LANGUAGE IN SOCIETY LANGUAGE IN SOCIETY

DIGLOSSIADIGLOSSIA

CODE CHOICECODE CHOICE

DIGLOSSIADIGLOSSIA

In Eggenwil, a town in the Aargau canton of Switzerland, In Eggenwil, a town in the Aargau canton of Switzerland, Silvia, a bank teller, knows Silvia, a bank teller, knows two very distinct varieties two very distinct varieties of of GermanGerman. One is the . One is the local Swiss German dialectlocal Swiss German dialect of her of her canton which she uses canton which she uses in her everyday interactionsin her everyday interactions with with other Swiss Germans. The other is other Swiss Germans. The other is standard Germanstandard Germanwhich she which she learnt at schoollearnt at school, and though she understands , and though she understands it very well indeed, she it very well indeed, she rarely uses it in speechrarely uses it in speech. . NewspapersNewspapers areare written in written in standard Germanstandard German, and when , and when she occasionally goes to hear she occasionally goes to hear a a lecture at the universitylecture at the universityit may be it may be inin standard Germanstandard German. The . The sermonssermons her mother her mother listens to listens to in churchin church are generally are generally in in standard Germanstandard Germantoo, though more too, though more radical clerics use Swiss Germanradical clerics use Swiss Germandialect. The dialect. The novelsnovels Silvia reads also use Silvia reads also use standard standard GermanGerman. .

TTypical features of this linguistic ypical features of this linguistic situationsituation

TWO VARIETIESTWO VARIETIES OF THE SAME OF THE SAME LANGUAGELANGUAGE -- HIGH (H)HIGH (H) AND AND LOW (L)LOW (L) --USED USED SIDE BY SIDE SIDE BY SIDE IN SPEECH IN SPEECH COMMUNITY COMMUNITY

HH AND AND LL USED USED FORFOR CLEARLY CLEARLY DIFFERENT FUNCTIONSDIFFERENT FUNCTIONS

HH -- NOBODY’S MOTHER TONGUENOBODY’S MOTHER TONGUE, , EVERYBODY USES EVERYBODY USES LL FOR FOR ORDINARY ORDINARY CONVERSATIONCONVERSATION

FERGUSON’S CLASSIC FERGUSON’S CLASSIC EXAMPLESEXAMPLES

Switzerland,Switzerland, H: std German, L: Swiss H: std German, L: Swiss

GermanGerman

Arabic countriesArabic countries, H: Classical Arabic (lang , H: Classical Arabic (lang

of Koran), L: local dialects in particular of Koran), L: local dialects in particular

country country ((ee..g: Egypt, Morocco, Iraq, etcg: Egypt, Morocco, Iraq, etc.).)

GreeceGreece, H: katharevusa, L: dhimotiki , H: katharevusa, L: dhimotiki

(language of people)(language of people)

HaitiHaiti,, H: French, L: Haitian Creole H: French, L: Haitian Creole

MAIN FEATURESMAIN FEATURES

Separate functionsSeparate functions

Nobody uses H for ordinary conversationsNobody uses H for ordinary conversations

PrestigePrestige

LiteratureLiterature

Learning vs. AcquisitionLearning vs. Acquisition

StandardizationStandardization

Variations between forms of grammar, Variations between forms of grammar, vocabulary and phonologyvocabulary and phonology

Stability Stability

Shared vocabularies of H and LShared vocabularies of H and L

PPaired items aired items in in GreekGreek::

HH LL (meaning)(meaning)ikosikos spitispiti househouseidhoridhor neróneró waterwateraláalá mámá butbutinosinos krásikrási winewine

The menu had The menu had ‘‘inosinos’’ on it, but the diner asked on it, but the diner asked for for ‘‘krásikrási’’..

Causes for diglCauses for diglossia ossia to relax to relax ((Ferguson’s predictionFerguson’s prediction))

MMore widespread literacyore widespread literacy

BBroader communication among different roader communication among different

regional and social segments of the regional and social segments of the

communitycommunity

DDesire for a fullesire for a full--fledged national language fledged national language

as an attribute of autonomyas an attribute of autonomy / sovereignty/ sovereignty

STATE OF DIGLOSSIA TODAYSTATE OF DIGLOSSIA TODAY

Arabic countriesArabic countries:: sstabletable, although , although local local Arabic Arabic Vs Vs hahaveve more prestige in some respects than more prestige in some respects than Classical Classical ArabicArabic..HaitiHaiti:: KréyòlKréyòl is recognised as a is recognised as a standardstandardlanguagelanguage..GreeceGreece: : DhimotikiDhimotiki was made into was made into thethe only only standard languagestandard language in in 19741974.. Katharevousa is no Katharevousa is no longer usedlonger used (except by Greek Orthodox Church).(except by Greek Orthodox Church).SwitzerlandSwitzerland: : relativerelativelyly stablstable, BUTe, BUT Swiss Swiss German dialects are hardly German dialects are hardly vvaarietiesrieties with low with low prestigeprestige. .

