Malay  More information.

Duano [dup] 15,000 in Indonesia (2006 SIL). Total ethnic population all countries: 19,000 (Seidlitz). Population total all countries: 15,500. West Riau archipelago and east coast of Riau, Daratan Province. Also in Malaysia (Peninsular). Alternate names: Duano’, Orang Kuala, Desin Dolak, Desin Duano, Orang Laut.  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Malayo-Sumbawan, North and East, Malayic, Malay  More information.

Enggano [eno] 1,500 (2000 census), decreasing. Enggano Island, southwest of Sumatra and on 4 smaller nearby islands. Alternate names: Engganese.  Dialects: Not closely related to other languages. Not conclusively established as an Austronesian language, rather than an isolate with Austronesian loans.  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Enggano  More information.

Gayo [gay] 300,000 (2000 census). North Sumatra mountain region, Aceh Province, Central Aceh, East Aceh, Gayo Lues, Southeast Aceh regencies. Alternate names: Gajo.  Dialects: Deret, Serbejadi-Lukup, Lut, Lues. Not closely related to other languages.  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Northwest Sumatra-Barrier Islands  More information.

Haji [hji] 17,500. Very few monolinguals. Sumatra, Ogan Komering Ulu Selatan Regency. Alternate names: Aji.  Dialects: Genetically Malay with approximately 1/3 Lampung vocabulary.  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Malayo-Sumbawan, North and East, Malayic, Malay 

More information. Kaur [vkk] 40,000 (2000). Southwest Sumatra, South Bengkulu, Southern and

Northern Kaur areas, Bengkulu, south and west of Besemah [pse], north of Nasal [nsy] and Lampung Api [ljp] areas. Alternate names: Ka’ur, Bintuhan, Mulak.  Dialects: Borrowings from Lampung Api; reportedly difficult to understand for Central Malay [pse] speakers. Lexical similarity: 72% with Central Malay.  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Malayo-Sumbawan, North and East, Malayic, Malay 

More information.

Kerinci [kvr] 260,000 in Indonesia (2000 census). Population total all countries: 285,000. Jambi Province, western mountains, Sungaipenuh area, and north and west. Also in Bahrain. Alternate names: Kerinchi, Kinchai.  Dialects: Ulu, Mamaq, Akit, Talang, Sakei. High dialect diversity in a small area, shading into Jambi Malay [zlm] east and Minangkabau [min] north. Distinct from Kerinci-Minangkabau dialect of Minangkabau.  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Malayo-Sumbawan, North and East, Malayic, Malay  More information.

Komering [kge] 470,000 (2000 census). 20,000 in Jakarta (1992). Along Komering River from Lake Ranau to near Palembang. Alternate names: Kumoring.  Dialects: Upstream Komering, Downstream Komering, Komering, Kayu Agung Asli, Kayu Agung. Lexical similarity: 70% with the Kalianda dialect of Lampung Api [ljp]; 74% with Sungkai dialect of Lampung Api (most similar).  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Lampung  More information.

Kubu [kvb] 10,000 (1989). Spread across Jambi, Riau and south Sumatra, eastern swamp region. Alternate names: Anak Dalam, Orang Rimba, Orang Hutan.  Dialects: Lalang, Bajat, Ulu Lako, Tungkal, Tungkal Ilir, Dawas, Supat, Jambi, Ridan, Nomadic Kubu. Related to Lubu [lcf].  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Malayo-Sumbawan, North and East, Malayic, Malay  More information.

Lampung Api [ljp] 827,000 (2000 census). West, central, and south Lampung Province; south Benkulu Province around Krui, Sanggi, Kotajawa, South Sumatra, south of Muaradua, near headwaters of Kanan River. Alternate names: Api, Lampung, Lampung Pesisir, Lampong.  Dialects: Krui (Kroe, Kru’i, Njo, Western Lampung), Southern Pesisir, Pubian, Ranau, Sungkai, Daya.  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Lampung  More information.

Lampung Nyo [abl] 180,000 (2000 census). South and east Lampung Province. Alternate names: Abung, Lampong.  Dialects: Abung, Tulangbawang, Sukadana, Melinting. Many differences in vocabulary and phonology with Lampung Api [ljp]. Lexical similarity: 72% between the Menggala dialect and the Kalianda dialect of Lampung Api, 77% among dialects.  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Lampung  More information.

Loncong [lce] 420 (2000). East coast on both sides of the mouths of the Kampat and Inderagiri rivers, nearby islands, and coasts of Bangka and Belitung islands. Alternate names: Lonchong, Orang Laut, Seka, Sekah.  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Malayo-Sumbawan, North and East, Malayic, Malay  More information.

Lubu [lcf] 30,000 (Wurm and Hattori 1981). East Sumatra, central region. Dialects: Related to Kubu [kvb].  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-

Polynesian, Malayo-Sumbawan, North and East, Malayic, Malay  More information.