EXTENDED DIGLOSSIAEXTENDED DIGLOSSIA

Concept introduced by Joshua Fishman Concept introduced by Joshua Fishman (American sociolinguist) in 1967(American sociolinguist) in 1967

Modifies Ferguson’s view in two crucial Modifies Ferguson’s view in two crucial ways:ways:–– allows for presence of allows for presence of several separate several separate

codes, not just twocodes, not just two

–– any degree of linguistic any degree of linguistic relatednessrelatedness (not (not restrictrestricted ed to cases in the middle range of to cases in the middle range of linguistic relatlinguistic relationship = 2 distinct Vs of same ionship = 2 distinct Vs of same language) language)

BROAD DIGLOSSIABROAD DIGLOSSIA

Fasold, 1984Fasold, 1984

Any number of varietiesAny number of varieties

Any degree of linguistic relatedness, from Any degree of linguistic relatedness, from

separate languages to merely stylistic separate languages to merely stylistic

differences differences

Differences in use bw H and L: Differences in use bw H and L:

FUNCTION FUNCTION

Diglossia: from Diglossia: from classicclassic to to broadbroadClassic/narrowClassic/narrow

FergusonFerguson 19591959

ExtendedExtended

FishmanFishman 19671967

BroadBroad

FasoldFasold 19841984

2 varieties of same 2 varieties of same

language language

Several separate Several separate

codes, not just twocodes, not just two

Any number of Any number of

varieties /codesvarieties /codes

Intermediate range Intermediate range

of relatednessof relatedness

Any degree of Any degree of

linguistic linguistic

relatednessrelatedness

from different from different

languages to justlanguages to just

stylistic differencesstylistic differences

Any degree of Any degree of

linguistic linguistic

relatednessrelatedness

H: nobody’s mother H: nobody’s mother

tonguetongue

H: also mother H: also mother

tonguetongue

H & L: separate H & L: separate

functions functions

Uses of H and L: Uses of H and L:

Only function Only function

differsdiffers

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONSUMMARY AND CONCLUSION

AllAll speech communites are diglossic in the broad speech communites are diglossic in the broad sense,sense, including Hungary or the UK. including Hungary or the UK.

DiglossiaDiglossia is a characteristic feature of is a characteristic feature of speech speech communitiescommunities, rather than individuals. , rather than individuals.

IndividualsIndividuals may be may be bibi-- or multilingualor multilingual, societies are , societies are diglossic. → → diglossic. → →

TTerm describes erm describes societal or institutionalised societal or institutionalised bilingualismbilingualism, where two , where two or more or more Vs cover all Vs cover all domains of society. domains of society.

CODE SWITCHINGCODE SWITCHING

““Code switching is a conversational strategyCode switching is a conversational strategy

used to establish, cross or destroy group used to establish, cross or destroy group

boundaries; to create, evoke or change boundaries; to create, evoke or change

interpersonal relations with their rights and interpersonal relations with their rights and

obligations.” obligations.”

(Susan (Susan GalGal, , 19881988. . The Political Economy of Code The Political Economy of Code

ChoiceChoice.).)

DOMAINSDOMAINS

Definition: Definition: typical interactionstypical interactions bw bw typical typical

participantsparticipants in in typical settings.typical settings.

DomainDomain AddresseeAddressee SettingSetting TopicTopic CodeCode

FamilyFamily

FriendshipFriendship

ReligionReligion

Education Education

WorkWork

Etc.Etc.

Code switchingCode switching: : switches whose causes switches whose causes

are identifiable and predictable are identifiable and predictable are are

situationalsituational

CCodeode--mixingmixing:: no social factors / no social factors /

dimensions applydimensions apply →→ metaphorical metaphorical

switching, for rhetorical reasonsswitching, for rhetorical reasons. .

Not consciousNot conscious, conveys information as , conveys information as

well as well as affective meaningaffective meaning. .

““DiglossiaDiglossia reinforces reinforces differencesdifferences, ,

whereas whereas codecode--switchingswitching tends to tends to

reducereduce them.” them.”