Malay [zlm] 905,000 in Indonesia (2000 census). 3,965,000 in Sumatra (100,000 in Belitung, 1,825,000 in Riau, 2,000,000 Deli, Asahan etc. in North Sumatra and 40,000 Tamiang in Aceh), and 940,000 in Kalimantan (primarily Pontianak, Sambas and Ketapang). Primarily coastal regions of central and north Sumatra and western Kalimantan. Alternate names: Malayu, Bahasa Melayu, Bahasa Daerah.  Dialects: Tamiang, Riau mainland, Deli, Belitung, Akit, Sakai, Riau islands, coastal Jambi, Sambas, Landak, Pontianak, Sukadana, Ketapang, Sanggau, Sintang, Sekadau, Kapuas Hulu, Sintang.  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Malayo-Sumbawan, North and East, Malayic, Malay  More information.

Malay, Central [pse] 2,350,000 (2007). South Sumatra, central Bukit Barisan highlands west to the Indian ocean along Bengkulu coast, east down Lematang and Ogan river valleys; south of Muaraenim, east and southeast of Lahat. Alternate names: Midden Maleisch, Besemah, Pasemah, Serawai, Semendo, Lintang, Ogan, Enim, Bengkulu.  Dialects: Serawai, Bengkulu, Semenda, Lintang, Benakat, Bengkulu, Kisam, Pasemah, Kikim, Lematang Ulu, Ogan, Enim, Rambang.  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Malayo-Sumbawan, North and East, Malayic, Malay 

More information. Malay, Jambi [jax] 1,000,000 (2000 census). Southeast Sumatra, Jambi Province.

Alternate names: Djambi, Batin.  Dialects: Downstream Jambi Malay, Upstream Jambi Malay.  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Malayo-Sumbawan, North and East, Malayic, Malay  More information.

Mentawai [mwv] 58,000 (2000 census). West coast of Sumatra area, Mentawai Islands. Alternate names: Mentawei, Mentawi.  Dialects: Simalegi, Sakalagan, Silabu, Taikaku, Saumanganja, North Siberut, South Siberut, Sipura, Pagai.  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Northwest Sumatra-Barrier Islands  More information.

Minangkabau [min] 5,530,000 (2007). 500,000 in Jakarta. Widespread in the Indonesian Archipelago; west central Sumatra, Padang area. Nearly half live outside central Sumatra; South Sumatra, west coast Mukomuko area. Alternate names: Minang, Padang.  Dialects: Agam, Pajokumbuh, Tanah, Si Junjung, Batu Sangkar-Pariangan, Singkarak, Pancuang Soal (Muko-Muko), Orang Mamak, Ulu, Kerinci-Minangkabau, Aneuk Jamee (Jamee), Penghulu. Not intelligible with Indonesian [ind]. Pekal [pel] may be intelligible with Minangkabau.  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Malayo-Sumbawan, North and East, Malayic, Malay  More information.

Musi [mui] 3,930,000 (2000 census). South Sumatra Province, Musi River upstream to Bukit Barisan mountains, downstream to eastern coastal

swamplands. Alternate names: Sekayu, Palembang.  Dialects: Pegagan, Musi Sekayu, Penukal, Kelingi, Rawas; Palembang, Palembang Lama, Meranjat, Penesak, Belide, Burai, Lematang Ilir, Coastal Malay.  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Malayo-Sumbawan, North and East, Malayic, Malay  More information.

Nias [nia] 770,000 (2000 census). Off west coast of Sumatra, Nias and Batu islands. Alternate names: Batu.  Dialects: Northern Nias, Southern Nias, Batu.  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Northwest Sumatra-Barrier Islands, Nias  More information.

Pekal [pel] 30,000 (2000 census). South Sumatra, Bengkulu Province, west coast, north of Ipuh to Tembesi River, to near Argamakmur south. Dialects: Related to Minangkabau [min] with Rejang influences [rej].  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Malayo-Sumbawan, North and East, Malayic, Malay  More information.

Rejang [rej] 350,000 (2000 census). North Bengkulu Province, southwest highlands, Arga Makmur, Muara Aman, Curup, Kapahiang areas; South Sumatra Province, Musi Rawa Ulu. Alternate names: Red Jang.  Dialects: Lebong, Kepahiang (Kebanagung), Pasisir, Musi (Curup), Rawas. Lebong recognized as central dialect.  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Rejang  More information.

Sikule [skh] 20,000. Central Simeulue Island. Alternate names: Sichule, Sikhule, Wali Banuah.  Dialects: Lekon, Tapah. Similar to Nias [nia].  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Northwest Sumatra-Barrier Islands, Nias  More information.

Simeulue [smr] 30,000. West and east ends of Simeulue Island, Babi and Banjak islands. Alternate names: Long Bano, Simalur, Simeuloë, Simulul.  Dialects: Related to Sikule [skh], Nias [nia].  Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Northwest Sumatra-Barrier Islands  More information.